Editor’s Choice Articles

A novel, multi-disciplinary approach is presented where experiments, system simulation and Computational Fluid Dynamics are combined for the electrical and thermal characterization of an air-cooled battery pack. As a case study, a Formula Student race car is considered and the procedure proposed consists of three steps: (1) experimental characterization of the battery cells under several thermal conditions; (2) thermal and electrical modeling of the battery stack with system simulation; (3) three-dimensional, time-dependent Conjugate Heat Transfer simulation of the whole battery pack to investigate the cooling performance of the chosen design, and to access fundamental quantities of the batteries, such as state of charge, temperature and ohmic heating. Future improvements of the current work are discussed, including the extension to a liquid-cooled design, battery aging consideration and model integration into a full vehicle system model. Full article

Lane-level route planning is a critical issue for a lane-level navigation system for autonomous vehicles. Current route-planning methods mainly focus on the road level and applying them directly to search for lane-level routes results in a reduction in search efficiency. In addition, previously developed lane-level methods lack consideration for vehicle characteristics and adaptability to multiple road network structures. To solve this issue, this study proposes an accelerated and refined lane-level route-planning algorithm based on a new lane-level road network model. First, five sub-layers are designed to refine the internal structure of the divided road and intersection areas so that the model can express multiple variations in road network structures. Then, a multi-level route-planning algorithm is designed for sequential planning at the road level, lane group level, lane section level, and lane level to reduce the search space and significantly improve routing efficiency. Last, an optimal lane determination algorithm considering traffic rules, vehicle characteristics, and optimization objectives is developed at the lane level to find the optimal lanes on roads with different configurations, including those with a constant or variable number of lanes while satisfying traffic rules and vehicle characteristics. Tests were performed on simulated road networks and a real road network. The results demonstrate the algorithm’s better adaptability to changing road network structures and vehicle characteristics compared with past hierarchical route planning, and its higher efficiency compared with direct route planning, past hierarchical route planning, and the Apollo route-planning method, which can better support autonomous vehicle navigation. Full article

The cell finishing process is the final stage in the production of a battery cell. Almost one third of the production costs of a battery cell are related to this part of the production. It includes a series of steps and technologies aimed at optimizing the battery cell’s performance, quality, and safety. The process is divided into three categories: pre-treatment, formation procedure, and quality testing. The order of the processes and the time required for each step can vary depending on the manufacturer and the cell format. Recent trends in optimizing the cell finishing process include the integration of a second filling process for larger prismatic cells and the optimization of the formation protocol or Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) as possible methods for quality inspection. Efforts are also being made to reduce the pre-treatment time and improve the degassing process to ensure cell performance, quality, and safety. In this paper, all process steps of the cell finishing process are presented, and their function and technological implementation in the industry are explained. Future innovations are analyzed in terms of time to market and the potential to optimize the process in terms of quality, time, and cost. Full article

Lithium-ion batteries are seen as a key element in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions from the transport and energy sectors. However, efforts are still needed to minimize their environmental impact. This article presents a path towards a circular economy and more sustainable batteries, thanks to their reuse in mobile charging stations for electric vehicles. This work presents the results of characterization tests and modeling of second life batteries. The presented characterization test and electrical models can be used as references to evaluate the performance of aged batteries after their first life. Detailed test procedures and data results are provided in an open-access data paper. Full article

Public bus decarbonization is increasingly important to address the global issue of climate change. There are several challenges associated with large-scale introduction of zero-emission technologies in public fleets. This is especially the case in an extra-urban context, of mountain regions with challenging weather conditions. In this work the analysis of the state-of-the-art ZEBs, local bus lines, and timetables was performed to understand the best fit of technology—battery electric buses (BEBs) or fuel cell electric buses (FCEBs)—for each line in such a region. Further, a simulation tool was developed to calculate the compatibility of zero-emission technologies with the current needs of the public transportation considering distance, altitude difference, and climate conditions. The results show that a complete switch of the fleet is possible with a slight increase in the number of buses and that there is no clear difference in the distance covered in mountainous areas by BEBs versus FCEBs, but that both technologies can cover similar distances. The tool developed is not limited to bus fleets but can be applied to all kinds of fleets that cover clearly defined daily routes. Full article

Benefits from EV (Electric vehicles) and e-mobility include the reduction of local emissions of pollutants from particulate matter (PM_0.5, PM_5, and PM₁₀) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x and NO₂). Cities and urban agglomerations benefit the most from potential emission reductions from EVs due to the large number of cars utilized in most urban traffic systems. This abstract presents results from a corporate research and funding project in Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany (LINOx BW) which facilitates the installation of 2358 charging points within 178 different sub-projects in 23 different cities, spanning a period of four years. Utilizing several different survey waves, data about outgoing currents from these publicly funded charging points are gathered. Converting this data utilizing car classifications and emission classes (HBEFA), the reduction of local nitrogen oxides is derived. Full article

In this paper, battery system architectures are methodologically derived in order to find the key type differences. In a first step, the system levels are identified and distinguished. In order to be able to completely cover the solution space of battery system architectures, a distinction is also made between mono- and multifunctional materials. Based on the system levels, a framework for possible architectures is derived. Four system architecture generations with a total of eight different types are identified and analyzed in the dimensions “Nomenclature”, “Approach”, “Omitted Components” and “Industry Examples”. In this way, upcoming system architectures, such as cell-to-pack and cell-to-chassis, can be clearly differentiated. Finally, fundamental product characteristics for the four system generations are derived and compared. Full article

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been proven to be increasingly popular and are the solution of choice for many companies and business models around the world. One major question for battery owners is how to deal with returning batteries if they still contain sufficient capacity for operation. In this case, those energy storages can still be used in different, less-required second-life applications, such as stationary battery storage systems, contributing to increased product sustainability and economic benefits at the same time. However, the second-life business model is still at an early stage of development due to the young EV market in combination with long vehicle lifetimes. As a consequence, there are several barriers in various thematic fields, complicating the rededication process for LIBs. This review paper focuses on a summary of barriers to second-life adoption published with scientific reference. Furthermore, barriers are clustered thematically to provide a transparent landscape picture and valuable insights into the rededication process of LIBs. Full article

A key factor in limiting global warming is the conversion of conventional electricity generation to renewable energy sources. However, a major obstacle is that renewable energy generation and energy demand often do not coincide in time, and energy must therefore be stored temporarily. Vehicle to grid (V2G) can be used to store excess renewable energy in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and feed it back into the electric grid when needed. For effective V2G operation, the grid may have to be expanded, as the energy needs to be transported to BEVs. However, the grid should only be strengthened where renewable energy demand exceeds current grid capacity due to high grid expansion costs. This requires a method that determines the spatial distribution of V2G potential at a high resolution. Since such a method has not yet been reported in the existing literature, and so is developed in this paper. The method is demonstrated for the city of Berlin and its 448 sub-districts. For each sub-district, the method allows determining the percentage of residential and BEV energy demand that can be met by renewables if V2G is deployed, and answers the question of whether a full renewable supply is possible. The results show that BEVs can be effectively used as intermediate storage for renewable energy. If 30% of the BEVs participate in V2G, more than 99% of the energy demand of households and BEVs in Berlin can be covered by renewables on certain days. On the other hand, V2G deployment increases the average peak load in the districts by up to 100% and results in a nearly double load on vehicle batteries. High shares of renewable energy can be observed in districts with a high degree of motorization, which are predominantly found in the outskirts of the city. Full article

We developed and used methodology to analyze scientific publications in Scopus relating to vehicle electrification and associated key enabling technologies: batteries, fuel cells and electric machines with power electronics. The global research landscape was mapped, and an analysis of the 16 most active countries was carried out. Vehicle electrification publications are rewarded with a high citation impact, and they include corporate actors to a great extent. China dominates in vehicle electrification research as well as in the enabling technologies, and China’s position is set to become even more dominating. Battery research has grown rapidly with a high citation impact, whereas the volume of research for the other enabling technologies was more constant during 2017–2021. Automakers’ research that has led to scientific publications was specifically studied. Ford Motor Company was the automaker with the highest number of vehicle electrification publications during 2017–2021. A large share of the automakers’ publications was co-authored with academic actors, and such publications were rewarded with a higher citation impact than those without. However, the share of international co-publications among the automakers was meager. It is concluded that the analysis of vehicle electrification publications gives an overview of the rapidly developing field. Moreover, the analysis of automakers’ involvement in such research is one way of obtaining one perspective on their strategies and priorities. Full article

With the increasing adoption rate of electric vehicles, power peaks caused by many cars simultaneously charging on the same low-voltage grid can cause local overloading and power outages. Smart charging solutions should spread this load, but there is a residual risk of incidental peaks. A decentralized and autonomous technology called GridShield is being developed to reduce the likelihood of a transformer’s fuse blowing when other congestion solutions have failed. It serves as a measure of last resort to protect the grid against local power failures from unpredicted congestion by temporarily limiting the virtual capacity of charging stations. This paper describes the technical development and demonstrates how GridShield can keep a transformer load below a critical limit using simulations and real-world tests. It optimizes grid capacity while ensuring grid reliability. Full article

Electric vehicle battery second-life applications are gaining attention as a way to minimize the environmental impact and increase economic profits. However, the demand for stationary energy storage is expected to be saturated in the near future with these second-life batteries. This fact, in addition to the several technical and economic challenges of second-life batteries, promotes exploring other alternatives. This work analyses and compares these possible approaches in terms of battery degradation and economic profit. The results show that for large batteries, intensive Vehicle to Grid does not cause an early retirement of the battery and allows reducing the underuse of the battery. In addition, for the same battery size, Vehicle to Grid provides more economic profit than second-life applications. Nevertheless, only in a few cases does this appear to be more profitable than simply utilizing the battery for driving. Importantly, this study has shown how the assessment of the second-life tends to be too optimistic as a consequence of assuming a fixed End of Life threshold for the batteries. Full article

The economics of long haul trucking on both continuous and intermittent Electric Highways were evaluated from a technical perspective as alternatives to using conventional megawatt chargers. The study revealed complex and sensitive interplay between the various technical factors related to the vehicle, its battery pack and the configuration and construction of the electrified highway. Key preliminary outcomes showed that a 250 kW highway power supply level allows a 36 tonne truck to drive continuously without requiring off-road recharging, and it can operate with a battery pack of about 50% of the size required for a truck only using megawatt charging. For now, while there is no overwhelming case in favour of any particular technology, the study serves to highlight the relevant factors impacting anticipated design criteria for the electrification of highways. Full article

A shared autonomous electric vehicle (SAEV) fleet and the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) strategy both have great potential to reduce GHG emissions. As these concepts have complementary value, they are even more promising combined. However, to the best of our knowledge, no research has yet been conducted on locating charging infrastructure for SAEVs with V2G feasibility. For this construction, the challenge lies in the fact that both mobility demand (mainly for SAEVs) and energy (for any installation of charging infrastructure) have a major influence on this problem. To find the optimal charging infrastructure (CI) allocation for SAEVs with V2G operations, both mobility requirements and grid constraints must be considered. In this paper, we find that optimization models are the most frequently used method to solve the CI allocation problem. We conduct separate examinations of the V2G and SAEVs location optimization models that have been formulated in the literature, for which objective functions are used, and which constraints are considered (with respect to mobility and the electric grid). We find that SAEV and V2G models have overlapping elements, but remain disjunct in their respective perspectives. CI allocation for SAEVs mainly takes mobility into account, but tends to ignore grid constraints or impacts. On the other hand, CI allocation for V2G focuses on the distribution network and the grid, forgetting about mobility demand. To take advantage of the SAEV-V2G potential, future research should combine mobility and grid aspects to find the optimal CI locations for SAEVs with V2G feasibility. Full article

Signalized intersections can increase the vehicle stops and consequently increase the energy consumption by forcing stop-and-go dynamics on vehicles. Eco-driving with the help of connectivity is a solution that could avoid multiple stops and improve energy efficiency. In this paper, an eco-driving framework is developed, which finds the energy-efficient speed profile both up- and downstream of a signalized intersection in free-flow situations (eco-FF). The proposed framework utilizes the signal phasing and timing (SPaT) data that are communicated to the vehicle. The energy consumption model used in this framework is a combination of vehicle dynamics and time-dependent auxiliary consumption, which implicitly incorporates the travel time into the function and is validated with real-world test data. It is shown that, by using the proposed eco-FF framework, the vehicle’s energy consumption is notably reduced. Full article

Automated vehicles, predicted to be fully electric in future, are expected to reduce road fatalities and road traffic emissions. The lane departure warning system, an important feature of automated vehicles, utilize lane detection and tracking algorithms. Researchers are constrained to test their lane detection algorithms because of the small publicly available datasets. Additionally, those datasets may not represent differences in road geometries, lane marking and other details unique to a particular geographic location. Existing methods to develop the ground truth datasets are time intensive. To address this gap, this study proposed a framework for an interpolation approach for quickly generating reliable ground truth data. The proposed method leverages the advantage of the existing manual and time-slice approaches. A detailed framework for the interpolation approach is presented and the performance of the approach is compared with the existing methods. Video datasets for performance evaluation were collected in Melbourne, Australia. The results show that the proposed approach outperformed four existing approaches with a reduction in time for generating ground truth data in the range from 4.8% to 87.4%. A reliable and quick method for generating ground truth data, as proposed in this study, will be valuable to researchers as they can use it to test and evaluate their lane detection and tracking algorithms. Full article

Model predictive control (MPC) technology for multi-phase electric drives has received increasing attention in modern industries, especially in electric vehicles, marine electrical propulsion, and wind power generation. However, MPC has several challenges in controlling multi-phase electric drives, including the design of weighting factors, high computational complexity, large harmonic currents, heavy reliance on the system model, fault-tolerant control operation, common-mode voltage, and zero-sequence current hazards. Therefore, this paper gives a comprehensive review of the latest and most effective solutions to the existing major technical challenges and prospects for the future trends of MPC for multi-phase electric drives. Full article

Consumption habits are changing due to the development of new technologies around renewable energy, environmental awareness, and new incentive policies. Smart grids are seen as an effective way to accommodate more renewable energy, achieve better control of demand, and improve the operating conditions of the electrical system. However, electric vehicles, which are an environmentally friendly alternative, have very high market penetration and require efficient electrical management at charging stations. Among the factors that have a significant impact on electrical energy consumption are traffic conditions, which can seriously impact the efficiency of electric vehicles. Therefore, the focus is on developing charging infrastructure and reducing vehicle waiting time by optimally allocating electric vehicles to charging stations. To this end, an optimization approach is presented, based on the traffic conditions collected by the SUMO simulator. This approach enables each vehicle to be assigned to the appropriate station while maintaining its battery state of charge at a higher level. Full article

Increasing penetration of electric vehicles brings a set of challenges for the electricity system related to its energy, power and balance adequacy. Research related to this topic often requires estimates of charging demand in various forms to feed various models and simulations. This paper proposes a methodology to simulate charging demand for different driver types in a local energy system in the form of time series of charging sessions. The driver types are extracted from historical charging session data via data mining techniques and then characterized using a kernel density estimation process. The results show that the methodology is able to capture the stochastic nature of the drivers’ charging behavior in time, frequency and energy demand for different types of drivers, while respecting aggregated charging demand. This is essential when studying the energy balance of a local energy system and allows for calculating future demand scenarios by compiling driver population based on number of drivers per driver type. The methodology is then tested on a simulator to assess the benefits of smart charging. Full article

The race for road electrification has started, and convincing drivers to switch from fuel-powered vehicles to electric vehicles requires robust Electric Vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure. This article proposes an innovative EV charging demand estimation and segmentation method. First, we estimate the charging demand at a neighborhood granularity using aggregated cellular signaling data. Second, we propose a segmentation model to partition the total charging needs among different charging technology: normal, semi-rapid, and fast charging. The segmentation model, an approach based on the city’s points of interest, is a state-of-the-art method that derives useful trends applicable to city planning. A case study for the city of Brussels is proposed. Our demand estimation results heavily correlate with the government’s predictions under similar assumptions. The segmentation reveals clear city patterns, such as transportation hubs, commercial and industrial zones or residential districts, and stresses the importance of a deployment plan involving all available charging technologies. Full article

This research work deals with the problem of controlling a salient-pole permanent-magnet synchronous motor (SP-PMSM) used in hybrid electric vehicles. An adaptive nonlinear controller based on the backstepping technique is developed to meet the following requirements: control of the reference vehicle speed in the presence of load variation and changes in the internal motor parameters while keeping the reliability and stability of the vehicle. The complexity of the control problem lies on the system nonlinearity, instability and the problem of inaccessibility to measure all the internal parameters, such as inertia, friction and load variation. For this issue, an adaptive backstepping regulator is developed to estimate these parameters. On the basis of formal analysis and simulation, as well as test results, it is clearly shown that the designed controller achieves all the goals, namely robustness and reliability of the controller, stability of the system and speed control, considering the uncertainty parameters’ measurements. Full article

To enable the deployment of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as passenger cars in the private transport sector, suitable charging infrastructure is crucial. In this paper, a methodology for the efficient spatial distribution of charging infrastructure is evaluated by investigating a scenario with a 100% market penetration of BEVs of (around 1.3 million vehicles) in Berlin, Germany. The goal of the evaluated methodology is the development of various charging infrastructure scenarios—including public and private charging—which are suitable to cover the entire charging demand. Therefore, these scenarios are investigated in detail with a focus on the number of public charging points, their spatial distributions, the available charging power, and the necessary capital costs. For the creation of these charging infrastructure scenarios, a placement model is developed. As input, it uses the data of a multi-agent transport simulation (MATSim) scenario of the metropolitan area of Berlin to evaluate and optimize different distributions of charging infrastructure. The model uses a genetic algorithm and the principle of multi-objective optimization. The capital costs of the charging points and the mean detour car drivers must undertake are used as the optimization criteria. Using these criteria, we expect to generate cost-efficient infrastructure solutions that provide high usability at the same time. The main advantage of the method selected is that multiple optimal solutions with different characteristics can be found, and suitable solutions can be selected by subsequently using other criteria. Besides the generated charging scenarios for Berlin, the main goal of this paper is to provide a valid methodology, which is able to use the output data of an agent-based, microscopic transport simulation of an arbitrary city or area (or even real driving data) and calculate different suitable charging infrastructure scenarios regarding the different optimization criteria. This paper shows a possible application of this method and provides suggestions to improve the significance of the results in future works. The optimized charging infrastructure solutions for the Berlin scenario show capital costs of between EUR 624 and 2950 million. Users must cover an additional mean detour of 254 m to 590 m per charging process to reach an available charging point. According to the results, a suitable ratio between the charging points and vehicles is between 11:1 and 5:1. A share of fast charging infrastructure (>50 kW) of less than ten percent seems to be sufficient if it is situated at the main traffic routes and highly frequented places. Full article

Smart charging of electric vehicles is a promising concept for solving the current challenges faced by connecting mobility and electricity within the context of the ongoing sustainable energy transition. It allows cost savings for the expansion and operation of the power grid and a more efficient use of renewable energies. However, wide implementation of smart charging requires further work on technical and regulatory issues and further development of standards, especially an end-to-end consistency of the control signals. A fully automated process, as well as customisable services and flexible tariffs, would also facilitate wider market penetration. The novelty of this paper is the consensus of German pilot projects funded within the German programme “Elektro-Mobil” on the communication channel between all stakeholders for the use cases of smart charging based on market price incentives. Within this consensus, the projects have illustrated how specific standards can facilitate the communication between smart charging stakeholders, become a reality in the pilot projects and should be applied to further use cases in the low-voltage network. This consensus results in a white paper. On this basis, the adjustment of the standards can be made to ensure the consistency of the control signals from the beginning of the control process up to the end. In an advanced Edition, solutions for the prioritisation and orchestration of the different control signals could be designed. Full article

Battery pack specific energy, which can be enhanced by minimising the mass of the battery thermal management system (BTMS), is a limit on electric fixed-wing flight applications. In this paper, the use of phase-change materials (PCMs) for BTMSs is numerically explored in the 3D domain, including an equivalent circuit battery model. A parametric study of PCM properties for effective thermal management is conducted for a typical one-hour flight. PCMs maintain an ideal operating temperature (288.15 K–308.15 K) throughout the entire battery pack. The PCM absorbs heat generated during takeoff, which is subsequently used to maintain cell temperature during the cruise phase of flight. In the control case (no BTMS), battery pack temperatures fall below the ideal operating range. We conduct a parametric study highlighting the insignificance of PCM thermal conductivity on BTMS performance, with negligible enhancement observed across the tested window (0.1–10 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹). However, the PCM’s latent heat of fusion is critical. Developers of PCMs for battery-powered flight must focus on enhanced latent heat of fusion, regardless of the adverse effect on thermal conductivity. In long-haul flight, an elongated cruise phase and higher altitude exasperate this problem. The unique characteristics of PCM offer a passive low-mass solution that merits further investigation for flight applications. Full article

As the bottom layer of the autonomous vehicle, path tracking control is a crucial element that provides accurate control command to the X-by-wire chassis and guarantees the vehicle safety. To overcome the deterioration of control performance for autonomous vehicle path-tracking controllers caused by modeling errors and parameter perturbation, an adaptive robust control framework is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the 2-DOF vehicle dynamic model is established and the non-singular fast terminal sliding mode control algorithm is adopted to formulate the control law. The unmeasured model disturbance and parameter perturbation is regarded as the system uncertainty. To enhance the control accuracy, the radial basis forward neural network is introduced to estimate such uncertainty in real time. Then, the dynamic model of an active front steering system is established. The model reference control algorithm is applied for the steering torque control considering model uncertainty brought by the dissipation of manufacturing and mechanical wear. Finally, the Simulink–CarSim co-simulation platform is used and the proposed control framework is validated in two test scenarios. The simulation results demonstrate the proposed adaptive robust control algorithm has satisfactory control performance and good robustness against the system uncertainty. Full article

If the energy transfer for charging the traction battery of an electric vehicle takes place wirelessly and with inductive components, the active area of the charging system must be monitored for safety reasons for the presence or intrusion of metallic objects that do not belong to the charging system. In the past, different concepts for such monitoring have been described. In this paper, passive inductive sensors are used and characterized based on practical measurements. With this type of sensor, the detectability of metallic foreign objects is very closely related to the characteristics of the magnetic field of the charging system. By optimizing the geometry of the sensor coils, the authors show how foreign object detection can be improved even in areas with low excitation of the foreign objects and the sensor coils by the magnetic field. For this purpose, a charging system, with which charging powers of up to 10 kW have been realized in the past, and standardized test objects are used. Furthermore, the thermal behavior of the metallic test objects was documented, which in some cases heated up to about 300 °C and above in a few minutes in the magnetic field of the charging system. The results show the capability of passive inductive sensors to detect metallic foreign objects. Based on the measurements shown here, the next step will be to simulate the charging system and the foreign object detection in order to establish the basis for a virtual development and validation of such systems. Full article

Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), consisting of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), combined with the decarbonization of the electricity sector, can significantly help reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector. This study used empirical data from 287 households with at least one plug-in electric vehicle in California between 2016 and 2020. We estimated electric vehicle miles traveled (eVMT), fuel consumption and utility factor at the household level, i.e., taking into consideration all vehicles. We also studied the effect of household-specific factors—such as frequency of overlaps between vehicles, frequency of charging and frequency of long-distance trips—on eVMT, utility factor and fuel consumption within two-car households. Our results indicate that PHEVs with a range of at least 35 miles have the potential to electrify a similar share of total household miles as some short range BEVs, or can reach up to 70% as much electrification as some long range BEVs and, thus, can play an important role in decarbonizing the transport sector. Full article

Electric vehicles rely on public fast charging when traveling outside a single charge range. Networks of fast charging hubs are a preferred solution, but should be deployed according to a design that avoids both redundant infrastructure representing overinvestment, and “charging deserts” which limit travel by EVs and thus inhibit EV adoption. We present a two-stage design strategy for a network of charging hubs relying on common public data including maps of roadways and electrical systems, and ubiquitous and readily accessible daily traffic volume data. First, the network design is based on the electrical distribution system, roadways, and a target inter-hub driving distance. Second, the number of fast chargers necessary at each hub to support expected vehicle kilometers is determined such that queuing to charge is infrequent. A case study to prepare Nova Scotia, Canada for the 2030 electric fleet of 15% of vehicles results in a network design with an average hub catchment area of 1230 km² and 354 electric vehicles per fast charger, and ensures that they are equitably distributed and can enable travel by EV throughout the jurisdiction. Full article

Electric road systems (ERS)—infrastructure that allows for charging while driving—are currently considered in Sweden for electrifying long-haul trucking. The technology can also charge battery electric passenger vehicles (BEVs). This study utilizes real-world car movement data in Sweden and detailed spatial analysis to explore to what extent ERS could displace stationary charging if it is available for BEVs and the expected benefits. We find that ERS utilization and the minimum battery ranges depend more on visited locations and home locations and less on the annual travel distances of car users. The median battery ranges required by rural residents are 15–18% greater than for urban residents. Our scenarios suggest that a mix of ERS and home-charging would achieve the most significant benefits. ERS with home charging reduces the required battery range by 62–71% in the main scenarios, and the net savings from smaller BEV batteries exceed the cost of ERS. Eliminating all stationary charging is feasible for many but not all vehicles. Utilizing ERS could also significantly reduce peak BEV charging by distributing charging throughout the day. We also find that there is a considerable difference between the maximum possible and minimum needed charging on ERS, which can significantly influence ERS revenues. Future studies can expand to include other modes (e.g., trucks) to provide more holistic assessments of economic benefits and charging needs. Full article

The Norwegian charging infrastructure ecosystem was investigated from a user perspective by (1) developing knowledge of end-user experiences with public charging, (2) mapping BEV owners and future owner’s user-friendliness needs and the extent to which these needs are met, (3) pointing at potential user-friendliness improvements, (4) mapping the charging infrastructure ecosystem and business models, and (5) developing scenarios for the future system development and the impact on charging infrastructure user-friendliness. The article draws on the literature, a BEV (battery electric vehicle) and ICEV (internal combustion engine vehicle) owner survey, 15 BEV owner interviews, 21 charging infrastructure actor interviews, and open information sources on the charger actors. The unregulated charging system evolved into a complex web of actors that developed their own charging networks following their individually sensible business models, which in sum led to serious user-friendliness issues. To gain access to all chargers, users need to interact with up to 20–30 apps and 13 payment systems, which comes on top of different plug types, power levels, and charger interfaces. Some actors support roaming, while others oppose it. OEMs want users to interface with chargers through the navigation system. In the future, the system will become even more complex and less user friendly as more actors join unless, e.g., consolidation, regulation, or independent network orchestrators reduce the complexity. Full article

The improvement of both the stability and economy of the four in-wheel motor drive (4IWMD) electric vehicle under complex drive cycles is currently a difficult problem in this field. A torque distribution method with the comprehensive goals of optimal torque distribution and energy efficiency, considering economy through energy efficiency for the 4IWMD electric vehicle, is proposed in this paper. Each component of the 4IWMD electric vehicle is modelled. The dynamic programming (DP) control algorithm is utilized for torque distribution between the front and rear in-wheel motors to obtain optimal torque distribution and energy efficiency in the 4IWMD electric vehicle. The simulation is performed on a co-simulation platform with the software of AVL Cruise and MATLAB/Simulink, considering a straight road. Compared to the fuzzy logic control algorithm, the simulation results are very promising, as the energy consumption of the electric vehicle was reduced by 22.68%, 20.73% and 21.84% under the WLTC, NEDC and customized IM240 driving cycle conditions, respectively, with the proposed DP control algorithm. The hardware-in-the loop (HIL) experimental results also indicate that the effectiveness of the proposed DP algorithm is verified under the NEDC, WLTC and IM240 driving cycles, when a straight road is considered. The proposed DP control algorithm not only reduces the vehicle energy consumption and guarantees the optimization of torque distribution, but also increases the driving range of the vehicle. Full article

The uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) may pose a challenge to power distribution networks (PDNs). While smart charging can be deployed to relieve stress on the grid, user-centric smart charging strategies could also exacerbate peak power demand due to synchronization when optimizing charging with regard to different objectives, such as charging costs. In this paper, we assess the charging demand emerging from a large fleet of EVs, with models for the decision to charge and distribution of the steady-state state-of-charge (SoC). These are applied to the municipality of Frederiksberg, Denmark, using data from the Danish national travel survey. Home and workplace charging are mapped to the urban 10 kV medium voltage PDN of Frederiksberg considering different charging behaviors and degrees of synchronization. Results indicate that the likelihood of severe congestion in the power distribution network is low and that it can be attributed to rare scenarios in which high synchronization is observed, particularly when maintaining the normal steady-state demand. Despite the low likelihood, preventive measures should be devised to mitigate such scenarios, especially if additional high-power consumers are connected. Full article

With the development of the global economy, the automobile industry is also developing constantly. In recent years, due to the shortage of environmental energy and other problems, seeking clean energy as the power source of vehicles to replace traditional fossil energy could be one of the measures to reduce environmental pollution. Among them, fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) have been widely studied by researchers for their advantages of high energy efficiency, environmental protection, and long driving range. This paper first introduces the topology of common FCHEVs and then classifies and introduces the latest energy management strategies (EMSs) for FCHEVs. Finally, the future trends of EMSs for FCHEVs are discussed. This paper can be useful in helping researchers better understand the recent research progress of EMSs for FCHEVs. Full article

With an influx of public and private sector investment in the electric vehicle (EV) domain, public agencies and stakeholders need objective, equitable and systematic processes for identifying candidate sites for siting charging stations. This paper reports on a case study examining the Indiana Interstate network using connected vehicle data (CV). The Indiana Interstate network analyzed by this study is composed of 1247 centerline miles along nine routes. Each month, approximately 13 billion CV records representing more than 44 million unique trips are generated along all roads in Indiana. For this study 3.02 billion records comprising 4.78 million trips on and around Indiana Interstates and Exits were analyzed for usage patterns. The CV data was predominantly from internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) passenger cars, but provides insight into exit utilization and dwell times at 544 exits on 9 interstate roadways to evaluate how their current usage would align with building out Indiana’s Alternative Fuel Corridors. A pareto sorted graphic for the top 50 busiest exits in the state shows that all but two are not well served by fast charging infrastructure. The paper suggests this pareto sorted list as a good starting point for further analysis and identified 15 exits on Indiana interstates, if chosen for deploying charging infrastructure, would ensure full compliance. The results provide a systemwide look at present dwell patterns among ICEVs and help identify locations of interest that would most benefit from addition of charging infrastructure as the current fleet of ICEVs gradually transitions to EVs. Full article

Besides the integration of renewable energies, electric vehicles pose an additional challenge to modern power grids. However, electric vehicles can also be a flexibility source and contribute to the power system stability. Today, the power system still heavily relies on conventional technologies to stay stable. In order to operate a future power system based on renewable energies only, we need to understand the flexibility potential of assets such as electric vehicles and become able to use their flexibility. In this paper, we analyzed how vast amounts of coordinated charging processes can be used to provide frequency containment reserve power, one of the most important ancillary services for system stability. Therefore, we used an extensive simulation model of a virtual power plant of millions of electric vehicles. The model considers not only technical components but also the stochastic behavior of electric vehicle drivers based on real data. Our results show that, in 2030, electric vehicles have the potential to serve the whole frequency containment reserve power market in Germany. We differentiate between using unidirectional and bidirectional chargers. Bidirectional chargers have a larger potential but also result in unwanted battery degradation. Unidirectional chargers are more constrained in terms of flexibility, but do not lead to additional battery degradation. We conclude that using a mix of both can combine the advantages of both worlds. Thereby, average private cars can provide the service without any notable additional battery degradation and achieve yearly earnings between EUR 200 and EUR 500, depending on the volatile market prices. Commercial vehicles have an even higher potential, as the results increase with vehicle utilization and consumption. Full article

The electrification of the transport sector is of crucial importance for a successful transition to a fossil-free society. However, the electricity grid constitutes a bottleneck. This article provides a case study based on a real-world parking garage with a smart grid infrastructure, called Dansmästaren. The analysis shows how renewable energy sources, energy storage technologies, and smart charging of electric vehicles can smooth out the load curve of the parking garage and relieve the electric grid during peak hours. Dansmästaren is located in Uppsala, Sweden, and equipped with 60 charging points for electric vehicles, a PV system, and a battery storage system. The study utilizes an energy flow model to show the potential of a realistically dimensioned smart energy system, that can benefit the parking facility in itself and the local distribution grid in a city, Uppsala, with grid capacity challenges. The results suggest that the parking garage demand on the local grid can be significantly lowered by smarter control of its relatively small battery energy storage. Moreover, further smart control strategies can decrease demand up to 60% during high load hours while still guaranteeing fully charged vehicles at departure in near future scenarios. The study also shows that peak shaving strategies can lower the maximum peaks by up to 79%. A better understanding of the potential of public infrastructures for electric vehicle charging helps to increase knowledge on how they can contribute to more sustainable cities and a fossil-free society. Full article

Cutting greenhouse gas emissions to comply with the Paris Agreement is challenging for road freight. While heavy-duty battery-electric trucks (BET) promise tremendous and immediate reduction potential, literature increasingly confirms technical feasibility in general, and several manufacturers launched BET models. However, their real-world application is still being questioned by fleet owners due to the limited range or payload penalties. Thus, our case study aims to assess the technical feasibility of urban and regional delivery in Germany based on real-world and per-vehicle operational data that feed into an energy simulation with Monte-Carlo modeling. Our results demonstrate the importance of vehicle-specific examination for the right battery capacity that ideally matches the vehicle’s operating profile. We find that full electrification may be most accessible for 18-t and 26-t rigid solo trucks, soon followed by tractor-trailers, while truck-trailers turn out as most challenging. With up to 600 kWh battery capacity available in all truck classes, we find nearly 40% of all transport performance and 60% of all diesel trucks may be replaced with BET—while already 400 kWh is sufficient for half of all trucks. Additional measures such as intermediate charging and adjusted and more flexible truck-tour allocation may significantly accelerate electrification. Full article

One of the biggest problems associated with vehicles that use internal combustion engines is that they cause elevated levels of pollution in the places they travel through, especially if they cause congestion. However, it is not only the level, but also probably the concentration of gases emitted by internal combustion engines in the places where they move around that is particularly lethal. Can the road transport sector’s electrification mitigate premature deaths from outdoor air pollution? Our main hypothesis is that replacing internal combustion engine vehicles with electrical ones contributes to mitigating people’s exposure to high concentrations of air pollution. To answer the research question, a panel of 29 European countries, from 2010 to 2020, using the method of moments quantile regression and ordinary least squares, was examined. Results support the concept that economic growth, renewable energy consumption, and electric vehicles in all quantiles have a negative impact on premature mortality due to air pollution. These impacts are higher on premature mortality in lower quantiles, but gradually decrease with increasing quantile levels. The results also reveal that methane emissions, in all quantiles except 10th, have a negative effect on premature mortality. Nitrous oxide emissions positively impact premature mortality in all quantiles except the 10th, and this impact increases at high quantiles. Fine particulate matter positively impacts premature mortality in all quantiles, with the same at all levels. The ordinary least squares, used as a robustness check, confirm that economic growth, renewable energy consumption, and methane emissions have reduced impacts on premature mortality due to outdoor air pollution. However, nitrous oxide emissions and fine particulate matter increase premature mortality. These results reinforce the importance of policymakers implementing policies for road electrification. Full article

In this paper we investigate differences between groups of Norwegian electric vehicle owners, sorted by their adoption level. The grouping is based on adoption theory and the share of battery electric vehicles in new car sales numbers. We investigate Norwegian adopters’ preferences, values, and motivations for choosing a battery electric vehicle. The main data source is a yearly survey between 2015 and 2020 amongst Norwegian electric vehicle drivers. The motivation of the study is to reveal different choices by the adopter groups, contributing to policy recommendations and incentives for other countries. However, the Norwegian case might be a special one, having economic advantages which many other countries do not have access to. We assess the validity of the results and policy recommendations by analysing the results of a survey amongst the Nordic countries on investment choices concerning battery electric vehicles. Full article

E-mobility is a key element in the future energy systems. The capabilities of EVs are many and vary since they can provide valuable system flexibility services, including management of congestion in transmission grids. According to the literature, leaving the charging process uncontrolled could hinder some of the present challenges in the power system. The development of a suitable charging management system is required to address different stakeholders’ needs in the electro-mobility value chain. This paper focuses on the design of such a system, the TwinEV module, that offers high-value services to electric vehicles (EV) users. This module is based on a Smart Charging Tool (SCT), aiming to deliver a more user-central and cooperative approach to the EV charging processes. The methodology of the SCT tool, as well as the supportive optimization algorithm, are explained thoroughly. The architecture and the web applications of TwinEV module are analyzed. Finally, the deployment and testing results are presented. Full article

The energy consumption of passenger vehicles is affected by the physical properties of the environment. The ambient temperature in particular has a significant impact on the operating energy consumption. To quantify the impact of a changed climate on vehicles with different drivetrain systems, we set up a model that calculates the change in energy demand with respect to multiple global warming levels. In particular, the effect of rising temperatures on the energy consumption of battery electric vehicles and vehicles with internal combustion engines was investigated. Our results indicate that climate change will likely lead to a rise in energy consumption of vehicles with an internal combustion engine. This is mostly due to the increase in cabin climatization needs caused by the higher ambient temperatures. At a global warming level (GWL) of 4.0 °C, the calculated annual energy consumption on average is 2.1% higher than without taking the climate-change-related changes in temperature into account. Battery electric vehicles, on the other hand, are expected to have a lower overall energy consumption (up to −2.4% at 4 °C GWL) in cold and moderate climate zones. They benefit from the lower heating needs during winter caused by global warming. Full article

Freight transport accounts for about half of all distances travelled in Europe. Therefore, freight transport is one of the decisive factors for reducing greenhouse gases and air pollutants. For this reason, the electrification of road freight transport is being promoted as part of the project “BEV Goes eHighway—[BEE]”. The data basis for the modelling used in this project is an electric drive axle for a heavy commercial vehicle, which was developed in the “Concept-ELV²” project. Based on the results of the previous project, the methodological tools that were developed are presented in this paper. These allow a wide range of possible powertrain topologies to be considered at the concept stage of development based on an estimation of future system characteristics. For this purpose, the components are automatically designed taking into account the mutual influence of the requirements and are evaluated in the context of the holistic system. This publication focuses on the efficiency and thermal evaluation of the transmission stages of the addressed electric drive units and validates the developed models using a pototypically designed electric commercial vehicle axle. Full article

The energy transition, a process in which fossil fuels are being replaced by cleaner sources of energy, comes with many challenges. The intrinsic uncertainty associated with renewable energy sources has led to a search for complementary technologies to tackle those issues. In recent years, the use of electric vehicles (EVs) has been studied as an alternative for storage, leading to a much more complex market structure. Small participants are now willing to provide energy, helping to keep the desired balance of supply and demand. In this paper, we analyse the electricity spot market, providing a model where EVs decide to participate depending on the underlying conditions. We study pricing rules adapted from versions currently in use in electricity markets, and focus on two of them for our experimental settings: integer programming (IP) and extended locational marginal (ELM) pricing. We particularly pay attention to the properties those prices might satisfy, and numerically test them under some scenarios representing different levels of participation of EVs and an active demand side. Our results suggest that IP pricing generally derives larger individual uplift payments and further produces public prices that are not well aligned with the final payments of market participants, leading to distortions in the market. Full article

It is expected that more vehicles will be electrified in the coming years. This will require reliable access to charging infrastructure in society, and the charging will include data exchange between different actors. The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of recent scientific literature on different charging strategies, including for example battery swapping, conductive- and inductive charging, and what data that may be needed for charging of different types of electric vehicles. The methodology of the paper includes investigating recent scientific literature and reports in the field, with articles from 2019 to 2022. The contribution of this paper is to provide a broad overview of different charging strategies for different types of electric vehicles, that could be useful today or in the coming years. The literature review shows that data utilized for charging or discharging includes for example information on the battery, temperature, electricity cost, and location. It is concluded that the preferred charging strategy for an electric vehicle may depend on the type of electric vehicle and when, where, and how the vehicle is used. Full article

In this paper, an analogous study of the velocity and temperature profiles inside microchannel cooling plates (with hydraulic diameter of 6 mm), placed on a large pouch-type LiFePO₄ battery, is presented using both the laboratory and simulation techniques. For this, we used reverse engineering (RE), computed tomography (CT) scanning, Detroit Engineering Products (DEP) MeshWorks 8.0 for surface meshing of the cold plate, and STAR CCM+ for steady-state simulation. The numerical study was conducted for 20 A (1C) and 40 A (2C) and different operating temperatures. For experimental work, three heat flux sensors were used and were intentionally pasted at distributed locations, out of which one was situated near the negative tab (anode) and the other was near the positive tab (cathode), because the heat production is high near electrodes and the one near the mid body. Moreover, the realizable k-ε turbulence model in STAR CCM+ is used for simulation of the stream in a microchannel cooling plate, and the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations under constant current (CC) discharge load cases are studied. Later, the validation is conducted with the lab data to ensure sufficient cooling occurs for the required range of temperature. The outcome of this research work shows that as C-rates and ambient temperature increase, the temperature contours of the cooling plates also increase. Full article

This paper investigates and compares the torque-generating capabilities and electromagnetic performance of advanced non-overlapping winding induction machines (AIM), conventional induction machines (CIM), and interior-permanent magnet (IPM) machines for electric vehicle (EV) applications. All investigated machines are designed based on the specifications of the Toyota Prius 2010 IPM machine. The steady-state and flux-weakening performance characteristics are calculated by employing the 2D finite element method and MatLab, and the obtained results are quantitatively compared. Furthermore, the torque-generating capabilities of three machines are investigated for different electric loadings, and the machine having the highest torque-generating capability is determined as AIM. Moreover, the major parameters affecting the torque-generating capability, such as magnetic saturation and magnet demagnetization, are examined in depth. Full article

The rise in electric vehicle uptake has reshaped the German mobility landscape at unprecedented speed and scale. While public charging is pivotal to growing the electric vehicle market, municipalities can play a crucial role in accelerating the energy transition in transport. This research aims to assist municipalities in planning their strategic rollouts of public charging infrastructure in size and location. In the first step, charging demand is estimated based on four development scenarios in 2030 of EV adoption and public charging. In a second step, a geospatial analysis was performed on the study area. Supply and demand criteria were considered to reflect the attractiveness of each location on a grid map. While the supply criteria represent constraints related to infrastructure availability, the demand criteria are categorized into three dimensions: residential, commercial, and leisure. The prioritization of demand criteria was derived from the municipality’s input using the analytical hierarchy process method to reflect its strategy. After obtaining the suitability index map, a cluster analysis was performed using a k-means clustering algorithm to ensure adequate geographical coverage of the charging network. Finally, the proposed charging stations in each scenario were allocated to the top-scoring locations, establishing a municipal public charging network. Full article

Charging of electric vehicles may cause stress on the electricity grid. Grid planners need clarity regarding likely grid loading when creating extensions. In this paper, we analyse the simultaneity factor (SF) or peak power of public electric vehicle charging stations with different recharging strategies. This contribution is the first of its kind in terms of data quantity and, therefore, representativeness. We found that the choice of charging strategy had a massive impact on the electricity grid. The current “naive” charging strategy of plugging in at full power and recharging until the battery is full cause limited stress. Price-optimised recharging strategies, in turn, create high power peaks. The SFs varied by strategy, particularly when using several connectors at once. Compared to the SF of a single connector in naive charging, the SF decreased by approximately 50% for groups of 10 connectors. For a set of 1000 connectors, the SF was between 10% and 20%. Price-optimised strategies showed a much slower decay where, in some cases, groups of 10 connectors still had an SF of 100%. For sets of 1000 connectors, the SF of price-optimised strategies was twice that of the naive strategy. Overall, we found that price optimisation did not reduce electricity purchase costs by much, especially compared to peak-related network expansion costs. Full article

To achieve sustainable development in the road sector, the use of Electric Vehicles (EVs) appears as a positive response to transport emissions. Among the available technologies, dynamic charging seems to overcome the main weakness points of EVs, even if it requires that traditional roads (t-roads) be equipped with a system providing electricity for EVs. Thus, so-called electrified roads (e-roads) must be implemented into the urban road networks. Since it is not possible to electrify all roads simultaneously, and also to consider the demand needs of citizens, a selection criterion is essential. This research describes and develops a simple, self-explanatory, repeatable, and adaptable selection criterion aimed at helping city managers in prioritizing the roads of an urban network to be upgraded from t-road to e-road status. This method belongs to the so-called Multicriteria Spatial Decision Support Systems (MC-SDSS)—processes useful for solving spatial problems through the integration of multicriteria analysis (Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process, F-AHP) with a geo-referenced data management and analysis tool (GIS). The developed algorithm is based on several criteria related to the infrastructure/transport, social and environmental areas. The result of the implemented method is a Feasibility Index (FI), able to prioritize the roads most eligible to be upgraded as e-roads, as also verified by its application on the urban area of Milan (Italy). Full article

The emerging popularity of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) is creating new connections between the transportation and electric sectors, and PEV charging will bring new opportunities and challenges to a system of growing complexity. The electrification of transport will increase energy security, reduce carbon emissions, and improve local air quality. The actual expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) will depend on several factors: the evolution of autonomy, the acquisition price, the charging process and infrastructure, etc. This paper provides a guide for simulating the accumulative load profile for EV charging on a national level. The importance of all the parameters and variables involved (deterministic or stochastic) is investigated. Detailed tables and references concerning the distribution of values and the composition of the EV fleet are provided. A multivariate probabilistic model is developed considering the EV classes, weekly and seasonal driving patterns, charging strategies, battery capacities, consumption per EV, etc., leading to an accurate estimation of aggregated EV charging demand. Finally, a net-metering scheme is proposed, in which a photovoltaic (PV) system of a certain size will be able to provide the annual energy needs of the first 10,000 EVs in the Greek market. Full article