Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Order results
Result details
Results per page
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
16 pages, 6399 KiB  
Article
Combined Electromagnetic and Mechanical Design Optimization of Interior Permanent Magnet Rotors for Electric Vehicle Drivetrains
by Guanhua Zhang and Geraint Wyn Jewell
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15010004 (registering DOI) - 21 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1144
Abstract
In many high-speed electrical machines, centrifugal forces within the rotor can be first-order constraints on electromagnetic optimization. This can be particularly acute in interior permanent magnet (IPM) machines in which magnets are usually retained entirely by the rotor core with no additional mechanical [...] Read more.
In many high-speed electrical machines, centrifugal forces within the rotor can be first-order constraints on electromagnetic optimization. This can be particularly acute in interior permanent magnet (IPM) machines in which magnets are usually retained entirely by the rotor core with no additional mechanical containment. This study investigates the nature of the trade-off between mechanical and electromagnetic requirements within the context of an eight-pole, 100 kW IPM machine with a base speed of 4000 rpm and an extended speed range up to 12,000 rpm. A series of mechanical and electromagnetic models are used to estimate the level of shaft interference, mechanical stress in critical regions of the rotor and the impact of various features and dimensions within the machine on electromagnetic torque. A systematic exploration of the design space is undertaken for rotor diameters from 120 mm to 180 mm, with optimal designs in terms of torque per unit length established at each diameter while meeting the constraints imposed on mechanical stress. The final preferred design has a rotor of 165 mm and an axial length of 103 mm long with a fractional slot winding in a 30-slot stator. The overall machine has an active mass of 42.3 kg, which corresponds to ~2.4 kW/kg. This paper describes the optimization study in detail and draws on the results to explore the nature of the design trade-offs in such rotors and the impact of core properties. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 470 KiB  
Article
Cost Minimization for Charging Electric Bus Fleets
by Daniel Mortensen, Jacob Gunther, Greg Droge and Justin Whitaker
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120351 - 16 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1181
Abstract
Recent attention for reduced carbon emissions has pushed transit authorities to adopt battery electric buses (BEBs). One challenge experienced by BEB users is extended charge times, which create logistical challenges and may force BEBs to charge when energy is more expensive. Furthermore, BEB [...] Read more.
Recent attention for reduced carbon emissions has pushed transit authorities to adopt battery electric buses (BEBs). One challenge experienced by BEB users is extended charge times, which create logistical challenges and may force BEBs to charge when energy is more expensive. Furthermore, BEB charging leads to high power demands, which can significantly increase monthly power costs and may push the electrical infrastructure beyond its present capacity, requiring expensive upgrades. This work presents a novel method for minimizing the monthly cost of BEB charging while meeting bus route constraints. This method extends previous work by incorporating a more novel cost model, effects from uncontrolled loads, differences between daytime and overnight charging, and variable rate charging. A graph-based network-flow framework, represented by a mixed-integer linear program, encodes the charging action space, physical bus constraints, and battery state of the charge dynamics. The results for three scenarios are considered: uncontested charging, which uses equal numbers of buses and chargers; contested charging, which has more buses than chargers; and variable charge rates. Among other findings, we show that BEBs can be added to the fleet without raising the peak power demand for only the cost of the energy, suggesting that conversion to electrified transit is possible without upgrading power delivery infrastructure. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 6738 KiB  
Article
A Methodology for Applying Skew in an Automotive Interior Permanent Magnet Rotor for Robust Electromagnetic and Noise, Vibration and Harshness Performance
by Thomas Cawkwell, Ahmed Haris, Juan Manuel Gonzalez, Leon Kevin Rodrigues and Vladimir Shirokov
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120350 - 15 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1399
Abstract
Interior permanent magnet (IPM) motors in traction applications often employ discrete rotor skewing constructions to reduce torsional excitations and back-EMF harmonics. Although skewing is very effective in reducing cogging torque, the impact on torque ripple is not well understood and can vary significantly [...] Read more.
Interior permanent magnet (IPM) motors in traction applications often employ discrete rotor skewing constructions to reduce torsional excitations and back-EMF harmonics. Although skewing is very effective in reducing cogging torque, the impact on torque ripple is not well understood and can vary significantly over the operating envelope of a motor. Skewing also leads to the creation of a non-zero axial force that may compromise the bearing life if not considered. This paper introduces a holistic methodology for analyzing the effect of skewing, aiming to minimize torsional excitations, axial forces and back-EMF harmonics whilst mitigating the impact on performance and costs. Firstly, analytical models are employed for calculating cogging torque, torque ripple and axial forces. Then, 2D and 3D finite element analysis are used to incorporate the influence of non-linear material behavior. A detailed structural model of the powertrain is employed to calculate the radiated noise and identify key areas allowing a motor designer to reduce noise, vibration and harshness (NVH). A meticulous selection process for the skewing angle, the number of skew stacks and the orientation of skew stacks is developed, giving particular attention to the effect of the selected pattern on NVH in both forward and reverse rotating directions. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3206 KiB  
Article
Investigating Investment Plans for Expanding Battery and Electric Vehicle Production in Europe
by Hong Yang and Lewis Fulton
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120347 - 14 Dec 2023
Viewed by 3322
Abstract
There has been significant EV sales growth in Europe, benefiting from its policies for promoting electric vehicles (EVs) and investments in manufacturing. This study investigates the investment announcements for EV and battery production announced by manufacturers and compares them to four scenarios with [...] Read more.
There has been significant EV sales growth in Europe, benefiting from its policies for promoting electric vehicles (EVs) and investments in manufacturing. This study investigates the investment announcements for EV and battery production announced by manufacturers and compares them to four scenarios with different EV penetration levels in Europe. This study projects the required capacities and estimates the investment needs to meet different EV sale targets in each scenario. The investigations show that, for Europe to achieve 60% new EV sales by 2030 and to be on track for 100% by 2035, its 4.8 million planned production capacity of EVs would fall short of the needed 9.2 million in 2030. The gap could close to 2.0 million when tentative announcements are counted. The results for batteries indicate that tentative plans are adequate and firm plans can satisfy most scenarios by 2030. More investments into EV production, along with policy support and incentives, are needed for more rapid scenarios. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 4003 KiB  
Article
Public Perception of the Introduction of Autonomous Vehicles
by Abdulaziz Aldakkhelallah, Abdulrahman S. Alamri, Stelios Georgiou and Milan Simic
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120345 - 12 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1550
Abstract
Autonomous vehicles (AVs) will transform transport, but public opinion will play a key role in decisions on how widely and quickly they are adopted. The purpose of the study presented here was to investigate community’s views on that transition. As a method for [...] Read more.
Autonomous vehicles (AVs) will transform transport, but public opinion will play a key role in decisions on how widely and quickly they are adopted. The purpose of the study presented here was to investigate community’s views on that transition. As a method for primary data collection on public awareness, attitudes, and readiness to use autonomous cars, survey was conducted in Saudi Arabia. Following that, we used statistical tools to analyse responses. Our findings indicate that the participants are largely receptive to using new technologies and had favourable attitudes towards the transition. Ordinal logistic regression model showed a wide variation in public opinion regarding the expected benefits that may accompany the transition. Our findings reveal that awareness of AVs’ benefits is positively correlated with the age of participants. Perceived costs on one side, and convenience and safety on the other, were found to have had a substantial impact on the opinions of the participants. Investigation presented here shows a sample of the public’s perception of AVs in Saudi Arabia. This can guide the development of AVs and their deployment in that region as well as worldwide. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1362 KiB  
Article
Incremental Profitability Evaluation of Vehicle-to-Grid-Enabled Automated Frequency Restoration Reserve Services for Semi-Public Charging Infrastructure: A Case Study in Belgium
by Andrei Goncearuc, Nikolaos Sapountzoglou, Cedric De Cauwer, Thierry Coosemans, Maarten Messagie and Thomas Crispeels
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120339 - 06 Dec 2023
Viewed by 2548
Abstract
The current paper defines a framework for the introduction of automated frequency restoration reserve services, enabled by vehicle-to-grid technology, into the business model of an entity owning and operating a network of semi-public Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment. It assesses the profitability of this [...] Read more.
The current paper defines a framework for the introduction of automated frequency restoration reserve services, enabled by vehicle-to-grid technology, into the business model of an entity owning and operating a network of semi-public Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment. It assesses the profitability of this introduction by performing a case study based on the real-life electric vehicle charging data from the EVSE network located in a hospital parking lot. From the results of the study, it is clearly visible that the introduction of vehicle-to-grid-enabled automated frequency restoration reserve services has a significant positive incremental profitability; however, this is heavily dependent on the plug-in ratio of the charging network, determined by electric vehicle users’ behavior. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 4696 KiB  
Article
PerfECT Design Tool: Electric Vehicle Modelling and Experimental Validation
by Henrique de Carvalho Pinheiro
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120337 - 05 Dec 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1720
Abstract
This article addresses a common issue in the design of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) by introducing a comprehensive methodology for the modeling and simulation of BEVs, referred to as the “PerfECT Design Tool”. The primary objective of this study is to provide engineers [...] Read more.
This article addresses a common issue in the design of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) by introducing a comprehensive methodology for the modeling and simulation of BEVs, referred to as the “PerfECT Design Tool”. The primary objective of this study is to provide engineers and researchers with a robust and streamlined approach for the early stages of electric vehicle (EV) design, offering valuable insights into the performance, energy consumption, current flow, and thermal behavior of these advanced automotive systems. Recognizing the complex nature of contemporary EVs, the study highlights the need for efficient design tools that facilitate decision-making during the conceptual phases of development. The PerfECT Design Tool is presented as a multi-level framework, divided into four logically sequential modules: Performance, Energy, Currents, and Temperature. These modules are underpinned by sound theoretical foundations and are implemented using a combination of MATLAB/Simulink and the vehicle dynamics software VI-CRT. The research culminates in the validation of the model through a series of experimental maneuvers conducted with a Tesla Model 3, establishing its accuracy in representing the mechanical, electrical, and thermal behavior of BEVs. The study’s main findings underscore the viability of the design tool as an asset in the initial phases of BEV design. Beyond its primary application, the tool holds promise for broader utilization, including the development of active control systems, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), and solutions for autonomous driving within the domain of electric vehicles. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5020 KiB  
Article
A System for the Efficient Charging of EV Fleets
by Tobias Fleck, Sascha Gohlke and Zoltan Nochta
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120335 - 02 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1513
Abstract
Smart charging is a means of monitoring and actively controlling EV chargers to optimize the distribution and consumption of energy with a focus on peak-load avoidance. This paper describes the most important requirements that have influenced the design and implementation of the “Smart [...] Read more.
Smart charging is a means of monitoring and actively controlling EV chargers to optimize the distribution and consumption of energy with a focus on peak-load avoidance. This paper describes the most important requirements that have influenced the design and implementation of the “Smart Charging System” (SCS). It presents the architecture and main functional building blocks of the SCS, which have been realized in an iterative development process as an extension component of the already existing open-source solution “Open e-Mobility”. We also provide details on the functionality of the core smart charging algorithm within SCS and show how various data sources can be utilized by the system to increase the safety and efficiency of EV charging processes. Furthermore, we describe our iterative approach to developing the system, introduce the real-world testbed at SAP Labs France in Mougins/France, and share evaluation results and experiences gathered over a three-year period. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

33 pages, 3019 KiB  
Review
Review of Management System and State-of-Charge Estimation Methods for Electric Vehicles
by Jigar Sarda, Hirva Patel, Yashvi Popat, Kueh Lee Hui and Mangal Sain
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120325 - 27 Nov 2023
Viewed by 2082
Abstract
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are critically important for the future of electric vehicles. Due to the shifting global environment for electrical distribution and consumption, energy storage systems (ESS) are amongst the electrical power system solutions with the fastest growing market share. Any ESS [...] Read more.
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are critically important for the future of electric vehicles. Due to the shifting global environment for electrical distribution and consumption, energy storage systems (ESS) are amongst the electrical power system solutions with the fastest growing market share. Any ESS must have the capacity to regulate the modules from the system in the case of abnormal situations as well as the ability to monitor, control, and maximize the performance of one or more battery modules. Such a system is known as a battery management system (BMS). One parameter that is included in the BMS is the state-of-charge (SOC) of the battery. The BMS is used to enhance battery performance while including the necessary safety measures in the system. SOC estimation is a key BMS feature, and precise modelling and state estimation will improve stable operation. This review discusses the current methods used in BEV LIB SOC modelling and estimation. It also efficiently monitors all of the electrical characteristics of a battery-pack system, including the voltage, current, and temperature. The main function of a BMS is to safeguard a battery system for machine electrification and electric propulsion. The major responsibility of the BMS is to guarantee the trustworthiness and safety of the battery cells coupled to create high currents at high voltage levels. This article examines the advancements and difficulties in (i) cutting-edge battery technology and (ii) cutting-edge BMS for electric vehicles (EVs). This article’s main goal is to outline the key characteristics, benefits and drawbacks, and recent technological developments in SOC estimation methods for a battery. The study follows the pertinent industry standards and addresses the functional safety component that concerns BMS. This information and knowledge will be valuable for vehicle manufacturers in the future development of new SOC methods or an improvement in existing ones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Control and Simulation of Electrified Vehicles)
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 1833 KiB  
Systematic Review
Managing Transitions to Autonomous and Electric Vehicles: Scientometric and Bibliometric Review
by Milan Todorovic, Abdulaziz Aldakkhelallah and Milan Simic
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110314 - 20 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1427
Abstract
This paper presents a scientometric and bibliometric literature review of the research on transitions to autonomous and electric vehicles. We discuss the main characteristics, evolution, and various transitional issues, identifying potential trends for future research. The Scopus and WoS search for relevant research [...] Read more.
This paper presents a scientometric and bibliometric literature review of the research on transitions to autonomous and electric vehicles. We discuss the main characteristics, evolution, and various transitional issues, identifying potential trends for future research. The Scopus and WoS search for relevant research articles generated a corpus of 4693 articles, which we analyzed using VOSviewer visualization software. This result shows that the transition research is interdisciplinary, with 54 scientific areas identified. Analysis requires an understanding of the broader aspects of the automotive industry, trends related to sustainability, environment protection, road safety, public policies, market factors and other business, and legal and management issues. This study highlights the need for more research to address the challenges of this global transition in the automotive industry. Topics for future research are constant improvements in AI algorithms used in AVs, innovations in green energy sources, and storage solutions for EVs. This is leading to new innovative business models and platforms. Further to that, the conclusion is that the impact of the transition to a shared economy, the emergency of mobility as a service, and public acceptance of the technology have to be comprehensively considered. The vehicle of the future is seen as a smart electric car, running on green energy, and utilizing various levels of automation up to full autonomy. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2771 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Voltage Stability in Distribution Networks via Metaheuristic Algorithm-Driven Reactive Power Compensation from MDHD EVs
by Chen Zhang, Kourosh Sedghisigarchi, Rachel Sheinberg, Shashank Narayana Gowda and Rajit Gadh
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110310 - 15 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1493
Abstract
The deployment of medium-duty and heavy-duty (MDHD) electric vehicles (EVs), characterized by their substantial battery capacity and high charging power demand, poses a potential threat to voltage stability within distribution networks. One possible solution to voltage instability is reactive power compensation from charging [...] Read more.
The deployment of medium-duty and heavy-duty (MDHD) electric vehicles (EVs), characterized by their substantial battery capacity and high charging power demand, poses a potential threat to voltage stability within distribution networks. One possible solution to voltage instability is reactive power compensation from charging MDHD EVs. However, this process must be carefully facilitated in order to be effective. This paper introduces an innovative distribution network voltage stability solution by first identifying the network’s weakest buses and then utilizing a metaheuristic algorithm to schedule reactive power compensation from MDHD EVs. In the paper, multiple metaheuristic algorithms, including genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, moth flame optimization, salp swarm algorithms, whale optimization, and grey wolf optimization, are subjected to rigorous evaluation concerning their efficacy in terms of voltage stability improvement, power loss reduction, and computational efficiency. The proposed methodology optimizes power flow with the salp swarm algorithm, which was determined to be the most effective tool, to mitigate voltage fluctuations and enhance overall stability. The simulation results, conducted on a modified IEEE 33 bus distribution system, convincingly demonstrate the algorithm’s efficacy in augmenting voltage stability and curtailing power losses, supporting the reliable and efficient integration of MDHD EVs into distribution networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles and Smart Grid Interaction)
Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 3463 KiB  
Article
Modular and Scalable Powertrain for Multipurpose Light Electric Vehicles
by Mehrnaz Farzam Far, Damijan Miljavec, Roman Manko, Jenni Pippuri-Mäkeläinen, Mikaela Ranta, Janne Keränen, Jutta Kinder and Mario Vukotić
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110309 - 11 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1543
Abstract
Light electric vehicles are best suited for city and suburban settings, where top speed and long-distance travel are not the primary concerns. The literature concerning light electric vehicle powertrain design often overlooks the influence of the associated driving missions. Typically, the powertrain is [...] Read more.
Light electric vehicles are best suited for city and suburban settings, where top speed and long-distance travel are not the primary concerns. The literature concerning light electric vehicle powertrain design often overlooks the influence of the associated driving missions. Typically, the powertrain is initially parameterized, established, and then evaluated with an ex-post-performance assessment using driving cycles. Nevertheless, to optimize the size and performance of a vehicle according to its intended mission, it is essential to consider the driving cycles right from the outset, in the powertrain design. This paper presents the design of an electric powertrain for multipurpose light electric vehicles, focusing on the motor, battery, and charging requirements. The powertrain design optimization is realized from the first stages by considering the vehicle’s driving missions and operational patterns for multipurpose usage (transporting people or goods) in European urban environments. The proposed powertrain is modular and scalable in terms of the energy capacity of the battery as well as in the electric motor shaft power and torque. Having such a possibility gives one the flexibility to use the powertrain in different combinations for different vehicle categories, from L7 quadricycles to light M1 vehicles. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 8018 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Electric Vehicle Charging Usage and Driver Activity
by Justin Anthony Mahlberg, Jairaj Desai and Darcy M. Bullock
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110308 - 08 Nov 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1803
Abstract
As the country moves toward electric vehicles (EV), the United States is in the process of investing over USD 7.5 billion in EV charging stations, and Indiana has been allocated $100 million to invest in their EV charging network. In contrast to traditional [...] Read more.
As the country moves toward electric vehicles (EV), the United States is in the process of investing over USD 7.5 billion in EV charging stations, and Indiana has been allocated $100 million to invest in their EV charging network. In contrast to traditional “gas stations”, EV charging times, depending on the charger power delivery rating, can require considerably longer dwell times. As a result, drivers tend to pair charging with other activities. This study looks at two EV public charging locations and monitors driver activity while charging, charge time, and station utilization over a 2-month period in Lafayette, Indiana. Over 4000 charging sessions at stations with varying power levels (350 kW, 150 kW, and 50 kW) were monitored, and the median charge time was between 28 and 36 min. A large variation in station utilization was observed at Electrify America charging stations that had a range of stations with 350 kW, 150 kW, and 50 kW available. The highest utilization rates by hour of day on average were observed at 25% at the 150 kW Tesla station. Driver activity during charging influenced dwell times, with the average dwell time of drivers who waited in their vehicles to charge being 10 min shorter than those who would travel to the shops. Rain in the forecast also impacted the number of users per day. Although there are no published metrics for EV utilization and associated driver activities, we believe examining this relationship will produce best practices for planning future investments in EV charging infrastructure as public and private sector partners develop a nationwide charging network. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1768 KiB  
Review
A Review of Non-Destructive Techniques for Lithium-Ion Battery Performance Analysis
by Ximena Carolina Acaro Chacón, Stefano Laureti, Marco Ricci and Gregorio Cappuccino
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110305 - 03 Nov 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2375
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries are considered the most suitable option for powering electric vehicles in modern transportation systems due to their high energy density, high energy efficiency, long cycle life, and low weight. Nonetheless, several safety concerns and their tendency to lose charge over time [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries are considered the most suitable option for powering electric vehicles in modern transportation systems due to their high energy density, high energy efficiency, long cycle life, and low weight. Nonetheless, several safety concerns and their tendency to lose charge over time demand methods capable of determining their state of health accurately, as well as estimating a range of relevant parameters in order to ensure their safe and efficient use. In this framework, non-destructive inspection methods play a fundamental role in assessing the condition of lithium-ion batteries, allowing for their thorough examination without causing any damage. This aspect is particularly crucial when batteries are exploited in critical applications and when evaluating the potential second life usage of the cells. This review explores various non-destructive methods for evaluating lithium batteries, i.e., electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, infrared thermography, X-ray computed tomography and ultrasonic testing, considers and compares several aspects such as sensitivity, flexibility, accuracy, complexity, industrial applicability, and cost. Hence, this work aims at providing academic and industrial professionals with a tool for choosing the most appropriate methodology for a given application. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 5936 KiB  
Review
Annotated Survey on the Research Progress within Vehicle-to-Grid Techniques Based on CiteSpace Statistical Result
by Ruifeng Shi, Shuaikang Peng, Tai Chang and Kwang Y. Lee
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110303 - 02 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1823
Abstract
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology has received a lot of attention as a smart interconnection solution between electric vehicles and the grid. This paper analyzes the relevant research progress and hotpots of V2G by using CiteSpace 6.1.R6 software to construct a visualization graph, which includes [...] Read more.
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology has received a lot of attention as a smart interconnection solution between electric vehicles and the grid. This paper analyzes the relevant research progress and hotpots of V2G by using CiteSpace 6.1.R6 software to construct a visualization graph, which includes keyword co-occurrence, clustering, and burstiness, and further systematically summarizes the main trends and key results of V2G research. First, the connection between electric vehicles and the grid is outlined and the potential advantages of V2G technology are emphasized, such as energy management, load balancing, and environmental sustainability. The important topics of V2G, including renewable energy consumption, power dispatch, regulation and optimization of the grid, and the smart grid, are discussed. This paper also emphasizes the positive impacts of V2G technologies on the grid, including reduced carbon emissions, improved grid reliability, and the support for renewable energy integration. Current and future challenges for V2G research, such as standardization, policy support, and business models, are also considered. This review provides a comprehensive perspective for scholars and practitioners in V2G research and contributes to a better understanding of the current status and future trends of V2G technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles and Smart Grid Interaction)
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2135 KiB  
Article
Utility Factor Curves for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Beyond the Standard Assumptions
by Karim Hamza and Kenneth P. Laberteaux
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110301 - 31 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1806
Abstract
The utility factor (UF) of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) refers to the ratio of miles traveled in electric mode to the total miles traveled. Standard UF curves provide a prediction of the expected achievable UF by a PHEV given its all-electric [...] Read more.
The utility factor (UF) of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) refers to the ratio of miles traveled in electric mode to the total miles traveled. Standard UF curves provide a prediction of the expected achievable UF by a PHEV given its all-electric range (AER), but such predictions entail assumptions about both the driving patterns (distance traveled and energy intensity) and charging behavior. Studies have attempted to compare the real-world UF achieved by PHEVs to their standard values, but deviations can stem from deviations in assumptions about: (i) achievable electric range, (ii) travel distance and (iii) charging frequency. In this paper, we derive analytical models for modified utility factor curves as a function of both AER and charging behavior. We show that average charging frequency is insufficient to exactly predict UF but can still estimate bounds. Our generalized model can also provide insights into the efficacy of PHEVs in reducing carbon emissions. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1299 KiB  
Article
Vehicle Dynamics in Electric Cars Development Using MSC Adams and Artificial Neural Network
by Santiago J. Cachumba-Suquillo, Mariel Alfaro-Ponce, Sergio G. Torres-Cedillo, Jacinto Cortés-Pérez and Moises Jimenez-Martinez
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(10), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100293 - 15 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1975
Abstract
Recently, there has been renewed interest in lightweight structures; however, a small structure change can strongly affect vehicle dynamic behavior. Therefore, this study provides new insights into non-parametric modeling based on artificial neural networks (ANNs). This work is then motivated by the requirement [...] Read more.
Recently, there has been renewed interest in lightweight structures; however, a small structure change can strongly affect vehicle dynamic behavior. Therefore, this study provides new insights into non-parametric modeling based on artificial neural networks (ANNs). This work is then motivated by the requirement for a reliable substitute for virtual instrumentation in electric car development to enable the prediction of the current value of the vehicle slip from a given time history of the vehicle (input) and previous values of synthetic data (feedback). The training data are generated from a multi-body simulation using MSC Adams Car; the simulation involves a double lane-change maneuver. This test is commonly used to evaluate vehicle stability. Based on dynamic considerations, this study implements the nonlinear autoregressive exogenous (NARX) identification scheme used in time-series modeling. This work presents an ANN that is able to predict the side slip angle from simulated training data generated employing MSC Adams Car. This work is a specific solution to overtake maneuvers, avoiding the loss of vehicle control and increasing driving safety. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 2907 KiB  
Article
Optimized LiFePO4-Based Cathode Production for Lithium-Ion Batteries through Laser- and Convection-Based Hybrid Drying Process
by Sebastian Wolf, Niklas Schwenzer, Tim Tratz, Vinzenz Göken, Markus Börner, Daniel Neb, Heiner Heimes, Martin Winter and Achim Kampker
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(10), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100281 - 06 Oct 2023
Viewed by 2693
Abstract
The drying of electrodes for lithium-ion batteries is one of the most energy- and cost-intensive process steps in battery production. Laser-based drying processes have emerged as promising candidates for electrode manufacturing due to their direct energy input, spatial homogeneity within the laser spot, [...] Read more.
The drying of electrodes for lithium-ion batteries is one of the most energy- and cost-intensive process steps in battery production. Laser-based drying processes have emerged as promising candidates for electrode manufacturing due to their direct energy input, spatial homogeneity within the laser spot, and rapid controllability. However, it is unclear to what extent electrode and cell quality are affected by higher heating and drying rates. Hybrid systems as a combination of laser- and convection-based drying were investigated in an experimental study with water-processed LFP cathodes. The manufactured electrodes were compared with purely laser-dried and purely convection-dried samples in terms of drying times and quality characteristics. The electrodes were characterized with regard to physical properties like adhesion and electronic conductivity, as well as electrochemical performance using the rate capability. Regarding adhesion and electronic conductivity, the LFP-based cathodes dried in the hybrid-drying process by laser and convection showed similar quality characteristics compared to conventionally dried cathodes, while, at the same time, significantly reducing the overall drying time. In terms of electrochemical performance, measured by the rate capability, no significant differences were found between the drying technologies used. These findings demonstrate the great potential of laser- and convection-based hybrid drying of LFP cathodes to enhance the electrode-drying process in terms of energy efficiency and operational costs. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 1822 KiB  
Article
Cell Design Considerations and Impact on Energy Density—A Practical Approach to EV Cell Design
by William Yourey
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(10), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100279 - 05 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1765
Abstract
Higher-energy-density, Wh L−1 or Wh kg−1, lithium-ion cells are one of the critical advancements required for the implementation of electric vehicles. This increase leads to a longer drive distance between recharges. Aside from material development, full lithium-ion cell design parameters [...] Read more.
Higher-energy-density, Wh L−1 or Wh kg−1, lithium-ion cells are one of the critical advancements required for the implementation of electric vehicles. This increase leads to a longer drive distance between recharges. Aside from material development, full lithium-ion cell design parameters have the potential to greatly influence fabricated cell energy density. The following work highlights the impact of these full-cell design parameters, investigating the effect of a negative to positive capacity ratio, positive electrode porosity, positive electrode active material content, and overall charge voltage on stack volumetric energy density. Decreasing the N:P ratio or increasing active material content results in an almost identical volumetric energy density increase: ~4%. Decreasing the positive electrode porosity from 40–30% or increasing the charge voltage from 4.2–4.35 V also results in an almost identical increase in volumetric energy density: ~5.5%. Combining all design changes has the potential to increase stack volumetric energy density by 20% compared to the baseline cell design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Battery Design and Management)
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 17797 KiB  
Article
Research on Temperature Inconsistency of Large-Format Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on the Electrothermal Model
by Chao Yu, Jiangong Zhu, Xuezhe Wei and Haifeng Dai
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(10), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100271 - 01 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1402
Abstract
Large-format lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are increasingly applied in energy storage systems for electric vehicles, owing to their flexible shape design, lighter weight, higher specific energy, and compact layouts. Nevertheless, the large thermal gradient of Li-ion batteries leads to performance degradation and irreversible safety [...] Read more.
Large-format lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are increasingly applied in energy storage systems for electric vehicles, owing to their flexible shape design, lighter weight, higher specific energy, and compact layouts. Nevertheless, the large thermal gradient of Li-ion batteries leads to performance degradation and irreversible safety issues. The difference in the highest temperature position at various operational modes makes accurate temperature monitoring complicated. Accordingly, a full understanding of the temperature inconsistency of large-format Li-ion batteries is crucial. In this study, these inconsistent characteristics are analyzed by establishing an electrothermal model and conducting experiments based on an 8-Ah pouch-type ternary Li-ion battery with contraposition tabs. Regarding the characteristic of inhomogeneous temperature distribution, the analysis results demonstrate that it is primarily attributable to the uneven heat generation within the battery system and the effects of the two tabs. For the evolution of the highest temperature position, this study compares the maximum temperature rise of the positive tab and main battery body. The results illustrate that the operating temperature has a greater impact on the maximum temperature rise of the main battery body since its resistance strongly depends on the operating temperature compared to the positive and negative tabs. In addition, the electrothermal model is expected to be employed for the battery thermal management system (BTMS) to mitigate the battery temperature inconsistency. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 4698 KiB  
Article
Optimization of the Electronic Control Unit of Electric-Powered Agricultural Vehicles
by Ionuț Vasile, Emil Tudor, Ion-Cătălin Sburlan, Mihai-Gabriel Matache and Mario Cristea
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(10), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100267 - 22 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1121
Abstract
Agricultural vehicles, such as tractors, combines, and harvesters, are following the trend of commercial vehicles with a transition from diesel to electric propulsion. Seen as an integrated system, a full-electric tractor is a complex machine with many systems that have to be interconnected [...] Read more.
Agricultural vehicles, such as tractors, combines, and harvesters, are following the trend of commercial vehicles with a transition from diesel to electric propulsion. Seen as an integrated system, a full-electric tractor is a complex machine with many systems that have to be interconnected for efficient functionality; thus, the need for a central control unit arises. The purpose of this article is to present an electronic control unit that interconnects the powertrain, the hydraulic systems, and the auxiliary systems of a full-electric tractor, with an emphasis on optimization through software design. The article describes the hardware of the electronic control unit and the software state diagrams necessary to implement the functions required by the electric tractor. The results of this article show how, through software optimization, the performances of the tractor can be improved, with parameters such as the response time of the various equipment being a useful indicator of such an improvement. Furthermore, the implementation of trip memory and an easy-to-use human–machine interface allows for easy diagnostic of the electric tractor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Control and Drive Systems for Electric Vehicles)
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 1494 KiB  
Article
High-Speed Laser Drying of Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes: Challenges and Opportunities
by Samuel Fink, Delil Demir, Markus Börner, Vinzenz Göken and Christian Vedder
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(9), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14090255 - 09 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1924
Abstract
In modern electrode manufacturing for lithium-ion batteries, the drying of the electrode pastes consumes a considerable amount of space and energy. To increase the efficiency of the drying process and reduce the footprint of the drying equipment, a laser-based drying process is investigated. [...] Read more.
In modern electrode manufacturing for lithium-ion batteries, the drying of the electrode pastes consumes a considerable amount of space and energy. To increase the efficiency of the drying process and reduce the footprint of the drying equipment, a laser-based drying process is investigated. Evaporation rates of up to 318 g m−2 s−1 can be measured, which is orders of magnitude higher than the evaporation rates in conventional furnace drying processes. Optical measurements of the slurry components in the visible and near-infrared spectrum are conducted. Thermal analyses the of laser-dried samples reveal that the commonly used binders carboxymethyl-cellulose (CMC) and styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) are not affected by the laser drying process within the investigated process window. The results indicated that with the combination of a fast laser drying step and a subsequent convection drying step, high evaporation rates can be achieved while maintaining the integrity and adhesion of the anode. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicle)
Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 3145 KiB  
Article
Zero-Emission Truck Powertrains for Regional and Long-Haul Missions
by Mikko Pihlatie, Mikaela Ranta, Pekka Rahkola and Rafael Åman
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(9), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14090253 - 08 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1597
Abstract
Zero-emission trucks for regional and long-haul missions are an option for fossil-free freight. The viability of such powertrains and system solutions was studied conceptually in project ESCALATE for trucks with GVW of 40 tonnes and beyond through various battery electric and fuel cell [...] Read more.
Zero-emission trucks for regional and long-haul missions are an option for fossil-free freight. The viability of such powertrains and system solutions was studied conceptually in project ESCALATE for trucks with GVW of 40 tonnes and beyond through various battery electric and fuel cell prime mover combinations. The study covers battery and fuel cell power sources with different degrees of battery electric as well as H2 and fuel cell operation. As a design basis, two different missions with a single-charge/H2 refill were analysed. The first mission was the VECTO long-haul profile repeated up to 750 km, whereas the second was a real 520 km on-road mission in Finland. Based on the simulated energy consumption on the driving cycle, on-board energy demand was estimated, and the initial single-charge and H2 refill operational scenarios were produced with five different power source topologies and on-board storage capacities. The traction motors of the tractor were dimensioned so that a secondary mission of GVW up to 76 tonnes on a shorter route or a longer route with more frequent battery recharge and/or H2 refill can be operated. Based on the powertrain and vehicle model, various infrastructure options for charging and H2 refuelling strategies as well as various operative scenarios with indicative total cost of ownership (TCO) were analysed. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 3509 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Hybrid Energy Storage System on the Battery Cycle Life of Replaceable Battery Electric Vehicle
by Wei Zhang and Jue Yang
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(9), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14090248 - 05 Sep 2023
Viewed by 1077
Abstract
Compared with batteries, ultracapacitors have higher specific power and longer cycle life. They can act as power buffers to absorb peak power during charging and discharging, playing a role in peak shaving and valley filling, thereby extending the cycle life of the battery. [...] Read more.
Compared with batteries, ultracapacitors have higher specific power and longer cycle life. They can act as power buffers to absorb peak power during charging and discharging, playing a role in peak shaving and valley filling, thereby extending the cycle life of the battery. In this article, a replaceable battery electric coupe SUV equipped with a lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) power battery is taken as the research object, and a vehicle dynamics simulation model is established on the MATLAB/Simulink platform. Parameter matching and control optimization for a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) are conducted. Through a proven semiempirical cycle model of the LiFePO4 power battery, the operating cycle life model is derived and used to estimate the battery cycle life. World Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) simulation results show that the HESS with 308 ultracapacitors can extend the cycle life of the LiFePO4 power battery by 34.24%, thus significantly reducing the operation cost of the battery replacement station. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Electric Vehicles Energy Management)
Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 9112 KiB  
Article
Study on Lane-Change Replanning and Trajectory Tracking for Intelligent Vehicles Based on Model Predictive Control
by Yaohua Li, Dengwang Zhai, Jikang Fan and Guoqing Dong
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(9), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14090234 - 24 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1121
Abstract
When an intelligent vehicle changes lanes, the state of other vehicles may change, which increases the risk of collision. Therefore, real-time local path replanning is needed at this time. Based on model predictive control (MPC), a lane-change trajectory replanning strategy was proposed, which [...] Read more.
When an intelligent vehicle changes lanes, the state of other vehicles may change, which increases the risk of collision. Therefore, real-time local path replanning is needed at this time. Based on model predictive control (MPC), a lane-change trajectory replanning strategy was proposed, which was divided into a lane-change trajectory correction strategy, a lane-change switchback strategy and forward active collision avoidance strategy according to collision risk. Based on the collision risk function of the rectangular safety neighborhood, the objective functions were designed according to the specific requirements of different strategies. The vehicle lateral controller based on MPC and the vehicle longitudinal motion controller were established. The longitudinal velocity was taken as the joint point to establish the lateral and longitudinal integrated controller. The trajectory planning module, trajectory replanning module and trajectory tracking module were integrated in layers, and the three trajectory replanning strategies of lane-change trajectory correction, lane-change switchback and forward active collision avoidance were respectively simulated and verified. The simulation results showed the trajectory replanning strategy achieves collision avoidance under different scenarios and ensures the vehicle’s driving stability. The trajectory tracking layer achieves accurate tracking of the conventional lane-change trajectory and has good driving stability and comfort. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Intelligent Vehicle Path Planning Algorithm)
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 12090 KiB  
Article
Design and Analysis of a Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor in an Automotive Cooling System
by Kai Ren, Hongxuan Chen, Haiyang Sun, Qin Wang, Qingyun Sun and Bo Jin
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(8), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14080228 - 18 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3006
Abstract
Conducting excellent thermal management of a new electric vehicle motor drive system may enhance the operational efficiency of the motor drive and minimize its pollutant emissions and energy losses. As an important part of the motor thermal management system, it is necessary to [...] Read more.
Conducting excellent thermal management of a new electric vehicle motor drive system may enhance the operational efficiency of the motor drive and minimize its pollutant emissions and energy losses. As an important part of the motor thermal management system, it is necessary to improve the design of the drive motor for the fan. This paper presents the design of a 12s-10p permanent magnet brushless DC motor with a rated speed of 2200 rpm and a rated voltage of 12 V based on finite element analysis. At this rated speed, the maximum torque the motor can output is 1.80 N·m. Then, we calculated the loading capacity of the motor by parameterizing the resistance in the circuit. We have built a prototype based on the design results and built a test bench to test the loading capacity of the prototype. A comparison revealed that the error between the experimental and calculated results was small. Accordingly, it is believed that this work is capable of serving as a theoretical guide for the design and manufacture of automotive cooling fans in the future. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 2283 KiB  
Article
How to Choose the Refueling of New Energy Vehicles under Swapping vs. Charging Mode: From the Consumers’ Perspective
by Jizi Li, Doudou Wu and Yong Wang
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(8), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14080211 - 08 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1089
Abstract
Battery charging mode (CM) is a prevalent method of trans-shipping power to new energy vehicles (NEVs). Unfortunately, due to the limited capacity of batteries, typical NEVs can only travel for approximately 350 miles on a single charge and require hours to be recharged. [...] Read more.
Battery charging mode (CM) is a prevalent method of trans-shipping power to new energy vehicles (NEVs). Unfortunately, due to the limited capacity of batteries, typical NEVs can only travel for approximately 350 miles on a single charge and require hours to be recharged. Battery swapping mode (SM), as a novel alternative, can offer an ideal solution by exchanging depleted batteries for recharged ones at swapping stations in the middle of long trips, inevitably influencing potential consumers’ purchase behaviors. To examine the impact of SM and CM on consumers’ purchase intention, this paper examines a duopolistic market consisting of two new energy vehicle manufacturers (i.e., a NEV-SM manufacturer and a NEV-CM manufacturer), who adopt SM and CM to service consumers, respectively. Considering SM is characterized by low initial investment and ease of use for consumers, NEV-CM manufacturers capitalize on extended battery warranty services in response to rivals’ utilization of SM. Thereby, non-cooperative game models are formulated, in which government subsidies are taken into account. The optimal production decision for both the NEV-SM manufacturer and the NEV-CM manufacturer are analyzed under three scenarios: without extended warranty service, with extended warranty service, and with extended warranty service and subsidy. The results show that the two manufacturers’ market dominance relies on the ratio of the swapping station’s convenience to the extended warranty service and the valuation incremental rate. Additionally, we also find that the government subsidy can dramatically improve the NEV-SM manufacturer’s performance at the initial stage, but if the subsidy is insufficient in size at the subsequent stage, this will lead to policy failure and inefficiency in propelling the diffusion of swapping mode. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1939 KiB  
Article
Long-Distance Electric Truck Traffic: Analysis, Modeling and Designing a Demand-Oriented Charging Network for Germany
by Josef Menter, Tu-Anh Fay, Alexander Grahle and Dietmar Göhlich
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(8), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14080205 - 02 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1884
Abstract
The majority of freight in Germany is carried out by trucks, resulting in emitting approximately 9% of Germany’s carbon dioxide equivalent emissions. In particular, long-distance truck journeys contribute significantly to these emissions. This paper aims to explore the conditions and impacts of introducing [...] Read more.
The majority of freight in Germany is carried out by trucks, resulting in emitting approximately 9% of Germany’s carbon dioxide equivalent emissions. In particular, long-distance truck journeys contribute significantly to these emissions. This paper aims to explore the conditions and impacts of introducing E-Trucks in Germany by utilizing a microscopic traffic simulation approach. Therefore, five different electrification levels of the long-distance truck traffic are evaluated. The demand-oriented charging network dimensioning aims for a realistic and implementable design and is based on an average charging power of 720 kW. Additionaly, it considers the necessary infrastructure requirements at service and rest areas next to the motorway. The results of this research provide valuable insights in terms of usage, requirements and demand. For an electrification level of 1%, 177 chargers at 173 charging sites must be implemented, while 1296 chargers and 457 charging sites must be built for an electrification level of 20%. The increase in the electrification level leads to more efficient occupancy of the charging facilities; i.e., an increase from 1% to 5% improves the average occupation time ratio per charger by approximately 130%. Of the total energy consumed, 65% is recharged en-route at public chargers. Between Monday and Thursday, each 1% electrification level increase requires 2.68 GW h more energy for the public recharging network. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 10683 KiB  
Article
VSG Control for Cascaded Three-Phase Bridge Based Battery Inverter
by Xiaojing Qi and Jianyong Zheng
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(8), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14080203 - 30 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1120
Abstract
With the increasing number of new energy sources connected to the grid, the unbalanced output of three-phase grid-connected inverters and the lack of no inertia and damping characteristics in the traditional microgrid control system will seriously affect the stability of voltage, frequency, and [...] Read more.
With the increasing number of new energy sources connected to the grid, the unbalanced output of three-phase grid-connected inverters and the lack of no inertia and damping characteristics in the traditional microgrid control system will seriously affect the stability of voltage, frequency, and power angle for microgrids. This paper proposes a novel cascaded three-phase bridge inverter topology for the battery system used for the electric vehicle. Compared with traditional cascaded H-bridge inverters, the proposed multilevel inverter can achieve self-adaptive balance for three phases. The mathematical model of a cascaded three-phase bridge inverter is established in this paper. Based on the voltage and current equations of a multilevel inverter, a new modulation strategy named carrier phase-shifted-distributed pulse width modulation (CPSD-PWM) was developed, which is more suitable for cascaded three-phase bridge inverters. The harmonic analytic equations of carrier phase-shifted pulse width modulation (CPS-PWM) and CPSD-PWM are constructed by the double Fourier analysis method. Compared with the traditional PWM modulation strategy, the CPSD-PWM can reduce the output harmonics and improve the balance of the three-phase output, which can realize the three-phase adaptive balance in the cascaded three-phase bridge inverter. This paper develops a cascaded three-phase bridge multilevel power converter system based on the virtual synchronous generator (VSG) control strategy. The voltage and frequency of inverter output can be accurately controlled in both island mode and grid-connected mode through active power-frequency regulation and reactive power–voltage regulation, and the stability of primary frequency regulation for the multilevel microgrid inverter can be improved by collaborative optimization of virtual inertia and virtual damping. The CPSD-PWM modulation strategy and VSG control strategy are verified by the simulation results and experimental data for the cascaded three-phase bridge inverter. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2613 KiB  
Article
Creating a Robust SoC Estimation Algorithm Based on LSTM Units and Trained with Synthetic Data
by Markel Azkue, Eduardo Miguel, Egoitz Martinez-Laserna, Laura Oca and Unai Iraola
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070197 - 24 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1179
Abstract
Creating SoC algorithms for Li-ion batteries based on neural networks requires a large amount of training data, since it is necessary to test the batteries under different conditions so that the algorithm learns the relationship between the different inputs and the output. Obtaining [...] Read more.
Creating SoC algorithms for Li-ion batteries based on neural networks requires a large amount of training data, since it is necessary to test the batteries under different conditions so that the algorithm learns the relationship between the different inputs and the output. Obtaining such data through laboratory tests is costly and time consuming; therefore, in this article, a neural network has been trained with data generated synthetically using electrochemical models. These models allow us to obtain relevant data related to different conditions at a minimum cost over a short period of time. By means of the different training rounds carried out using these data, it has been studied how the different hyperparameters affect the behaviour of the algorithm, creating a robust and accurate algorithm. To adapt this approach to new battery references or chemistries, transfer learning techniques can be employed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep Learning Applications for Electric Vehicles)
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 1639 KiB  
Review
Exploring the Impact of Technological Innovation on the Development of Electric Vehicles on the Bibliometric Perspective of Innovation Types
by Shieh-Liang Chen and Kuo-Liang Chen
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070191 - 19 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3220
Abstract
Innovation has always been the driving force behind social progress. Enterprises will adopt different types of technological innovations according to their goals, resources, and market strategies. The industry generally pays attention to the development and application of electric vehicle technology innovation, but a [...] Read more.
Innovation has always been the driving force behind social progress. Enterprises will adopt different types of technological innovations according to their goals, resources, and market strategies. The industry generally pays attention to the development and application of electric vehicle technology innovation, but a single method may not be able to fully explain the innovation of electric vehicle technology. Furthermore, the results of technological innovation must be presented in terms of market benefits. Otherwise, insufficient cash flow will lead to innovation interruption. Therefore, this study uses the innovation matrix proposed by Rothaermel to classify the matrix formed by the market and technology. This study collects 43 periodicals and special publications published in 2010–2022 and 40 related electric vehicle literature that can be downloaded, summarizes the literature content according to the innovation matrix using literature bibliometric perspective and analysis, and obtains (1) most of the innovative technologies of electric vehicles originated from the extension of previous technologies and (2) batteries and power supplements that are the key items of electric vehicles. The proportion of radical technological innovation is relatively high, and they are also the main factors of market sales. Theoretically, this study can provide a basis for studying the combination of Rothaermel’s “innovation matrix” and Ansoff’s “expansion matrix”. In practice, this is the first time the electric vehicle industry is taken as an example, combining the two models, aiming at technology/production/market/performance for electric vehicle industry managers, the technological innovation direction, and the formulation of market strategy operations and advanced deployment. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 670 KiB  
Article
An Indicator-Based Methodological Framework for Assessing an eMaaS Scheme
by Anastasia Nikolaidou, Efthymis Papadopoulos, Ioannis Politis and Socrates Basbas
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070186 - 14 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1135
Abstract
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) and, more recently, electric Mobility as a Service (eMaaS) have increasingly been put forward to meet the economic, social, and environmental challenges linked to mobility. First, however, monitoring and evaluating such a scheme’s performance is crucial, mainly through [...] Read more.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) and, more recently, electric Mobility as a Service (eMaaS) have increasingly been put forward to meet the economic, social, and environmental challenges linked to mobility. First, however, monitoring and evaluating such a scheme’s performance is crucial, mainly through the definition of appropriate indicators. In this study, a standardised methodological approach is presented for the assessment of an eMaaS scheme. In addition, this methodological approach contains a range of innovative Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). The proposed KPIs refer to the evaluation of the scheme based on four pillars: (a) society, (b) users, (c) operators, and (d) internal operation. The methodology for evaluating the proposed KPIs includes identifying the available sources for data collection. For example, data can be collected through questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, and the system’s central dashboard. An appropriate set of indicators to evaluate a system from various perspectives is necessary to assess an eMaaS scheme in real-life conditions. Furthermore, the evaluation of the overall operation of the scheme will contribute to drawing valid conclusions (e.g., user acceptance, economic viability) for the implementation of eMaaS in urban areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Transportation System)
Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 10728 KiB  
Article
Performance Prediction of a 4WD High-Performance Electric Vehicle Using a Model-Based Torque-Vectoring Approach
by Rafael Serralvo Neto, Joao Bruno Palermo, Renato Giacomini, Michele Rodrigues, Fabio Delatore, Giovana Betoni Rossi, Milene Galeti and Rudolf Theoderich Bühler
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070183 - 13 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1744
Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) enable the integration of powertrains with multiple motors, allowing for the adjustment of torque delivered to each wheel. This approach permits the implementation of torque vectoring techniques (TV) to enhance the vehicle’s stability and cornering response, providing better control of [...] Read more.
Electric vehicles (EVs) enable the integration of powertrains with multiple motors, allowing for the adjustment of torque delivered to each wheel. This approach permits the implementation of torque vectoring techniques (TV) to enhance the vehicle’s stability and cornering response, providing better control of yaw moments. This study utilizes comprehensive telemetry data and an advanced simulator model to assess the influence of torque vectoring (TV) on a Formula SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) competition vehicle. The telemetry data were collected from a fully instrumented 2WD car, which was then employed to calibrate the simulation model. The calibrated model was subsequently utilized to predict the performance enhancements that could be achieved by implementing a 4WD system. The methodology proved to be a valuable contribution to vehicle design development. This approach also helps evaluate the potential advantages of torque vectoring for drivers with limited experience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Electric Vehicle Technology)
Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 9342 KiB  
Article
A Battery Cell Equalisation System Based on a Supercapacitors Tank and DC–DC Converters for Automotive Applications
by Borislav Dimitrov and Sylvia Konaklieva
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070185 - 13 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1199
Abstract
A battery cell equalisation system for automotive applications based on a supercapacitors energy storage SCES tank is proposed. The main advantages of the developed system are the utilisation of the regenerative brake energy for battery cell equalisation, reduction in the number of DC–DC [...] Read more.
A battery cell equalisation system for automotive applications based on a supercapacitors energy storage SCES tank is proposed. The main advantages of the developed system are the utilisation of the regenerative brake energy for battery cell equalisation, reduction in the number of DC–DC converters, the flexible operation expressed by the possibility to address each battery cell with bi-directional switches, and acceptable efficiency in all modes of operation. The energy transfer between the SCES and battery cells is precisely analysed with modelling and simulations in steady-state and transient conditions. Power loss is estimated per sub-system, systemising the loss reduction techniques and achieving the maximum efficiency. The required DC–DC converters are described and designed according to the specific modes of operation in the developed application. Finally, the experimental verification is provided using a small physical model. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 4227 KiB  
Review
A Comprehensive Review of the Incorporation of Electric Vehicles and Renewable Energy Distributed Generation Regarding Smart Grids
by Mlungisi Ntombela, Kabeya Musasa and Katleho Moloi
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070176 - 02 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4551
Abstract
Power grids of the future will likely incorporate more renewable energy distributed generation (REDG), also known as alternative energy systems. REDG units are increasingly being used in electrical transmission networks because of the positive effects they have on power networks. REDG systems are [...] Read more.
Power grids of the future will likely incorporate more renewable energy distributed generation (REDG), also known as alternative energy systems. REDG units are increasingly being used in electrical transmission networks because of the positive effects they have on power networks. REDG systems are the backbone of smart electric networks and are essential to the operation of the smart grid. These REDG systems can additionally improve system reliability by providing some customers with a backup generator in the event of power interruptions. This review offers a thorough evaluation of the existing body of information on the topic of electric vehicles’ (EVs’) future interactions with smart grids. The combination of the potential deployment of EVs and the smart grid’s conceptual goal presents challenges for electric grid-related infra-structure, communication, and control. The proposal for connecting EVs to the grid is based on research into cutting-edge smart metering and communication systems. In the context of the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) phenomenon, the possibilities, benefits, and limitations of various EV smart-charging systems are also fully examined. A quickly growing percentage of distributed energy is derived from wind and solar (photovoltaic) energy. The variable power output of wind and solar energy introduces fresh challenges for those responsible for organizing, operating, and controlling the power grid. While fluctuations in the electric grid are problematic, they may be mitigated by the entry of EVs into the energy market. As such, we performed a comprehensive review of the literature to learn more about this exciting research gap that needs to be filled and to identify recently developed solutions to the problems related to EVs. Additionally, in this review article, we take a close look at the practicality of V2G technology. The smart grid is a developing concept that will likely have large implications for the world’s energy infrastructure, and this study thoroughly analyzes how EVs interact with it. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3984 KiB  
Article
Efficiency Maps of Shifted Inductances Axes Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors
by Hussein Nasser, Yacine Amara, Ferhat Chabour and Mazen Ghandour
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070174 - 30 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 805
Abstract
In this contribution, a tool developed for the study of the efficiency maps of shifted inductances axes permanent magnet synchronous motors (SIAPMSMs) is presented and made available to the readers. The research builds upon a shared foundation that has already been established in [...] Read more.
In this contribution, a tool developed for the study of the efficiency maps of shifted inductances axes permanent magnet synchronous motors (SIAPMSMs) is presented and made available to the readers. The research builds upon a shared foundation that has already been established in previous works focused on the power capability of synchronous machines. This contribution is an extension of previous works dedicated to the power capabilities of shifted inductances axes synchronous motors where the losses were not considered. In this new contribution, the SIAPMSM models, which include the electromagnetic losses (joule and iron losses), are discussed. The mechanical losses are not included. The classical permanent magnet synchronous machines can be considered a particular case of a SIAPMSM. They will be used to validate the developed tools. The validation study is conducted by comparing the power capabilities and the efficiency maps of SIAPMSMs and classical PMSMs obtained by the newly developed modeling tool and a previously developed modeling tool. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 3767 KiB  
Article
A Charging Guidance Optimization Model for Electric Vehicle Travel by Considering Multi-Dimensional Preferences of Users
by Xiaolong Zuo, Jun Bi, Yongxing Wang and Yujia Du
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070171 - 27 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1000
Abstract
The dual-carbon strategy advocates a green, environmentally friendly, and low-carbon lifestyle. In the field of transportation, electric vehicles (EVs) have been regarded as an effective solution to reduce carbon emissions and to conserve energy. Developing a reasonable charging guidance scheme for users is [...] Read more.
The dual-carbon strategy advocates a green, environmentally friendly, and low-carbon lifestyle. In the field of transportation, electric vehicles (EVs) have been regarded as an effective solution to reduce carbon emissions and to conserve energy. Developing a reasonable charging guidance scheme for users is a feasible way to solve problems, such as the range anxiety of EV users, and has a great application value for the promotion of EVs in the future. In practical situations, how to develop charging induction schemes for users that better meet their needs according to the type of user and their multi-dimensional preferences is the focus of this paper. To this end, this study utilized charging behavioral data to investigate the multi-dimensional charging preference of users based on the collaborative filtering algorithm. Then, a multi-objective optimization model was established based on the preference degree of each charging station and the integrated travel cost. An NSGA-III framework was used to design the algorithm to solve the proposed model. The algorithm was tested using simulation experiments that were designed based on the road network and charging stations in Beijing. The final result is an experimental analysis of the weight matrices for the three different preferences of minimum energy consumption cost, minimum time cost, and minimum fee cost, which yields a difference of about 4.4% between the optimal energy consumption cost and the maximum energy cost, about 2.9% between the optimal time cost and the maximum time cost, and about 10% between the optimal fee cost and the maximum fee cost under these three different preferences, respectively. The proposed multi-objective optimization model is able to provide users with reliable charging station selection by incorporating their personalized charging preference characteristics and charge guidance schemes. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2290 KiB  
Review
Opportunities, Challenges and Strategies for Developing Electric Vehicle Energy Storage Systems under the Carbon Neutrality Goal
by Xinglong Liu, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao and Zongwei Liu
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(7), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14070170 - 27 Jun 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2179
Abstract
Developing electric vehicle (EV) energy storage technology is a strategic position from which the automotive industry can achieve low-carbon growth, thereby promoting the green transformation of the energy industry in China. This paper will reveal the opportunities, challenges, and strategies in relation to [...] Read more.
Developing electric vehicle (EV) energy storage technology is a strategic position from which the automotive industry can achieve low-carbon growth, thereby promoting the green transformation of the energy industry in China. This paper will reveal the opportunities, challenges, and strategies in relation to developing EV energy storage. First, this paper clarifies the strategic value and potential of developing EV energy storage under the carbon neutrality goal. Second, this paper demonstrates strategic opportunities and challenges during the development. Third, this paper proposes methods for creating a good market environment and business models. Finally, this paper suggests that relevant policies and regulations should be formulated and charts the course of technology development. The results show that EV energy storage technology has potential in terms of technology, the scale of development, and the user economy. The proposal of the carbon neutrality goal, the increasing market share of EVs, lower-cost and higher-efficiency batteries, etc., have all further accelerated the development of EV energy storage. The EV energy storage field should focus on developing battery technology, make advancements toward delivering longer cycle lives and improving the safety and availability of battery materials, and ramp up the R&D efforts with respect to developing vehicle-to-grid (V2G) management technologies. Simultaneously, it is necessary to create a business ecosystem centered on V2G operating platforms, constituting a process to which various players can contribute and achieve mutually beneficial results. It is also essential to formulate top-level strategic plans across industries and organizations, develop an electricity-trading mechanism as soon as possible, and promote the implementation of technical standards related to EV energy storage. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 3249 KiB  
Article
Round-Trip Wireless Charging Infrastructure for Heterogeneous Electric Vehicles on Highways: Modelling and Optimization
by Mohammed Bourzik, Hassane Elbaz, Yousra Bouleft and Ahmed El Hilali Alaoui
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(6), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14060160 - 15 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1369
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a new approach to dynamic wireless charging that allows electric vehicles to charge wirelessly while in motion in both lanes on highways. The challenge is to locate the charging infrastructure on a highway between origin O and destination [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose a new approach to dynamic wireless charging that allows electric vehicles to charge wirelessly while in motion in both lanes on highways. The challenge is to locate the charging infrastructure on a highway between origin O and destination S (round trip) with heterogeneous battery vehicles, where each type of vehicle requires its allocation of charging segments on the road. We aim to ensure that each type of vehicle can complete a round trip without running out of battery charge while minimizing the number of charging segments and inverters on the road by studying both lanes simultaneously. We model the problem mathematically and validate it using a CPLEX optimizer for limited instances. Finally, we solve the problem using a hybrid approach that combines genetic algorithms and local search techniques to balance diversification and intensification. We have significantly improved the results found in the literature by reducing the number of inverters, which are expensive components in the charging infrastructure. Our approach takes advantage of utilizing a single inverter for both lanes of the highway, leading to cost savings and improved efficiency. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 5903 KiB  
Article
Detection of Torque Security Problems Based on the Torsion of Side Shafts in Electrified Vehicles
by Andreas Koch, Jonas Brauer and Jens Falkenstein
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(6), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14060151 - 06 Jun 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1419
Abstract
In the case of electric vehicle drives, faults in the drive system or in the traction inverter, which controls the vehicle drive unit, could lead to abrupt and unpredictable motion as well as acceleration of the vehicle. In terms of functional safety, the [...] Read more.
In the case of electric vehicle drives, faults in the drive system or in the traction inverter, which controls the vehicle drive unit, could lead to abrupt and unpredictable motion as well as acceleration of the vehicle. In terms of functional safety, the typically existing, permanent mechanical connection of the drive machine with the drive wheels poses a high safety risk. In particular, unintended motion of the vehicle from a standstill is especially critical due to the high risk of injury to traffic participants. To reduce this risk, appropriate monitoring algorithms can be applied for the rapid detection of faulty operation. A corresponding algorithm for fault detection in the electric drive of a vehicle is presented in this paper. In addition to the description of the algorithms, various driving maneuvers of an electric single-wheel drivetrain are simulated in fault-free and faulty operation on a hardware-in-the-loop test bench. The focus here is on the consideration of driving-off operations. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 4601 KiB  
Article
Experimental Design of an Adaptive LQG Controller for Battery Charger/Dischargers Featuring Low Computational Requirements
by Jhoan Alejandro Montenegro-Oviedo, Carlos Andres Ramos-Paja, Martha Lucia Orozco-Gutierrez, Edinson Franco-Mejía and Sergio Ignacio Serna-Garcés
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(6), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14060142 - 28 May 2023
Viewed by 1248
Abstract
The growing use of DC/DC power converters has resulted in the requirement that their complex controllers be cheaper and smaller, thus using cost-effective implementations. For this purpose, it is necessary to decrease the computational burden in controller implementation to minimize the hardware requirements. [...] Read more.
The growing use of DC/DC power converters has resulted in the requirement that their complex controllers be cheaper and smaller, thus using cost-effective implementations. For this purpose, it is necessary to decrease the computational burden in controller implementation to minimize the hardware requirements. This manuscript presents two methods for tuning an adaptive linear–quadratic–Gaussian voltage controller for a battery charger/discharger, implemented with a Sepic/Zeta converter, to work at any operating point. The first method is based on a lookup table to select, using the nearest method, both the state feedback vector and the observer gain vector, solving the Riccati’s differential equation offline for each practical operating point. The second method defines a polynomial function for each controller element that is based on the previous data corresponding to the system operating points. The adaptability of the two controllers to fixed voltage regulation and reference tracking was validated using simulations and experimental tests. The overshoot and settling time results were lower than 11% and 3.7 ms, which are in the same orders of magnitude of a control approach in which the equations are solved online. Likewise, three indices were evaluated: central processing unit capacity, cost, and performance. This evaluation confirms that the controller based on polynomial interpolation is the best option of the two examined methods due to the satisfactory balance between dynamic performance and cost. Despite the advantages of the controllers in being based on a lookup table and polynomial interpolation, the adaptive linear–quadratic–Gaussian has the benefit of not requiring an offline training campaign; however, the cost saving obtained with the lookup table controllers and polynomial interpolation controllers, due to the possible implementation on small-size microcontrollers with development tool simple and easy maintenance, will surely be desirable for a large number of deployed units, ensuring that those solutions are highly cost-effective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Power Converters)
Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 11567 KiB  
Article
Performance Evaluation of Stator/Rotor-PM Flux-Switching Machines and Interior Rotor-PM Machine for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
by Wenfei Yu, Zhongze Wu and Wei Hua
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(6), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14060139 - 26 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1207
Abstract
A three-phase interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine with 18-stator-slots/12-rotor-poles and concentrated armature winding is commercially employed as a 10 kW integrated-starter-generator in a commercial hybrid electric vehicle. For comprehensive and fair evaluation, a pair of flux-switching permanent magnet (FSPM) brushless machines, namely one [...] Read more.
A three-phase interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine with 18-stator-slots/12-rotor-poles and concentrated armature winding is commercially employed as a 10 kW integrated-starter-generator in a commercial hybrid electric vehicle. For comprehensive and fair evaluation, a pair of flux-switching permanent magnet (FSPM) brushless machines, namely one stator permanent magnet flux-switching (SPM-FS) machine, and one rotor permanent magnet flux-switching (RPM-FS) machine, are designed and compared under the same DC-link voltage and armature current density. Firstly, a SPM-FS machine is designed and compared with an IPM machine under the same torque requirement, and the performance indicates that they exhibit similar torque density; however, the former suffers from magnetic saturation and low utilization of permanent magnets (PMs). Thus, to eliminate significant stator iron saturation and improve the ratio of torque per PM mass, an RPM-machine is designed with the same overall volume of the IPM machine, where the PMs are moved from stator to rotor and a multi-objective optimization algorithm is applied in the machine optimization. Then, the electromagnetic performance of the three machines, considering end-effect, is compared, including air-gap flux density, torque ripple, overload capacity and flux-weakening ability. The predicted results indicate that the RPM-FS machine exhibits the best performance as a promising candidate for hybrid electric vehicles. Experimental results of both the IPM and SPM-FS machines are provided for validation. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 3824 KiB  
Article
Location of the Interurban Fast Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles Using the Methodology for Calculating the Maximum Distance between Fast Charges (MDFC) and Simulation: A Case Study in Ecuador
by Luis Buenaño, Hugo Torres and Efrén Fernández
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(5), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14050129 - 19 May 2023
Viewed by 1431
Abstract
This study determines the location of the minimum fast charging infrastructure for electric vehicles in the interurban route Riobamba–Quito in Ecuador using the methodology of the maximum distance between fast charges (MDFC). From the application of the method, a MDFC of 60 km [...] Read more.
This study determines the location of the minimum fast charging infrastructure for electric vehicles in the interurban route Riobamba–Quito in Ecuador using the methodology of the maximum distance between fast charges (MDFC). From the application of the method, a MDFC of 60 km and a basic highway charging infrastructure (BHCI) of six stations are obtained. The location is calculated by measuring the MDFC on the road using the desktop application Google Earth Pro. The proposal is validated by means of a mathematical model in Simulink, and two simulation scenarios are proposed. In the first one, the initial state of charge (SOC) is 95% and represents an EV with complete charging patterns, while in the second one, the initial SOC is 65% and represents incomplete charging patterns. The results indicate that for both simulation scenarios, the EV KIA SOUL 2016 can perform the specified round-trip routes using the proposed BHCI performing two fast charges of 20 min each way. In all cases, SOC values during operation remain above 20%. The results obtained allow us to establish that the proposed BHCI and its location are sufficient to allow the studied EV to complete the route. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Electric Vehicle Technology)
Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 5853 KiB  
Article
Design Methodology and Circuit Analysis of Wireless Power Transfer Systems Applied to Electric Vehicles Wireless Chargers
by Tasnime Bouanou, Hassan El Fadil, Abdellah Lassioui, Issam Bentalhik, Mohamed Koundi and Sidina El Jeilani
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(5), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14050117 - 01 May 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4618
Abstract
In road transportation, the market for electric vehicles (EVs) is considered a potential solution for addressing issues related to gas emissions and noise pollution. Due to the limited driving range of the EV battery pack, the charging process must be fast and safe [...] Read more.
In road transportation, the market for electric vehicles (EVs) is considered a potential solution for addressing issues related to gas emissions and noise pollution. Due to the limited driving range of the EV battery pack, the charging process must be fast and safe for EV drivers. Wireless charging technology for EVs has gained attention in recent years, and in this research, the authors explore the analysis and design of a resonant magnetic wireless system for charging electric vehicles. The authors propose a design methodology for a serial–serial (SS) wireless system, which outlines how to determine the appropriate pad dimensions for transferring power to the EV battery. The design approach is crucial to attaining the best possible coupling performance and efficiency. Additionally, the magnetic design of the pad is validated using Ansys Maxwell software, and the proposed design is co-simulated using Ansys Simplorer to analyze the performance of the system. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed model can transfer over 3.7 kW of power with an efficiency of over 90.02%. The paper also discusses the bifurcation phenomenon at the resonance condition to ensure maximum efficiency. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 6556 KiB  
Review
Designing High-Power-Density Electric Motors for Electric Vehicles with Advanced Magnetic Materials
by Youguang Guo, Lin Liu, Xin Ba, Haiyan Lu, Gang Lei, Wenliang Yin and Jianguo Zhu
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(4), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14040114 - 18 Apr 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3980
Abstract
As we face issues of fossil fuel depletion and environmental pollution, it is becoming increasingly important to transition towards clean renewable energies and electric vehicles (EVs). However, designing electric motors with high power density for EVs can be challenging due to space and [...] Read more.
As we face issues of fossil fuel depletion and environmental pollution, it is becoming increasingly important to transition towards clean renewable energies and electric vehicles (EVs). However, designing electric motors with high power density for EVs can be challenging due to space and weight constraints, as well as issues related to power loss and temperature rise. In order to overcome these challenges, a significant amount of research has been conducted on designing high-power-density electric motors with advanced materials, improved physical and mathematical modeling of materials and the motor system, and system-level multidisciplinary optimization of the entire drive system. These technologies aim to achieve high reliability and optimal performance at the system level. This paper provides an overview of the key technologies for designing high-power-density electric motors for EVs with high reliability and system-level optimal performance, with the focus on advanced magnetic materials and the proper modeling of core losses under two-dimensional or three-dimensional vectorial magnetizations. This paper will also discuss the major challenges associated with designing these motors and the possible future research directions in the field. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 3139 KiB  
Communication
Performance Comparison of Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET Power Module Driving IPMSM or IM under WLTC
by Hirokatsu Umegami, Toshikazu Harada and Ken Nakahara
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(4), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14040112 - 17 Apr 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3651
Abstract
The cumulative inverter losses and power consumption of a silicon insulated gate bipolar transistor (Si IGBT) and three types of silicon carbide metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (SiC MOSFETs) were evaluated on an electric motor test bench under a worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycle [...] Read more.
The cumulative inverter losses and power consumption of a silicon insulated gate bipolar transistor (Si IGBT) and three types of silicon carbide metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (SiC MOSFETs) were evaluated on an electric motor test bench under a worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycle (WLTC). SiC MOSFETs showed higher performance than Si IGBT regardless of the motor type and test vehicles. In the case of driving an interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM), the latest 4th generation SiC MOSFET (SiC-4G) in ROHM has the lowest inverter loss and energy consumption compared with the other generations. In the case of driving an induction motor (IM), on the other hand, the 2nd generation SiC MOSFET (SiC-2G) in ROHM has the best energy consumption despite the fact that the inverter losses of SiC-2G are slightly larger than the loss of SiC-4G. The latest or later generation power device does not necessarily contribute to better performance in a total system by simply replacing early power devices. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 4806 KiB  
Perspective
Cost-Benefit Analysis of Downstream Applications for Retired Electric Vehicle Batteries
by Achim Kampker, Heiner H. Heimes, Christian Offermanns, Moritz H. Frieges, Maximilian Graaf, Natalia Soldan Cattani and Benedikt Späth
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(4), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14040110 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2629
Abstract
Mass transport conversion to an electrified powertrain requires suitable strategies for processing electric vehicle (EV) batteries after their intended first service life. Due to aging mechanisms, EV batteries lose capacity over their period of use and become unsuitable for their initial application at [...] Read more.
Mass transport conversion to an electrified powertrain requires suitable strategies for processing electric vehicle (EV) batteries after their intended first service life. Due to aging mechanisms, EV batteries lose capacity over their period of use and become unsuitable for their initial application at some point. However, to expand their lifetime and to meet the sustainability demand for EVs, the usage of these batteries in so-called Re-X applications is under intense discussion. Until now, downstream processing has been subject to high uncertainty regarding the expected advances. While many issues on the technical and ecological side have been at least partially resolved, the economics are still under assessment. For this reason, this paper intends to give a well-based outlook on the costs and benefits of three chosen scenarios: reuse, repurpose, and recycle. It is expected that under the given national policies and global market conditions, growing quantities of retired EV batteries will return from the transportation markets. Consequently, the market potential for retired batteries in downstream applications will significantly increase, as well as calls for stable solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Production for Electric Vehicles)
Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 4146 KiB  
Article
Concept for Digital Product Twins in Battery Cell Production
by Achim Kampker, Heiner Hans Heimes, Benjamin Dorn, Henning Clever, Robert Ludwigs, Ruiyan Li and Marcel Drescher
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(4), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14040108 - 13 Apr 2023
Viewed by 2990
Abstract
This paper presents an approach for the design and derivation for establishing a digital product twin for battery cells. A digital product twin is a virtual replica of a physical battery cell and can be used to predict and optimize quality properties and [...] Read more.
This paper presents an approach for the design and derivation for establishing a digital product twin for battery cells. A digital product twin is a virtual replica of a physical battery cell and can be used to predict and optimize quality properties and performance in real-time. The study focuses on pouch cell manufacturing and aims to map the large amount and variety of process information down to purchased parts and interim products. The approach for this study was to collect and analyze data from the physical production process and use this information to structure a digital battery product twin based on its product architecture. The main findings of this study indicate that a digital product twin can be effectively structured and implemented in a digital interface based on its product architecture in combination with data from the physical production process. The results of this study show the potential of digital product twins, in which statements about material, design, and behavior can be made using real information from production. Further research will focus on the practical application and implementation of digital product twins in a battery cell pilot production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Production for Electric Vehicles)
Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 8423 KiB  
Article
Flux Weakening Controller Design for Series-Winding Three-Phase PMSM Drive Systems
by Senyi Liu, Zaixin Song, Bowen Zhang and Chunhua Liu
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(4), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14040107 - 13 Apr 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1706
Abstract
Series-winding three-phase PMSMs have a higher bus voltage utilization than the conventional three-phase PMSMs with star connection. This topology is suitable for applications with a limited bus voltage. However, the zero-sequence current controller will reduce the bus voltage utilization of the series-winding PMSMs, [...] Read more.
Series-winding three-phase PMSMs have a higher bus voltage utilization than the conventional three-phase PMSMs with star connection. This topology is suitable for applications with a limited bus voltage. However, the zero-sequence current controller will reduce the bus voltage utilization of the series-winding PMSMs, which causes problems in the flux-weakening controller design. The conventional flux-weakening control algorithms will cause the series-winding PMSMs to enter the overmodulation region early and degrade the performance of the zero-sequence current suppression algorithm. In this paper, a new flux-weakening controller with a dynamic fundamental voltage limit (FW-DFVL) is designed for the series-winding three-phase PMSM traction system. Firstly, the space vector modulation method combines the proposed virtual zero-sequence vectors to realize both the fundamental current generation and the zero-sequence current suppression. The accurate bus voltage utilization in the fundamental current subspace can be derived from the proposed modulation method. Secondly, the gradient descent method generates the flux-weakening d-axis reference current with the dynamic fundamental voltage, which will converge faster than the conventional PI-based flux-weakening control scheme. Thirdly, the flux-weakening controller in the overmodulation region is also designed where the zero-sequence current will no longer be suppressed. The bus voltage utilization is Vdc in this operation mode. Finally, both the simulation and experimental results are utilized to verify the effectiveness of the proposed FW-DFVL, where faster dynamic performance and higher bus utilization are observed. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 7474 KiB  
Article
Energy and Environmental National Assessment of Alternative Fuel Buses in Morocco
by Hamza El Hafdaoui, Faissal Jelti, Ahmed Khallaayoun and Kamar Ouazzani
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(4), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14040105 - 12 Apr 2023
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2298
Abstract
The heavy reliance on petroleum-based fuels in the road transport industry, especially public transportation, results in substantial emissions of greenhouse gases. A significant obstacle on the path to a more sustainable public transportation sector is the employment of alternative fuels with lower environmental [...] Read more.
The heavy reliance on petroleum-based fuels in the road transport industry, especially public transportation, results in substantial emissions of greenhouse gases. A significant obstacle on the path to a more sustainable public transportation sector is the employment of alternative fuels with lower environmental implications. Although there are several in-depth well-to-wheel studies for developed countries, extrapolating those results to gasoline markets in developing countries presents challenges because of significant differences in local fuel conditions and vehicle engine technologies. Notably, this study provides a national-level environmental life cycle assessment of alternative buses in Morocco and compares current diesel buses to potential hybrid diesel-electric buses, battery-electric buses, and fuel-cell buses from a well-to-wheel perspective. The model and approach used in this study applies to other countries with developing economies. Total energy consumption broken out by fuel type, greenhouse gas emissions, and criterion air pollutants is the primary outcome of this investigation. Findings highlight an energy cut of 44.7% from battery-electric buses, 36.3% from fuel-cell buses, and 31.7% from hybrid buses with regard to the current diesel buses. Additionally, alternative fuel buses proved to be less polluting in terms of greenhouse gas emissions with 50.8% less from battery-electric buses, 46.7% less from fuel-cell buses, and 26.8% less from hybrid buses; consequently, this would lead to reduced climate change, air pollution, acidification, and eutrophication, given the Egalitarian Environmental Impact Assessment. Ultimately, Morocco will have to tackle technological, financial, and institutional barriers to fully implement the change by 2030. Full article
Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Back to TopTop