Robotics

14 pages, 958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Social Robot to Assist in Addressing Disruptive Eating Behaviors by People with Dementia

by Misael Astorga, Dagoberto Cruz-Sandoval and Jesus Favela

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010029 - 19 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2364

Socially assistive robots have been proposed to help people with dementia to conduct activities of daily living, facilitate therapeutic interventions or address problematic symptoms associated with the disease. Psychological symptoms of dementia, such as anxiety, apathy or aggression, are the main cause of [...] Read more.

Socially assistive robots have been proposed to help people with dementia to conduct activities of daily living, facilitate therapeutic interventions or address problematic symptoms associated with the disease. Psychological symptoms of dementia, such as anxiety, apathy or aggression, are the main cause of distress to both people with dementia and caregivers. Caregivers frequently report disruptive eating behaviors as a major cause of concern. These include being distracted while eating, throwing food or refusing to eat. This paper reports the design and evaluation of a social robot aimed at assisting people with dementia with disruptive eating behaviors. We describe the user-centered design process that was followed and the implementation and evaluation of the assistive robot. The assistive robot identifies common challenging behaviors, using mostly computer vision, and incorporates strategies recommended by caregivers to help address them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Robots for the Human Well-Being)

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23 pages, 9475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dynamic Approach to Low-Cost Design, Development, and Computational Simulation of a 12DoF Quadruped Robot

by Md. Hasibur Rahman, Saadia Binte Alam, Trisha Das Mou, Mohammad Faisal Uddin and Mahady Hasan

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010028 - 17 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

Robots equipped with legs have significant potential for real-world applications. Many industries, including those concerned with instruction, aid, security, and surveillance, have shown interest in legged robots. However, these robots are typically incredibly complicated and expensive to purchase. Iron Dog Mini is a [...] Read more.

Robots equipped with legs have significant potential for real-world applications. Many industries, including those concerned with instruction, aid, security, and surveillance, have shown interest in legged robots. However, these robots are typically incredibly complicated and expensive to purchase. Iron Dog Mini is a low-cost, easily replicated, and modular quadruped robot built for training, security, and surveillance. To keep the price low and its upkeep simple, we designed our quadruped robot in a modular manner. We provide a comparative study of robotic manufacturing cost between our proposed robot and previously established robots. We were able to create a compact femur and tibia structure with sufficient load-bearing capacity. To improve stability and motion efficiency, we considered the novel Watt six-bar linkage mechanism. Using the SolidWorks modeling software, we analyzed the structural integrity of the robot’s components, considering their respective material properties. Furthermore, our research involved developing URDF data for our quadruped robot based on its CAD model. Its gait trajectory is planned using a 14-point Bezier curve. We demonstrate the operation of the simulation model and briefly discuss the robot’s kinematics. Computational methods are emphasized in this research, coupled with the simulation of kinematic and dynamic performances and analytical/numerical modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinematics and Robot Design V, KaRD2022)

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27 pages, 7951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lightweight Bioinspired Exoskeleton for Wrist Rehabilitation Powered by Twisted and Coiled Artificial Muscles

by Carlo Greco, Thilina H. Weerakkody, Venanzio Cichella, Leonardo Pagnotta and Caterina Lamuta

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010027 - 10 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3103

Abstract

Stroke, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injuries represent the most common leading causes of upper limb impairment. In recent years, rehabilitation robotics has progressed toward developing wearable technologies to promote the portability of assistive devices and to enable home rehabilitation of the upper [...] Read more.

Stroke, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injuries represent the most common leading causes of upper limb impairment. In recent years, rehabilitation robotics has progressed toward developing wearable technologies to promote the portability of assistive devices and to enable home rehabilitation of the upper extremities. However, current wearable technologies mainly rely on electric motors and rigid links or soft pneumatic actuators and are usually bulky and cumbersome. To overcome the limitations of existing technologies, in this paper, a first prototype of a lightweight, ungrounded, soft exoskeleton for wrist rehabilitation powered by soft and flexible carbon fibers-based twisted and coiled artificial muscles (TCAMs) is proposed. The device, which weighs only 0.135 kg, emulates the arrangement and working mechanism of skeletal muscles in the upper extremities and is able to perform wrist flexion/extension and ulnar/radial deviation. The range of motion and the force provided by the exoskeleton is designed through simple kinematic and dynamic theoretical models, while a thermal model is used to design a thermal insulation system for TCAMs during actuation. The device’s ability to perform passive and active-resisted wrist rehabilitation exercises and EMG-based actuation is also demonstrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: “Medical and Service Robotics”)

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10 pages, 1454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Factors Assessment of a Novel Pediatric Lower-Limb Exoskeleton

by Anthony C. Goo, Jason J. Wiebrecht, Douglas A. Wajda and Jerzy T. Sawicki

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010026 - 09 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2346

Abstract

While several lower-limb exoskeletons have been designed for adult patients, there remains a lack of pediatric-oriented devices. This paper presented a human factor assessment of an adjustable pediatric lower-limb exoskeleton for childhood gait assistance. The hip and knee exoskeleton uses an adjustable frame [...] Read more.

While several lower-limb exoskeletons have been designed for adult patients, there remains a lack of pediatric-oriented devices. This paper presented a human factor assessment of an adjustable pediatric lower-limb exoskeleton for childhood gait assistance. The hip and knee exoskeleton uses an adjustable frame for compatibility with children 6–11 years old. This assessment evaluates the device’s comfort and ease of use through timed donning, doffing, and reconfiguration tasks. The able-bodied study participants donned the device in 6 min and 8 s, doffed it in 2 min and 29 s, and reconfigured it in 8 min and 23 s. The results of the timed trials suggest that the exoskeleton can be easily donned, doffed, and reconfigured to match the anthropometrics of pediatric users. A 6-min unpowered walking experiment was conducted while the child participant wore the exoskeletal device. Inspection of both the device and participant yielded no evidence of damage to either the device or wearer. Participant feedback on the device was positive with a system usability scale rating of 80/100. While minor improvements can be made to the adjustability indicators and padding placement, the results indicate the exoskeleton is suitable for further experimental evaluation through assistive control assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Factors in Human–Robot Interaction)

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16 pages, 5566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Global Path Planning Method Based on a Modification of the Wavefront Algorithm for Ground Mobile Robots

by Martin Psotka, František Duchoň, Mykhailyshyn Roman, Tölgyessy Michal and Dobiš Michal

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010025 - 08 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2198

Abstract

This article is focused on the problematics of path planning, which means finding the optimal path between two points in a known environment with obstacles. The proposed path-planning method uses the wavefront algorithm, and two modifications are implemented and verified. The first modification [...] Read more.

This article is focused on the problematics of path planning, which means finding the optimal path between two points in a known environment with obstacles. The proposed path-planning method uses the wavefront algorithm, and two modifications are implemented and verified. The first modification is the removal of redundant waypoints. The first modification is applied because the wavefront algorithm generates redundant waypoints. These waypoints cause unnecessary changes in the direction of movement. The second one is smoothing the generated trajectory using B-spline curves. The reason for applying the second modification is that trajectory generated by the wavefront algorithm is in the form of the polyline, which is inadequate in terms of the smoothness of the robot’s motion. The verification of the proposed method is performed in environments with different densities of obstacles compared with standard Dijkstra’s and A* algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Mobile Robotics Navigation)

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27 pages, 1955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hierarchical Plan Execution for Cooperative UxV Missions

by Jan de Gier, Jeroen Bergmans and Hanno Hildmann

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010024 - 04 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1849

Abstract

A generic reasoning approach for autonomous unmanned vehicle (UxV) mission execution is presented. The system distinguishes (a) mission planning and (b) mission execution, treating these as separate but closely interdependent stages. The context of the work is that of tactical military operations, and [...] Read more.

A generic reasoning approach for autonomous unmanned vehicle (UxV) mission execution is presented. The system distinguishes (a) mission planning and (b) mission execution, treating these as separate but closely interdependent stages. The context of the work is that of tactical military operations, and the focus of the current (simulated) application is on ground-based platforms. The reference behavior for the UxVs is defined by military doctrine. Two operational requirements are met: (1) Mission plan and execution must be constructed such that they can be understood and evaluated (prior to giving the go ahead for the platforms to commence the mission) by a decision maker. (2) Mission plan and execution must account for both observations/information gathered during execution (for example, the spotting of enemy units) and for foreseeable changes in the internal and external situation (e.g., a sub-system failure, or changes in terrain or weather). Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Robotics and Networks)

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16 pages, 6082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual UR5 Robot for Online Learning of Inverse Kinematics and Independent Joint Control Validated with FSM Position Control

by Filemon Arenas-Rosales, Fernando Martell-Chavez, Irma Y. Sanchez-Chavez and Carlos A. Paredes-Orta

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010023 - 03 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4002

Abstract

Virtual remote laboratories have already been successfully implemented in educational centers for practical learning of mechatronics and robotic systems. This article presents the development of a virtual articulated UR-type robot, designed as an educational tool that is suitable for programming and evaluating both [...] Read more.

Virtual remote laboratories have already been successfully implemented in educational centers for practical learning of mechatronics and robotic systems. This article presents the development of a virtual articulated UR-type robot, designed as an educational tool that is suitable for programming and evaluating both the inverse kinematics control of the robot and the independent control of the robot joints. The 3D model of the virtual robot was developed in the Blender V2.79 software and uses the Modbus TCP industrial communication protocol for the communication to an external controller implemented in CoDeSys V3.5 software. The developed system allows the students to generate and test their own control algorithm for the robot joints with the visualization of the achieved performance in 3D and real time. Tailored control systems can be compared on the virtual robot. In this study, a novel technique for the joint position control based on an FSM is proposed and verified with the virtual UR5 robots to prove that the developed system is a suitable platform to teach and learn the inverse kinematics control and independent joint control of the UR5 robotic arm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Educational Robotics)

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28 pages, 8670 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reformulation of Theories of Kinematic Synthesis for Planar Dyads and Triads

by Sean Mather and Arthur Erdman

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010022 - 01 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1692

Abstract

Methods for solving planar dyads and triads in kinematic synthesis are scattered throughout the literature. A review of and a new compilation of the complex number synthesis method for planar dyads and triads is presented. The motivation of this paper is to formulate [...] Read more.

Methods for solving planar dyads and triads in kinematic synthesis are scattered throughout the literature. A review of and a new compilation of the complex number synthesis method for planar dyads and triads is presented. The motivation of this paper is to formulate uniform solution procedures, pointing out the commonalities of various approaches and emphasizing a consistent method for synthesizing mechanisms defined by specified precision positions. Particular emphasis is given to the solution method using compatibility linkages. The textbook Advanced Mechanism Design Vol II by Erdman and Sandor (1984) only includes a small portion of the available information on this method, and several researchers have added to the basic knowledge in the years since. In some cases, the approach and nomenclature were not consistent, yielding a need to describe and chart a generic formulation and solution procedure for dyads/triads using compatibility linkages and solution structures. The present method offers benefits for solving for exact dyad/triad solutions for complex multiloop mechanisms and could be a promising tool for reducing the computational load of finding complex mechanisms, and for visualizing properties of the solution space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinematics and Robot Design V, KaRD2022)

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14 pages, 8307 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Overhead Collapsible Origami-Based Mount for Medical Applications

by Lailu Li, Flynn Loh Jian Long, Irvin Lim, Tianyu Sun and Hongliang Ren

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010021 - 01 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1476

Abstract

To aid physicians in the precision diagnosis of ailments in the cranial region, we propose an overhead collapsible origami-based mount (Over-COM) with the advantages of being mountable, compact, lightweight, portable, and easy-to-use. The Over-COM can hold small diagnosis apparatuses, attach to regions of [...] Read more.

To aid physicians in the precision diagnosis of ailments in the cranial region, we propose an overhead collapsible origami-based mount (Over-COM) with the advantages of being mountable, compact, lightweight, portable, and easy-to-use. The Over-COM can hold small diagnosis apparatuses, attach to regions of interest (ROIs) on the head, and adjust the posture and penetration angle of the sensor to detect the optimal medical signal. The prototype of the Over-COM consists of a setup (housing, eight linear actuators, and an IMU) that can be attached to the head with adhesive or straps, and a small box (containing the microcontroller and battery pack) that can be placed away from the patient. In order to verify the performance of the system, experiments investigating the device’s DOFs and scan protocols were carried out. The experimental results demonstrated that the Over-COM could hold the diagnosis device, locate the ROIs, and determine the best sensor posture and penetration angles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medical Robotics and Service Robotics)

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48 pages, 34459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tilt Correction of Panoramic Images for a Holistic Visual Homing Method with Planar-Motion Assumption

by Christoph Berganski, Annika Hoffmann and Ralf Möller

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010020 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1738

Abstract

Holistic local visual homing based on warping of panoramic images relies on some simplifying assumptions about the images and the environment to make the problem more tractable. One of these assumptions is that images are captured on flat ground without tilt. While this [...] Read more.

Holistic local visual homing based on warping of panoramic images relies on some simplifying assumptions about the images and the environment to make the problem more tractable. One of these assumptions is that images are captured on flat ground without tilt. While this might be true in some environments, it poses a problem for a wider real-world application of warping. An extension of the warping framework is proposed where tilt-corrected images are used as inputs. The method combines the tilt correction of panoramic images with a systematic search through hypothetical tilt parameters, using an image distance measure produced by warping as the optimization criterion. This method not only improves the homing performance of warping on tilted images, but also allows for a good estimation of the tilt without requiring additional sensors or external image alignment. Experiments on two newly collected tilted panoramic image databases confirm the improved homing performance and the viability of the proposed tilt-estimation scheme. Approximations of the tilt-correction image transformations and multiple direct search strategies for the tilt estimation are evaluated with respect to their runtime vs. estimation quality trade-offs to find a variant of the proposed methods which best fulfills the requirements of practical applications. Full article

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17 pages, 4113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Operation of CeCi Social Robot

by Edisson Barbecho-Jimbo, David Vallejo-Ramírez, Juan-Carlos Cobos-Torres, Cecilio Angulo and Carlos Flores-Vázquez

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010019 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1589

Abstract

This paper presents a validation methodology for a remote system with its objective focused on a social robot. The research process starts with the customization of an application for smartphones, achieving a simple method of connection and attachment to the robot. This customization [...] Read more.

This paper presents a validation methodology for a remote system with its objective focused on a social robot. The research process starts with the customization of an application for smartphones, achieving a simple method of connection and attachment to the robot. This customization allows remote operation of the robot’s movements and an additional level of autonomy for the displacements in previously known locations. One of several teleoperations methods is the direct teleoperations method, which is used in master–slave control mode via a wireless network. Next, the article focuses on proposing a validation methodology for social robot applications design. Under this approach, two tests are performed to validate the designed application. The first one seeks to find the response speed of the communication between the robot and the mobile device wherein 10 devices with different characteristics and capabilities are used. This test is critical since a delay outside the allowable range invalidates the use of the application. The second test measures the application’s usability through a user survey, which allows for determining the preferences that people may have when using this type of application. This second test is essential to consider the overall acceptability of the social robot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Humanoid and Human Robotics)

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19 pages, 10299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Design and Experimental Validation of a Cable-Driven Parallel Robot for Movement Training of the Head–Neck Joint

by Alizée Koszulinski, Ferdaws Ennaiem, Juan Sandoval, Lotfi Romdhane and Med Amine Laribi

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010018 - 25 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1666

Abstract

The optimal design and the experimental validation of a cable-driven parallel robot is discussed in this paper. This novel device is intended for assisting therapists in the rehabilitation of the head–neck joint. First, the motion of the head–neck joint was recorded by means [...] Read more.

The optimal design and the experimental validation of a cable-driven parallel robot is discussed in this paper. This novel device is intended for assisting therapists in the rehabilitation of the head–neck joint. First, the motion of the head–neck joint was recorded by means of a Qualisys motion-capture system. The collected data was then analyzed in order to obtain the range of motion of the head and to identify some prescribed trajectories. A novel end-effector design was proposed to reduce the degrees of freedom needed to perform the desired head motion. The best design was found through an optimization problem where the cable tensions are minimized and the robot dexterity is maximized within its workspace. The objective of this optimization was to find the optimal actuator positions while satisfying a set of constraints. A prototype was proposed and experimental tests were conducted to validate the robot performance. In particular, a comparison between the actual trajectories and the desired ones was performed. The experimental test showed promising results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The State-of-the-Art of Robotics in Europe)

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12 pages, 4039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Based on the Foot–Ground Contact Mechanics Model and Velocity Planning Buffer Control

by Boxuan Zhang, Lichao Wang, Yangwei Wang and Zehao Yuan

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010017 - 23 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1746

Abstract

In order to reduce the impact of the leg joint motors and body electric devices of a falling robot, active flexible control based on force and velocity is proposed. A velocity planning buffer method based on a virtual model is proposed. We established [...] Read more.

In order to reduce the impact of the leg joint motors and body electric devices of a falling robot, active flexible control based on force and velocity is proposed. A velocity planning buffer method based on a virtual model is proposed. We established a mechanical model of leg and ground contact. Then, we controlled the knee joint angular velocity change after the robot contacted the ground to reduce the collision impact force and to protect the robot’s joint motors and body’s internal parts. First, the relationship between contact force and velocity was analyzed through the contact mechanical model between leg and ground, and the target was determined. Then, by planning the velocity of the robot’s thigh and hip joint, the velocity mutation during contact was reduced so that the impact on the robot was reduced. This method can avoid complex accurate physics model building and complex torque signal interference filtering processing, the control process is simple and its effectiveness is verified by ADAMS simulation and experimental verification. The velocity planning buffer strategy was tested in experimental studies which showed that the contact force of the buffer strategy was 0.671 times that of no buffer. Additionally, the contact impact acceleration of velocity planning was 1.5505 g, which was less than the force 1.7 g of virtual model control. The velocity planning buffer strategy was better to protect the robot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The State-of-the-Art of Robotics in Asia)

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16 pages, 2969 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transformable Wheelchair–Exoskeleton Hybrid Robot for Assisting Human Locomotion

by Ronnapee Chaichaowarat, Sarunpat Prakthong and Siri Thitipankul

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010016 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5118

Abstract

This paper presents a novel wheelchair–exoskeleton hybrid robot that can transform between sitting and walking modes. The lower-limb exoskeleton uses planetary-geared motors to support the hip and knee joints. Meanwhile, the ankle joints are passive. The left and right wheel modules can be [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel wheelchair–exoskeleton hybrid robot that can transform between sitting and walking modes. The lower-limb exoskeleton uses planetary-geared motors to support the hip and knee joints. Meanwhile, the ankle joints are passive. The left and right wheel modules can be retracted to the lower legs of the exoskeleton to prepare for walking or stepping over obstacles. The chair legs are designed to form a stable sitting posture to avoid falling while traveling on smooth surfaces with low energy consumption. Skateboard hub motors are used as the front driving wheels along with the rear caster wheels. The turning radius trajectory as the result of differential driving was observed in several scenarios. For assisting sit-to-stand motion, the desired joint velocities are commanded by the user while the damping of the motors is set. For stand-to-sit motion, the equilibrium of each joint is set to correspond to the standing posture, while stiffness is adjusted on the basis of assistive levels. The joint torques supported by the exoskeleton were recorded during motion, and leg muscle activities were studied via surface electromyography for further improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Factors in Human–Robot Interaction)

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26 pages, 18291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bin Picking for Ship-Building Logistics Using Perception and Grasping Systems

by Artur Cordeiro, João Pedro Souza, Carlos M. Costa, Vítor Filipe, Luís F. Rocha and Manuel F. Silva

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010015 - 18 Jan 2023

Viewed by 2474

Abstract

Bin picking is a challenging task involving many research domains within the perception and grasping fields, for which there are no perfect and reliable solutions available that are applicable to a wide range of unstructured and cluttered environments present in industrial factories and [...] Read more.

Bin picking is a challenging task involving many research domains within the perception and grasping fields, for which there are no perfect and reliable solutions available that are applicable to a wide range of unstructured and cluttered environments present in industrial factories and logistics centers. This paper contributes with research on the topic of object segmentation in cluttered scenarios, independent of previous object shape knowledge, for textured and textureless objects. In addition, it addresses the demand for extended datasets in deep learning tasks with realistic data. We propose a solution using a Mask R-CNN for 2D object segmentation, trained with real data acquired from a RGB-D sensor and synthetic data generated in Blender, combined with 3D point-cloud segmentation to extract a segmented point cloud belonging to a single object from the bin. Next, it is employed a re-configurable pipeline for 6-DoF object pose estimation, followed by a grasp planner to select a feasible grasp pose. The experimental results show that the object segmentation approach is efficient and accurate in cluttered scenarios with several occlusions. The neural network model was trained with both real and simulated data, enhancing the success rate from the previous classical segmentation, displaying an overall grasping success rate of 87.5%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Industrial Robots and Automation)

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4 pages, 206 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Acknowledgment to the Reviewers of Robotics in 2022

by Robotics Editorial Office

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010014 - 18 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1148

Abstract

High-quality academic publishing is built on rigorous peer review [...] Full article

22 pages, 4039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Design of Energy Sources for a Photovoltaic/Fuel Cell Extended-Range Agricultural Mobile Robot

by Amin Ghobadpour, Alben Cardenas, German Monsalve and Hossein Mousazadeh

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010013 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2156

Abstract

Powertrain electrification in the agricultural vehicles is still in the initial stages. This article analyzes the energy behavior of a Photovoltaic/Fuel Cell Agricultural Mobile Robot (PV/FCAMR) as the preliminary step before development. This concept incorporates three energy storage sources for the powertrain: a [...] Read more.

Powertrain electrification in the agricultural vehicles is still in the initial stages. This article analyzes the energy behavior of a Photovoltaic/Fuel Cell Agricultural Mobile Robot (PV/FCAMR) as the preliminary step before development. This concept incorporates three energy storage sources for the powertrain: a battery pack, a Fuel Cell (FC) system, and a Photovoltaic (PV) system. This paper proposes an approach based on the Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithms to determine the sizes of the FC and battery of an FCAMR. A differential drive mobile robot was used as a case study to extract the typical working cycles of farming applications. The FCAMR vehicle model was developed in MATLAB/Simulink to evaluate vehicle energy consumption and performance. For the energy analysis and evaluation, the FCAMR was tested based on two realistic working cycles comprising circular and rectangular moving patterns. The results showed that the proposed arrangement could extend the FCAMR autonomy by 350% as opposed to the pure electric system. This allows for at least 8 h of work with a tank filled with 150 g hydrogen and a PV system with a 0.5 m

^{2}

monocrystalline solar panel. The simulation results have demonstrated the relevance and robustness of this approach in relation to various working cycles. The cost comparison between the theoretical and optimization sizing methods showed at least an 8% decrease for the FCAMR. Furthermore, adding the PV system extended the vehicle’s range by up to 5%. This study provides an optimal solution for energy sources sizing of mobile robots as futuristic agricultural vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural and Field Robotics)

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19 pages, 7235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulated and Real Robotic Reach, Grasp, and Pick-and-Place Using Combined Reinforcement Learning and Traditional Controls

by Andrew Lobbezoo and Hyock-Ju Kwon

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010012 - 16 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4651

Abstract

The majority of robots in factories today are operated with conventional control strategies that require individual programming on a task-by-task basis, with no margin for error. As an alternative to the rudimentary operation planning and task-programming techniques, machine learning has shown significant promise [...] Read more.

The majority of robots in factories today are operated with conventional control strategies that require individual programming on a task-by-task basis, with no margin for error. As an alternative to the rudimentary operation planning and task-programming techniques, machine learning has shown significant promise for higher-level task planning, with the development of reinforcement learning (RL)-based control strategies. This paper reviews the implementation of combined traditional and RL control for simulated and real environments to validate the RL approach for standard industrial tasks such as reach, grasp, and pick-and-place. The goal of this research is to bring intelligence to robotic control so that robotic operations can be completed without precisely defining the environment, constraints, and the action plan. The results from this approach provide optimistic preliminary data on the application of RL to real-world robotics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Grasping and Motion Control Solutions)

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20 pages, 1921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Observed Control of Magnetic Continuum Devices

by Richard L. Pratt, Brooke E. Suesser and Andrew J. Petruska

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010011 - 13 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1634

Abstract

This paper models an extensible catheter with an embedded magnet at its distal tip subject to an external magnetic field. We implement a control method coined observed control to perform model-based predictive control of the catheter using a Kalman smoother framework. Using this [...] Read more.

This paper models an extensible catheter with an embedded magnet at its distal tip subject to an external magnetic field. We implement a control method coined observed control to perform model-based predictive control of the catheter using a Kalman smoother framework. Using this same smoother framework, we also solve for catheter shape and orientation given magnetic and insertion control using Cosserat rod theory and implement a disturbance observer for closed-loop control. We demonstrate observed control experimentally by traversing a 3D cube trajectory with the catheter tip. The catheter achieved positional accuracy of 3.3 mm average error in open-loop, while closed-loop control improved the accuracy to 0.33 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medical Robotics and Service Robotics)

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13 pages, 4720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyses of Key Variables to Industrialize a Multi-Camera System to Guide Robotic Arms

by Pablo Puerto, Ibai Leizea, Imanol Herrera and Asier Barrios

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010010 - 09 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2335

Abstract

Robotic arms are widely used in sectors such as automotive or assembly logistics due to their flexibility and cost. Other manufacturing sectors would like to take advantage of this technology, however, higher accuracy is required for their purposes. This paper integrated a multi-camera [...] Read more.

Robotic arms are widely used in sectors such as automotive or assembly logistics due to their flexibility and cost. Other manufacturing sectors would like to take advantage of this technology, however, higher accuracy is required for their purposes. This paper integrated a multi-camera system to achieve the requirements for milling and drilling tasks in aeronautic parts. A closed-loop framework allows the position of the robot’s end-effector to be corrected with respect to a static reference. This is due to the multi-camera system tracking the position of both elements due to the passive targets on their surface. The challenge is to find an auxiliary system to measure these targets with an uncertainty that allows the desired accuracy to be achieved in high volumes (>3 m³). Firstly, in a reduced scenario, a coordinate measuring machine (CMM), a laser tracker (LT), and portable photogrammetry (PP) have been compared following the guidelines from VDI/VDE 2634-part 1. The conclusions allowed us to jump into an industrial scenario and run a similar test with a higher payload than in the laboratory. The article ends with an application example demonstrating the suitability of the solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Control in Robotics)

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Graphical abstract

42 pages, 10922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Exercise Assistance: Group and One-on-One Interactions between a Social Robot and Seniors

by Mingyang Shao, Michael Pham-Hung, Silas Franco Dos Reis Alves, Matt Snyder, Kasra Eshaghi, Beno Benhabib and Goldie Nejat

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010009 - 06 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2368

Abstract

For older adults, regular exercises can provide both physical and mental benefits, increase their independence, and reduce the risks of diseases associated with aging. However, only a small portion of older adults regularly engage in physical activity. Therefore, it is important to promote [...] Read more.

For older adults, regular exercises can provide both physical and mental benefits, increase their independence, and reduce the risks of diseases associated with aging. However, only a small portion of older adults regularly engage in physical activity. Therefore, it is important to promote exercise among older adults to help maintain overall health. In this paper, we present the first exploratory long-term human–robot interaction (HRI) study conducted at a local long-term care facility to investigate the benefits of one-on-one and group exercise interactions with an autonomous socially assistive robot and older adults. To provide targeted facilitation, our robot utilizes a unique emotion model that can adapt its assistive behaviors to users’ affect and track their progress towards exercise goals through repeated sessions using the Goal Attainment Scale (GAS), while also monitoring heart rate to prevent overexertion. Results of the study show that users had positive valence and high engagement towards the robot and were able to maintain their exercise performance throughout the study. Questionnaire results showed high robot acceptance for both types of interactions. However, users in the one-on-one sessions perceived the robot as more sociable and intelligent, and had more positive perception of the robot’s appearance and movements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medical Robotics and Service Robotics)

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31 pages, 22426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Construction of Hybrid Autonomous Underwater Glider for Underwater Research

by Simon Siregar, Bambang Riyanto Trilaksono, Egi Muhammad Idris Hidayat, Muljowidodo Kartidjo, Natsir Habibullah, Muhammad Fikri Zulkarnain and Handi Nugroho Setiawan

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010008 - 05 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2678

Abstract

The main goal of this paper was to design and construct a hybrid autonomous underwater glider (HAUG) with a torpedo shape, a size of 230 cm in length and 24 cm in diameter. The control, navigation, and guidance system were executed simultaneously using [...] Read more.

The main goal of this paper was to design and construct a hybrid autonomous underwater glider (HAUG) with a torpedo shape, a size of 230 cm in length and 24 cm in diameter. The control, navigation, and guidance system were executed simultaneously using a Udoo X86 minicomputer as the main server and three BeagleBone Black single-board computers as the clients. The simulations showed a controlled horizontal speed of 0.5 m/s in AUV mode and 0.39 to 0.51 m/s in glide mode with a pitch angle between 14.13

^{\circ}

and 26.89

^{\circ}

. In addition, the field experiments under limited space showed the proposed HAUG had comparable results with the simulation, with a horizontal speed in AUV mode of 1 m/s and in glide mode of around 0.2 m/s. Moreover, the energy consumption with an assumption of three cycles of gliding motion per hour was 51.63 watts/h, which enabled the HAUG to perform a mission for 44.74 h. The proposed HAUG was designed to hold pressure up to 200 m under water and to perform underwater applications such as search and rescue, mapping, surveillance, monitoring, and maintenance. Full article

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24 pages, 2109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constrained-Differential-Kinematics-Decomposition-Based NMPC for Online Manipulator Control with Low Computational Costs

by Jan Reinhold, Henry Baumann and Thomas Meurer

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010007 - 03 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2148

Abstract

Flexibility combined with the ability to consider external constraints comprises the main advantages of nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC). Applied as a motion controller, NMPC enables applications in varying and disturbed environments, but requires time-consuming computations. Hence, given the full nonlinear multi-DOF robot [...] Read more.

Flexibility combined with the ability to consider external constraints comprises the main advantages of nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC). Applied as a motion controller, NMPC enables applications in varying and disturbed environments, but requires time-consuming computations. Hence, given the full nonlinear multi-DOF robot model, a delay-free execution providing short control horizons at appropriate prediction horizons for accurate motions is not applicable in common use. This contribution introduces an approach that analyzes and decomposes the differential kinematics similar to the inverse kinematics method to assign Cartesian boundary conditions to specific systems of equations during the model building, reducing the online computational costs. The resulting fully constrained NMPC realizes the translational obstacle avoidance during trajectory tracking using a reduced model considering both joint and Cartesian constraints coupled with a Jacobian transposed controller performing the end-effector’s orientation correction. Apart from a safe distance from the obstacles, the presented approach does not lead to any limitations of the reachable workspace, and all degrees of freedom (DOFs) of the robot are used. The simulative evaluation in Gazebo using the Stäubli TX2-90 commanded of ROS on a standard computer emphasizes the significantly lower online computational costs, accuracy analysis, and extended adaptability in obstacle avoidance, providing additional flexibility. An interpretation of the new concept is discussed for further use and extensions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinematics and Robot Design V, KaRD2022)

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18 pages, 4258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization-Based Reference Generator for Nonlinear Model Predictive Control of Legged Robots

by Angelo Bratta, Michele Focchi, Niraj Rathod and Claudio Semini

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010006 - 03 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2779

Abstract

Model predictive control (MPC) approaches are widely used in robotics, because they guarantee feasibility and allow the computation of updated trajectories while the robot is moving. They generally require heuristic references for the tracking terms and proper tuning of the parameters of the [...] Read more.

Model predictive control (MPC) approaches are widely used in robotics, because they guarantee feasibility and allow the computation of updated trajectories while the robot is moving. They generally require heuristic references for the tracking terms and proper tuning of the parameters of the cost function in order to obtain good performance. For instance, when a legged robot has to react to disturbances from the environment (e.g., to recover after a push) or track a specific goal with statically unstable gaits, the effectiveness of the algorithm can degrade. In this work, we propose a novel optimization-based reference generator which exploits a linear inverted pendulum (LIP) model to compute reference trajectories for the center of mass while taking into account the possible underactuation of a gait (e.g., in a trot). The obtained trajectories are used as references for the cost function of the nonlinear MPC presented in our previous work. We also present a formulation that ensures guarantees on the response time to reach a goal without the need to tune the weights of the cost terms. In addition, footholds are corrected by using the optimized reference to drive the robot toward the goal. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach both in simulations and experiments in different scenarios with the Aliengo robot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Legged Robots into the Real World)

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33 pages, 12704 KiB

Open AccessReview

Current Designs of Robotic Arm Grippers: A Comprehensive Systematic Review

by Jaime Hernandez, Md Samiul Haque Sunny, Javier Sanjuan, Ivan Rulik, Md Ishrak Islam Zarif, Sheikh Iqbal Ahamed, Helal Uddin Ahmed and Mohammad H Rahman

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010005 - 02 Jan 2023

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 16305

Abstract

Recent technological advances enable gripper-equipped robots to perform many tasks traditionally associated with the human hand, allowing the use of grippers in a wide range of applications. Depending on the application, an ideal gripper design should be affordable, energy-efficient, and adaptable to many [...] Read more.

Recent technological advances enable gripper-equipped robots to perform many tasks traditionally associated with the human hand, allowing the use of grippers in a wide range of applications. Depending on the application, an ideal gripper design should be affordable, energy-efficient, and adaptable to many situations. However, regardless of the number of grippers available on the market, there are still many tasks that are difficult for grippers to perform, which indicates the demand and room for new designs to compete with the human hand. Thus, this paper provides a comprehensive review of robotic arm grippers to identify the benefits and drawbacks of various gripper designs. The research compares gripper designs by considering the actuation mechanism, degrees of freedom, grasping capabilities with multiple objects, and applications, concluding which should be the gripper design with the broader set of capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kinematics and Robot Design V, KaRD2022)

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20 pages, 7883 KiB

Open AccessReview

Measuring Performance: Metrics for Manipulator Design, Control, and Optimization

by Matteo Russo

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010004 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3712

Abstract

How good is a robot? Three challenges arise from this question: first, defining performance from the robot’s observable behavior; second, quantifying performance with an index that is obtainable through direct measurement or computation, and representative of the measured quantity; third, ensuring that this [...] Read more.

How good is a robot? Three challenges arise from this question: first, defining performance from the robot’s observable behavior; second, quantifying performance with an index that is obtainable through direct measurement or computation, and representative of the measured quantity; third, ensuring that this procedure is repeatable and general, to enable performance comparison, benchmarking, and an increase of safety and efficiency standards. However, the landscape of performance metrics for industrial manipulators is fragmented, and limited effort is being made toward a unified framework. This survey aimed at collecting, classifying, and analyzing the key works on the topic, with a focus on mechanical performance metrics for industrial robots. Two diverging trends are outlined, with commercial standards adopting a limited set of metrics and academic research encouraging the development of new performance indices. The shortcomings of both approaches are highlighted, providing a perspective on how future research could proceed. Full article

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14 pages, 6938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Visible Cables and Story Content on Perceived Autonomy in Social Human–Robot Interaction

by Eileen Roesler, Sophia C. Steinhaeusser, Birgit Lugrin and Linda Onnasch

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010003 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1816

Abstract

From teaching technical skills to telling bedtime stories, social robots support various edutainment tasks that require smooth communication. Previous studies often emphasized the importance of the autonomy of social robots for those tasks. However, the cabling of robots with power sources and/ or [...] Read more.

From teaching technical skills to telling bedtime stories, social robots support various edutainment tasks that require smooth communication. Previous studies often emphasized the importance of the autonomy of social robots for those tasks. However, the cabling of robots with power sources and/ or host computers is often required due to technical restrictions. However, it is currently unclear if the cabling of robots makes a difference in perceived autonomy. Therefore, this study examined the influence of visible cables in different tasks on the perception of a social robot. In an online survey, participants evaluated videos of a social robot that was either equipped with a cable or not and told either a story with technical educational content or socially entertaining content. No significant differences were revealed between the cabled and the non-cabled robot, neither for the perceived autonomy nor for the associated concepts of the Godspeed questionnaire series. In addition, the story content did not influence perceived autonomy. However, the robot that told the technical content was perceived as significantly more intelligent and tended to be perceived as more likable than the robot that told the social content. Moreover, the interaction effect of cabling and story content for perceived safety just failed to reach the conventional level of significance. In the social content condition, the non-cabled robot tended to be perceived as less safe than the cabled robot. This was not true for the technical content condition. In conclusion, the results showed the importance of considering story content. Due to methodological limitations of the current study, namely, the lack of gestures accompanying the storytelling and the video-based approach, the missing effect of cabling in regard to perceived autonomy should be investigated in the future via real-life interaction studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Communication with Social Robots)

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15 pages, 4514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Static Modeling of a Class of Stiffness-Adjustable Snake-like Robots with Gravity Compensation

by Jian Hu, Tangyou Liu, Haijun Zeng, Ming Xuan Chua, Jayantha Katupitiya and Liao Wu

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010002 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2496

Abstract

Stiffness-adjustable snake-like robots have been proposed for various applications, including minimally invasive surgery. Based on a variable neutral-line mechanism, previous works proposed a class of snake-like robots that can adjust their stiffness by changing the driving cables’ tensions. A constant curvature hypothesis was [...] Read more.

Stiffness-adjustable snake-like robots have been proposed for various applications, including minimally invasive surgery. Based on a variable neutral-line mechanism, previous works proposed a class of snake-like robots that can adjust their stiffness by changing the driving cables’ tensions. A constant curvature hypothesis was used to formulate such robots’ kinematics and was further verified by our previous work via rigorous force analysis and ADAMS simulations. However, all these models and analyses have ignored the effect of the robot links’ gravity, resulting in significant errors in real systems. In this paper, a static model considering gravity compensation is proposed for the stiffness-adjustable snake-like robots. The proposed model adopts a nonlinear Gauss–Seidel iteration scheme and consists of two parts: gravity update and pose estimation. In each iteration, the former updates the payload of each link caused by gravity, and the latter estimates the pose of the robot by refreshing the angle and position values. This iteration stops when the change in the tip position is less than a pre-set error

ϵ

. During the above process, the only dependent information is each cable’s tension. Simulations and experiments are carried out to verify the effectiveness of the proposed model. The impact of gravity is found to increase with growing material densities in the simulations. The experimental results further indicate that compared with a model without gravity compensation, our model reduces the tip estimation error by 91.5% on average. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medical Robotics and Service Robotics)

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15 pages, 2840 KiB

Open AccessReview

What Is Next in Computer-Assisted Spine Surgery? Advances in Image-Guided Robotics and Extended Reality

by Kristóf Móga, Andrea Ferencz and Tamás Haidegger

Robotics 2023, 12(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010001 - 20 Dec 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2484

Abstract

Background: This article provides a scoping review on the current status of Image-Guided Navigation with various forms of digital technologies, including Extended Reality, Augmented Reality Head-Mounted Displays (AR–HMDs) and Robot-Assisted Surgery (RAS) for Pedicle Screw Placement in orthopedics and spine surgery. Methods: A [...] Read more.

Background: This article provides a scoping review on the current status of Image-Guided Navigation with various forms of digital technologies, including Extended Reality, Augmented Reality Head-Mounted Displays (AR–HMDs) and Robot-Assisted Surgery (RAS) for Pedicle Screw Placement in orthopedics and spine surgery. Methods: A scoping literature review was performed in the PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Web of Science, Google Scholar and IEEE Xplore databases to collect clinical and user satisfaction data on AR–HMDs and compare those with RAS outcomes. In vivo patient, cadaver and phantom trial accuracy data reports were identified and grouped through the analysis. Over the past two years, 14 publications were retrieved and analyzed. Pedicle screw placement accuracy was described with Linear Tip Error (LTE), Angular Trajectory Error (ATE) and Gertzbein–Robbins Scale (GRS) outcomes. Results: The Pedicle Screw Placement accuracy was seen to increase in the in vivo, cadaver and phantom model groups using AR-HMD compared to the Free-Hand insertion technique. User experience and satisfaction data were limited; however, a clear advantage for the operative results was described when it was added. RAS screwing showed similar accuracy outcomes. The need for benchmarking and quantified situation awareness for AR–HMDs is recognizable. The authors present a method for standardized scoring and visualization of surgical navigation technologies, based on measurements of the surgeon (as the end-users) user satisfaction, clinical accuracy and operation time. Conclusions: computer-technology driven support for spine surgery is well-established and efficient for certain procedures. As a more affordable option next to RAS, AR–HMD navigation has reached technological readiness for surgical use. Ergonomics and usability improvements are needed to match the potential of RAS/XR in human surgeries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 15th International Symposium on Applied Computational Intelligence and Informatics (SACI 2021))

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Robotics, Volume 12, Issue 1 (February 2023) – 29 articles

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