Materials

20 pages, 2536 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Percolation in Carbon Nanotube-Reinforced Polymers for Strain-Sensing Applications: Computational Investigation on Carbon Nanotube Distribution, Curvature, and Aggregation

by Alessandro Pontefisso and Michele Zappalorto

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4959; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144959 - 12 Jul 2023

Viewed by 798

Abstract

The present article investigates the possibility of simulating the electrical conductivity of carbon nanotube-reinforced polymer composites by numerical methods. Periodic representative volume elements are generated by randomly distributing perfectly conductive reinforcements in an insulating matrix and are used to assemble an electrical network [...] Read more.

The present article investigates the possibility of simulating the electrical conductivity of carbon nanotube-reinforced polymer composites by numerical methods. Periodic representative volume elements are generated by randomly distributing perfectly conductive reinforcements in an insulating matrix and are used to assemble an electrical network representative of the nanocomposite, where the nanotube–nanotube contacts are considered equivalent resistors modeled by means of Simmons’ equation. A comparison of the results with experimental data from the literature supports the conclusion that a random distribution of reinforcements is not suitable for simulating this class of materials since percolation thresholds and conductivity trends are different, with experimental percolation taking place before the expectations. Including nanotube curvature does not solve the issue, since it hinders percolation even further. In agreement with experimental observations, the investigation suggests that a suitable approach requires the inclusion of aggregation during the volume element generation to reduce the volume fraction required to reach percolation. Some solutions available in the literature to generate properly representative volume elements are thus listed. Concerning strain sensing, the results suggest that representative volume elements generated with random distributions overestimate the strain sensitivity of the actual composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Health Monitoring of Polymer Composites)

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16 pages, 4332 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Coefficient Extraction of SAC305 Solder Constitutive Equations Using Equation-Informed Neural Networks

by Cadmus Yuan, Qinghua Su and Kuo-Ning Chiang

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4922; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144922 - 10 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 933

Abstract

Equation-Informed Neural Networks (EINNs) are developed as an efficient method for extracting the coefficients of constitutive equations. Subsequently, numerical Bayesian Inference (BI) iterations were applied to estimate the distribution of these coefficients, thereby further refining them. We could generate coefficients optimally aligned with [...] Read more.

Equation-Informed Neural Networks (EINNs) are developed as an efficient method for extracting the coefficients of constitutive equations. Subsequently, numerical Bayesian Inference (BI) iterations were applied to estimate the distribution of these coefficients, thereby further refining them. We could generate coefficients optimally aligned with the targeted application scenario by carefully adjusting pre-processing mapping parameters and identifying dataset preferences. Leveraging graphical representation techniques, the EINNs formulation is implemented in temperature- and strain-rate-dependent hyperbolic Garofalo, Anand, and Chaboche constitutive models to extract the corresponding coefficients for lead-free SAC305 solder material. The performance of the EINNs-based extracted coefficients, obtained from experimental results of SAC305 solder material, is comparable to existing studies. The methodology offers the dual advantage of providing the coefficients’ value and distribution against the training dataset. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Simulation and Reliability Assessment of Advanced Packaging)

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10 pages, 2031 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommunication

Negative Capacitance in Nanocomposite Based on High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) with Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

by Raymonde Mouecoucou, Leïla Bonnaud and Philippe Dubois

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4901; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144901 - 09 Jul 2023

Viewed by 802

Abstract

Negative capacitance (NC), already observed in conducting polymer-based nanocomposites, was recently reported and evidenced at low frequencies (<10 kHz) in non-conducting polymer-based nanocomposites containing conductive particles. In this contribution, we demonstrate that it is possible to produce economic high-density polyethylene (HDPE) nanocomposites exhibiting [...] Read more.

Negative capacitance (NC), already observed in conducting polymer-based nanocomposites, was recently reported and evidenced at low frequencies (<10 kHz) in non-conducting polymer-based nanocomposites containing conductive particles. In this contribution, we demonstrate that it is possible to produce economic high-density polyethylene (HDPE) nanocomposites exhibiting an NC effect at low frequencies via a convenient and environmentally friendly extrusion-like process by only adjusting the duration of melt-mixing. Nanocomposite materials are produced by confining a limited quantity, i.e., 4.6 wt.%, of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) within semi-crystalline HDPE to reach the percolation threshold. With increasing melt processing time, crystallites of HDPE developing at the surface of CNTs become bigger and perturbate the connections between CNTs leading to a dramatic change in the electrical behavior of the systems. More specifically, the link between NC and current oscillations is stressed while the dependence of NC with the size of polymer crystallites is evidenced. NC tends to appear when space charge effects take place in HDPE/MWCNT interfaces, in structures with convenient crystallite sizes corresponding to 10 min of melt-mixing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials)

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15 pages, 6922 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Stent-Graft Fabrics Incorporating a Specific Corona Ready to Fenestrate

by Jing Lin, Xiaoning Guan, Mark Nutley, Jean M. Panneton, Ze Zhang, Robert Guidoin and Lu Wang

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4913; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144913 - 09 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1158

Abstract

In situ fenestration of endovascular stent-grafts has become a mainstream bailout technique to treat complex emergent aneurysms while maintaining native anatomical visceral and aortic arch blood supplies. Fabric tearing from creating the in situ fenestration using balloon angioplasty may extend beyond the intended [...] Read more.

In situ fenestration of endovascular stent-grafts has become a mainstream bailout technique to treat complex emergent aneurysms while maintaining native anatomical visceral and aortic arch blood supplies. Fabric tearing from creating the in situ fenestration using balloon angioplasty may extend beyond the intended diameter over time. Further tearing may result from the physiologic pulsatile motion at the branching site. A resultant endoleak at the fenestrated sites in stent-grafts could ultimately lead to re-pressurization of the aortic sac and, eventually, rupture. In an attempt to address this challenge, plain woven fabrics were designed. They hold a specific corona surrounding a square-shaped cluster with a plain weave fabric structure, a 2/2 twill, or a honeycomb. The corona was designed to stop potential further tearing of the fabric caused by the initial balloon angioplasty and stent or later post-implantation motion. The cluster within the corona was designed with relatively loose fabric structures (plain weave, 2/2 twill weave, and honeycomb) to facilitate the laser fenestration. Two commercial devices, Anaconda (Vascutek, Terumo Aortic) and Zenith TX2 (Cook), were selected as controls for comparison against this new design. All the specimens were characterized by morphology, thickness, and water permeability. The results demonstrated that all specimens with a low thickness and water permeability satisfied the requirements for a stent graft material that would be low profile and resistant to endoleaks. The in situ fenestrations were performed on all fabrics utilizing an Excimer laser followed by balloon angioplasty. The fabrics were further observed by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The dimension of the fenestrated apertures was smaller than the balloon’s diameter. The tearing was effectively confined within the corona. The clinical acceptability of this concept deserves additional bench testing and animal experimentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioengineering and Biotechnology of Clinical Materials)

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17 pages, 2807 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Structural Analysis of GFRP, Reinforced Concrete, and Steel Frames under Seismic Loads

by Luca Mincigrucci, Marco Civera, Erica Lenticchia, Rosario Ceravolo, Michele Rosano and Salvatore Russo

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4908; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144908 - 09 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1169

Abstract

Fibre-reinforced polymer composites in general, and especially glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP), have increasingly been used in recent decades in construction. The advantages of GFRP as an alternative construction material are its high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosive resistance, high durability, and ease of installation. The [...] Read more.

Fibre-reinforced polymer composites in general, and especially glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP), have increasingly been used in recent decades in construction. The advantages of GFRP as an alternative construction material are its high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosive resistance, high durability, and ease of installation. The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the response of GFRP under dynamic conditions (more specifically, under seismic loads) and to compare the performance of this composite material with that of two traditional building materials: reinforced concrete and structural steel. To this aim, a finite element analysis is carried out on a two-dimensional frame modelled with steel, reinforced concrete (RC), or GFRP pultruded materials and subjected to a seismic input. The dynamic response of the structure is evaluated for the three building materials in terms of displacements, inter-storey drift, base shear, and stress. The results show a good performance of the GFRP frame, with stress distribution and displacements halfway between those of RC and steel. Most importantly, the GFRP frame outperforms the other materials in terms of reduced weight and, thus, base shear (−40% compared to steel and −88.5% compared to RC). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Health Monitoring of Composite Materials)

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12 pages, 4017 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhanced Energy Storage Performance and Efficiency in Bi_0.5(Na_0.8K_0.2)_0.5TiO₃-Bi_0.2Sr_0.7TiO₃ Relaxor Ferroelectric Ceramics via Domain Engineering

by Srinivas Pattipaka, Hyunsu Choi, Yeseul Lim, Kwi-Il Park, Kyeongwoon Chung and Geon-Tae Hwang

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4912; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144912 - 09 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1531

Abstract

Dielectric materials are highly desired for pulsed power capacitors due to their ultra-fast charge-discharge rate and excellent fatigue behavior. Nevertheless, the low energy storage density caused by the low breakdown strength has been the main challenge for practical applications. Herein, we report the [...] Read more.

Dielectric materials are highly desired for pulsed power capacitors due to their ultra-fast charge-discharge rate and excellent fatigue behavior. Nevertheless, the low energy storage density caused by the low breakdown strength has been the main challenge for practical applications. Herein, we report the electric energy storage properties of (1 − x) Bi_0.5(Na_0.8K_0.2)_0.5TiO₃-xBi_0.2Sr_0.7TiO₃ (BNKT-BST; x = 0.15–0.50) relaxor ferroelectric ceramics that are enhanced via a domain engineering method. A rhombohedral-tetragonal phase, the formation of highly dynamic PNRs, and a dense microstructure are confirmed from XRD, Raman vibrational spectra, and microscopic investigations. The relative dielectric permittivity (2664 at 1 kHz) and loss factor (0.058) were gradually improved with BST (x = 0.45). The incorporation of BST into BNKT can disturb the long-range ferroelectric order, lowering the dielectric maximum temperature T_m and inducing the formation of highly dynamic polar nano-regions. In addition, the T_m shifts toward a high temperature with frequency and a diffuse phase transition, indicating relaxor ferroelectric characteristics of BNKT-BST ceramics, which is confirmed by the modified Curie-Weiss law. The rhombohedral-tetragonal phase, fine grain size, and lowered T_m with relaxor properties synergistically contribute to a high P_max and low P_r, improving the breakdown strength with BST and resulting in a high recoverable energy density W_rec of 0.81 J/cm³ and a high energy efficiency η of 86.95% at 90 kV/cm for x = 0.45. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Performance and Application Research of Smart Piezoelectric Materials)

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20 pages, 9160 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review of Single Crystal Synthesis of 11 Iron-Based Superconductors

by Qiang Hou, Longfei Sun, Yue Sun and Zhixiang Shi

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4895; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144895 - 08 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1305

Abstract

The 11 system in the iron-based superconducting family has become one of the most extensively studied materials in the research of high-temperature superconductivity, due to their simple structure and rich physical properties. Many exotic properties, such as multiband electronic structure, electronic nematicity, topology [...] Read more.

The 11 system in the iron-based superconducting family has become one of the most extensively studied materials in the research of high-temperature superconductivity, due to their simple structure and rich physical properties. Many exotic properties, such as multiband electronic structure, electronic nematicity, topology and antiferromagnetic order, provide strong support for the theory of high-temperature superconductivity, and have been at the forefront of condensed matter physics in the past decade. One noteworthy aspect is that a high upper critical magnetic field, large critical current density and lower toxicity give the 11 system good application prospects. However, the research on 11 iron-based superconductors faces numerous obstacles, mainly stemming from the challenges associated with producing high-quality single crystals. Since the discovery of FeSe superconductivity in 2008, researchers have made significant progress in crystal growth, overcoming the hurdles that initially impeded their studies. Consequently, they have successfully established the complete phase diagrams of 11 iron-based superconductors, including FeSe_1−xTe_x, FeSe_1−xS_x and FeTe_1−xS_x. In this paper, we aim to provide a comprehensive summary of the preparation methods employed for 11 iron-based single crystals over the past decade. Specifically, we will focus on hydrothermal, chemical vapor transport (CVT), self-flux and annealing methods. Additionally, we will discuss the quality, size, and superconductivity properties exhibited by single crystals obtained through different preparation methods. By exploring these aspects, we can gain a better understanding of the advantages and limitations associated with each technique. High-quality single crystals serve as invaluable tools for advancing both the theoretical understanding and practical utilization of high-temperature superconductivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physics and Application of Superconductivity)

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19 pages, 6114 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

3D Model of Heat Flow during Diffusional Phase Transformations

by Łukasz Łach and Dmytro Svyetlichnyy

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4865; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134865 - 06 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 900

Abstract

The structure of metallic materials has a significant impact on their properties. One of the most popular methods to form the properties of metal alloys is heat treatment, which uses thermally activated transformations that take place in metals to achieve the required mechanical [...] Read more.

The structure of metallic materials has a significant impact on their properties. One of the most popular methods to form the properties of metal alloys is heat treatment, which uses thermally activated transformations that take place in metals to achieve the required mechanical or physicochemical properties. The phase transformation in steel results from the fact that one state becomes less durable than the other due to a change in conditions, for example, temperature. Phase transformations are an extensive field of research that is developing very dynamically both in the sphere of experimental and model research. The objective of this paper is the development of a 3D heat flow model to model heat transfer during diffusional phase transformations in carbon steels. This model considers the two main factors that influence the transformation: the temperature and the enthalpy of transformation. The proposed model is based on the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) and uses CUDA parallel computations. The developed heat flow model is directly related to the microstructure evolution model, which is based on frontal cellular automata (FCA). This paper briefly presents information on the FCA, LBM, CUDA, and diffusional phase transformation in carbon steels. The structures of the 3D model of heat flow and their connection with the microstructure evolution model as well as the algorithm for simulation of heat transfer with consideration of the enthalpy of transformation are shown. Examples of simulation results of the growth of the new phase that are determined by the overheating/overcooling and different model parameters in the selected planes of the 3D calculation domain are also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys and Steels)

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18 pages, 7614 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

First Conclusions on Damage Behaviour of Recycled Carbon Staple Fibre Yarn Using X-ray and Acoustic Emission Techniques

by Christian Becker, Joachim Hausmann, Janna Krummenacker and Nicole Motsch-Eichmann

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4842; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134842 - 05 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1084

Abstract

This paper presents the first results on the characterisation of the damage behaviour of recycled carbon fibre (rCF) rovings manufactured into unidirectionally (UD) reinforced plates. In the first step, the mechanical properties of several material combinations were determined by mechanical tests (tensile, flexural, [...] Read more.

This paper presents the first results on the characterisation of the damage behaviour of recycled carbon fibre (rCF) rovings manufactured into unidirectionally (UD) reinforced plates. In the first step, the mechanical properties of several material combinations were determined by mechanical tests (tensile, flexural, compression). This proves the usability of the material for load-bearing structures. For example, a tensile modulus of up to 80 GPa and a tensile strength of 800 MPa were measured. Subsequently, the fracture surface was analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to characterise the fibre–matrix adhesion and to obtain first indications of possible failure mechanisms. Despite the high mechanical properties, poor fibre–matrix adhesion was found for all matrix systems. In situ X-ray microscopy tests were then performed on smaller specimens under predefined load levels as transverse tensile and bending tests. The results provide further predictions of the failure behaviour and can be compared to the previous test results. The three-dimensional scan reconstruction results were used to visualise the failure behaviour of the staple fibres in order to detect fibre pull-out and fibre or inter-fibre failure and to draw initial conclusions about the damage behaviour in comparison to conventional fibre composites. In particular, a benign failure behaviour in the transverse tensile test was demonstrated with this procedure. In addition, first concepts and tests for the integration of AE analysis into the in situ setup of the X-ray microscope are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage Analysis and Reliability Assessment for Composite Materials)

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15 pages, 2951 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hydrogen Bonds as Stability-Controlling Elements of Spherical Aggregates of ZnO Nanoparticles: A Joint Experimental and Theoretical Approach

by Ankica Šarić and Ines Despotović

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4843; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134843 - 05 Jul 2023

Viewed by 957

Abstract

The effects of various organic additives, such as diethanolamine (DEA) and ethanolamine (EA), and variations in aging times on the formation and stability mechanisms of spherical aggregates of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) prepared by using solvothermal synthesis were studied. The experimental results of the [...] Read more.

The effects of various organic additives, such as diethanolamine (DEA) and ethanolamine (EA), and variations in aging times on the formation and stability mechanisms of spherical aggregates of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) prepared by using solvothermal synthesis were studied. The experimental results of the structural, morphological and optical properties monitored by using X-ray diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and UV-Vis spectroscopy were supported by quantum chemical calculations at the level of density functional theory (DFT). Understanding the mechanism of spherical ZnO aggregate formation and its stability by mimicking the processes at the computer level was achieved through theoretical simulations of the ZnO surface/additive interactions using (ZnO)₃₆–DEA and (ZnO)₃₆–EA models. The fine-tuned spherical aggregation of ZnO nanoparticles was driven by various interactions, in particular, strong O–H∙∙∙O and weak N–H∙∙∙O hydrogen bonds as controlling interactions. The calculated negative free release energy, ∆G*_INT, indicates that the ZnO surface/additive interaction in diethanolamine media is a spontaneous exergonic process (∆G*_INT = −7.73 kcal mol⁻¹), whereas, in ethanolamine media, it is an unfavorable, slightly endergonic process (∆G*_INT > 0). The presence of two strong O–H∙∙∙O hydrogen bonds and, at the same time, a weaker N–H∙∙∙O hydrogen bond is the key factor for the very good and long-term aggregate stability of ZnO NPs in DEA media. This integrated experimental–theoretical study highlights the stability and compactness of spherical ZnO aggregates of ZnO NPs, prepared in the presence of diethanolamine compared to ethanolamine media, and provides a promising method and flexible design of ZnO nanomaterials to improve their adsorptive and optical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Materials Chemistry)

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13 pages, 3502 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mechanical Properties and Wear Susceptibility Determined by Nanoindentation Technique of Ti13Nb13Zr Titanium Alloy after “Direct Laser Writing”

by Magdalena Jażdżewska, Beata Majkowska-Marzec, Andrzej Zieliński, Roman Ostrowski, Aleksandra Frączek, Gabriela Karwowska and Jean-Marc Olive

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4834; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134834 - 05 Jul 2023

Viewed by 860

Abstract

Laser treatment has often been applied to rebuild the surface layer of titanium and its alloys destined for long-term implants. Such treatment has always been associated with forming melted and re-solidified thin surface layers. The process parameters of such laser treatment can be [...] Read more.

Laser treatment has often been applied to rebuild the surface layer of titanium and its alloys destined for long-term implants. Such treatment has always been associated with forming melted and re-solidified thin surface layers. The process parameters of such laser treatment can be different, including the patterning of a surface by so-called direct writing. In this research, pulse laser treatment was performed on the Ti13Nb13Zr alloy surface, with the distance between adjacent laser paths ranging between 20 and 50 µm. The obtained periodic structures were tested to examine the effects of the scan distance on the microstructure using SEM, the roughness and chemical and phase composition using EDS and XRD, and the mechanical properties using the nanoindentation technique. After direct laser writing, the thickness of the melted layers was between 547 and 123 µm, and the surface roughness varied between 1.74 and 0.69 µm. An increase in hardness was observed after laser treatment. The highest hardness, 5.44 GPa, was obtained for the sample modified with a laser beam spacing of 50 µm. The value of the distance has been shown to be important for several properties and related to a complex microstructure of the thin surface layer close to and far from the laser path. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coatings on Light Alloys Substrate—2nd Volume)

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25 pages, 23142 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Significant Progress for Hot-Deformed Nd-Fe-B Magnets: A Review

by Renjie Chen, Xianshuang Xia, Xu Tang and Aru Yan

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4789; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134789 - 03 Jul 2023

Viewed by 1618

Abstract

High-performance Nd-Fe-B-based rare-earth permanent magnets play a crucial role in the application of traction motors equipped in new energy automobiles. In particular, the anisotropic hot-deformed (HD) Nd-Fe-B magnets prepared by the hot-press and hot-deformation process show great potential in achieving high coercivity due [...] Read more.

High-performance Nd-Fe-B-based rare-earth permanent magnets play a crucial role in the application of traction motors equipped in new energy automobiles. In particular, the anisotropic hot-deformed (HD) Nd-Fe-B magnets prepared by the hot-press and hot-deformation process show great potential in achieving high coercivity due to their fine grain sizes of 200–400 nm, which are smaller by more than an order of magnitude compared to the traditional sintered Nd-Fe-B magnets. However, the current available coercivity of HD magnets is not as high as expected according to an empirical correlation between coercivity and grain size, only occupying about 25% of its full potential of the anisotropy field of the Nd₂Fe₁₄B phase. For the sake of achieving high-coercivity HD magnets, two major routes have been developed, namely the grain boundary diffusion process (GBDP) and the dual alloy diffusion process (DADP). In this review, the fundamentals and development of the HD Nd-Fe-B magnets are comprehensively summarized and discussed based on worldwide scientific research. The advances in the GBDP and DADP are investigated and summarized based on the latest progress and results. Additionally, the mechanisms of coercivity enhancement are discussed based on the numerous results of micromagnetic simulations to understand the structure–property relationships of the HD Nd-Fe-B magnets. Lastly, the magnetization reversal behaviors, based on the observation of magneto-optic Kerr effect microscopy, are analyzed to pinpoint the weak regions in the microstructure of the HD Nd-Fe-B magnets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization, and Development of Hot-Deformed Magnets)

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17 pages, 6798 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Novel Approach to Investigate the Superheating Grain Refinement Process of Aluminum-Bearing Magnesium Alloys Using Rapid Solidification Process

by Sungsu Jung, Yongho Park and Youngcheol Lee

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4799; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134799 - 03 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 782

Abstract

The superheating process is a unique grain refining method found only in aluminum-containing magnesium alloys. It is a relatively simple method of controlling the temperature of the melt without adding a nucleating agent or refining agent for grain refinement. Although previous studies have [...] Read more.

The superheating process is a unique grain refining method found only in aluminum-containing magnesium alloys. It is a relatively simple method of controlling the temperature of the melt without adding a nucleating agent or refining agent for grain refinement. Although previous studies have been conducted on this process, the precise mechanism underlying this phenomenon has yet to be elucidated. In this study, a new approach was used to investigate the grain refinement mechanism of aluminum-containing magnesium alloys by the melting superheating process. AZ91 alloy, a representative Mg-Al alloy, was used in the study, and a rapid solidification process was designed to enable precise temperature control. Temperature control was successfully conducted in a unique way by measuring the temperature of the ceramic tube during the rapid solidification process. The presence of Al₈Mn₅ and Al₁₀Mn₃ particles in non-superheated and superheated AZ91 ribbon samples, respectively, manufactured by the rapid solidification process, was revealed. The role of these Al-Mn particles as nucleants in non-superheated and superheated samples was examined by employing STEM equipment. The crystallographic coherence between Al₈Mn₅ particles and magnesium was very poor, while Al₁₀Mn₃ particles showed better coherence than Al₈Mn₅. We speculated that Al₁₀Mn₃ particles generated by the superheating process may act as nucleants for α-Mg grains; this was the main cause of the superheating grain refinement of the AZ91 alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure Engineering of Metals and Alloys)

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14 pages, 8408 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Strength and Electrical Properties of Cementitious Composite with Integrated Carbon Nanotubes

by Anna Lushnikova, Olivier Plé, Yago De Souza Gomes, Xiaohui Jia and Wei Yang

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4771; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134771 - 01 Jul 2023

Viewed by 784

Abstract

The main objective of this work was to study the effects of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on the strength and electrical properties of cement mortar. Molecular dynamic simulations (MDSs) were carried out to determine the mechanical and electrical properties of a cementitious composite and [...] Read more.

The main objective of this work was to study the effects of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on the strength and electrical properties of cement mortar. Molecular dynamic simulations (MDSs) were carried out to determine the mechanical and electrical properties of a cementitious composite and its associated mechanisms. To model the atomic structure of a calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel, tobermorite 11Å was chosen. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) embedded in a tobermorite structure were tested numerically. In particular, it was concluded that a piezoelectric effect can be effectively simulated by varying the concentration levels of carbon nanotubes. The deformation characteristics were analyzed by subjecting a sample to an electrical field of 250 MV/m in the z-direction in a simulation box. The results indicated a progressively stronger converse piezoelectric response with an increasing proportion of carbon nanotubes. Additionally, it was observed that the piezoelectric constant in the z-direction, denoted by d33, also increased correspondingly, thereby validating the potential for generating an electrical current during sample deformation. An innovative experiment was developed for the electrical characterization of a cementitious composite of carbon nanotubes. The results showed that the electrostatic current measurements exhibited a higher electric sensitivity for samples with a higher concentration of CNTs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Binders for Construction Materials (Second Volume))

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22 pages, 7015 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

FEM-GAN: A Physics-Supervised Deep Learning Generative Model for Elastic Porous Materials

by Albert Argilaga

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4740; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134740 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1188

Abstract

X-ray

μ

CT imaging is a common technique that is used to gain access to the full-field characterization of materials. Nevertheless, the process can be expensive and time-consuming, thus limiting image availability. A number of existing generative models can assist in mitigating this [...] Read more.

X-ray

μ

CT imaging is a common technique that is used to gain access to the full-field characterization of materials. Nevertheless, the process can be expensive and time-consuming, thus limiting image availability. A number of existing generative models can assist in mitigating this limitation, but they often lack a sound physical basis. This work presents a physics-supervised generative adversarial networks (GANs) model and applies it to the generation of X-ray

μ

CT images. FEM simulations provide physical information in the form of elastic coefficients. Negative X-ray

μ

CT images of a Hostun sand were used as the target material. During training, image batches were evaluated with nonparametric statistics to provide posterior metrics. A variety of loss functions and FEM evaluation frequencies were tested in a parametric study. The results show, that in several test scenarios, FEM-GANs-generated images proved to be better than the reference images for most of the elasticity coefficients. Although the model failed at perfectly reproducing the three out-of-axis coefficients in most cases, the model showed a net improvement with respect to the GANs reference. The generated images can be used in data augmentation, the calibration of image analysis tools, filling incomplete X-ray

μ

CT images, and generating microscale variability in multiscale applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances and Applications of Machine Learning in Materials Science and Engineering)

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28 pages, 35152 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Role of Lithium in the Aging Precipitation Process of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys and Its Effect on the Properties

by Jing-Ran Sun, Bai-Xin Dong, Hong-Yu Yang, Shi-Li Shu, Feng Qiu, Qi-Chuan Jiang and Lai-Chang Zhang

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4750; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134750 - 30 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1134

Abstract

It is well known that the development of lightweight alloys with improved comprehensive performance and application value are the future development directions for the ultra-high-strength 7xxx series Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys used in the aircraft field. As the lightest metal element in nature, lithium (Li) [...] Read more.

It is well known that the development of lightweight alloys with improved comprehensive performance and application value are the future development directions for the ultra-high-strength 7xxx series Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys used in the aircraft field. As the lightest metal element in nature, lithium (Li) has outstanding advantages in reducing the density and increasing the elastic modulus in aluminum alloys, so Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys containing Li have gained widespread attention. Furthermore, since the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy is usually strengthened by aging treatment, it is crucial to understand how Li addition affects its aging precipitation process. As such, in this article, the effects and mechanism of Li on the aging precipitation behavior and the impact of Li content on the aging precipitation phase of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys are briefly reviewed, and the influence of Li on the service properties, including mechanical properties, wear resistance, and fatigue resistance, of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys are explained. In addition, the corresponding development prospects and challenges of the Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Li alloy are also proposed. This review is helpful to further understand the role of Li in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys and provides a reference for the development of high-strength aluminum alloys containing Li with good comprehensive properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 15th Anniversary of Materials—Recent Advances in Materials Physics)

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11 pages, 4400 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preparation of MoS₂ Nanospheres using a Hydrothermal Method and Their Application as Ammonia Gas Sensors Based on Delay Line Surface Acoustic Wave Devices

by Chan-Yu Chung, Ying-Chung Chen, Feng-Renn Juang, Kuo-Sheng Kao and En-I Lee

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4703; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134703 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1353

Abstract

An ammonia sensor based on a delay-line surface acoustic wave (SAW) device is developed in this study by coating the delay line area of the device with a nano-structured molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) sensitive material. A SAW device of 122 MHz was [...] Read more.

An ammonia sensor based on a delay-line surface acoustic wave (SAW) device is developed in this study by coating the delay line area of the device with a nano-structured molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) sensitive material. A SAW device of 122 MHz was designed and fabricated with a pair of interdigital transducers (IDTs) defined on a 128° y-cut LiNbO₃ substrate using photolithography technologies, and the aluminum IDT electrodes were deposited by a DC magnetron sputtering system. By adjusting the pH values of precursor solutions, molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) nanospheres were prepared with various structures using a hydrothermal method. Finally, an NH₃ gas sensor with high sensitivity of 4878 Hz/ppm, operating at room temperature, was successfully obtained. The excellent sensitivity performance may be due to the efficient adsorption of NH₃ gas molecules on the surfaces of the nanoflower-like MoS₂, which has a larger specific surface area and provides more active sites, and results in a larger change in the resonant frequency of the device due to the mass loading effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials for Gas Sensors (Volume II))

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18 pages, 2891 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Biochar from Grapevine Pruning Residues as an Efficient Adsorbent of Polyphenolic Compounds

by Melissa Prelac, Igor Palčić, Danko Cvitan, Dominik Anđelini, Maja Repajić, Josip Ćurko, Tvrtko Karlo Kovačević, Smiljana Goreta Ban, Zoran Užila, Dean Ban and Nikola Major

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4716; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134716 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1319

Abstract

Agricultural waste, which is produced in large quantities annually, can be a threat to the environment. Biochar (BC) production represents a potential solution for reducing the amount of grapevine pruning residues and, accordingly, the impact on the environment and climate change. Biochar produced [...] Read more.

Agricultural waste, which is produced in large quantities annually, can be a threat to the environment. Biochar (BC) production represents a potential solution for reducing the amount of grapevine pruning residues and, accordingly, the impact on the environment and climate change. Biochar produced by the process of pyrolysis from grapevine pruning residues was investigated and characterized to be applied as an adsorbent of polyphenolic compounds with the aim of using the waste from viticultural production to obtain a quality product with adsorption and recovery potential. Standards of caffeic acid (CA), gallic acid (GA), and oleuropein (OLP) were used as polyphenolic representatives. The obtained data were fitted with the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms models to describe the adsorption process. The best K_L (0.39) and R² (0.9934) were found for OLP using the Langmuir model. Furthermore, the adsorption dynamics and recovery potential of BC were investigated using an adapted BC column and performed on an HPLC instrument. The adsorption dynamics of biochar resulted in the adsorption of 5.73 mg CA g⁻¹ of BC, 3.90 mg GA g⁻¹ of BC, and 3.17 mg OLP g⁻¹ of BC in a 24 h contact. The online solid phase extraction of the compounds performed on an HPLC instrument yielded a recovery of 41.5 ± 1.71% for CA, 61.8 ± 1.16% for GA, and 91.4 ± 2.10% for OLP. The investigated biochar has shown a higher affinity for low-polar compound adsorption and, consequently, a higher polar compound recovery suggesting its potential as an efficient polyphenolic compound adsorbent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochar and Carbon-Based Materials: Properties and Applications)

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11 pages, 3183 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Study on Optimal Indium Tin Oxide Thickness as Transparent Conductive Electrodes for Near-Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes

by Min-Ju Kim

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4718; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134718 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1118

Abstract

This research study thoroughly examines the optimal thickness of indium tin oxide (ITO), a transparent electrode, for near-ultraviolet (NUV) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) based on InGaN/AlGaInN materials. A range of ITO thicknesses from 30 to 170 nm is investigated, and annealing processes are performed [...] Read more.

This research study thoroughly examines the optimal thickness of indium tin oxide (ITO), a transparent electrode, for near-ultraviolet (NUV) light-emitting diodes (LEDs) based on InGaN/AlGaInN materials. A range of ITO thicknesses from 30 to 170 nm is investigated, and annealing processes are performed to determine the most favorable figure of merit (FOM) by balancing transmittance and sheet resistance in the NUV region. Among the films of different thicknesses, an ITO film measuring 110 nm, annealed at 550 °C for 1 min, demonstrates the highest FOM. This film exhibits notable characteristics, including 89.0% transmittance at 385 nm, a sheet resistance of 131 Ω/□, and a contact resistance of 3.1 × 10⁻³ Ω·cm². Comparing the performance of NUV LEDs using ITO films of various thicknesses (30, 50, 70, 90, 130, 150, and 170 nm), it is observed that the NUV LED employing ITO with a thickness of 110 nm achieves a maximum 48% increase in light output power at 50 mA while maintaining the same forward voltage at 20 mA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Materials and Their Use in Electronic Applications)

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13 pages, 5515 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Area-Selective Atomic Layer Deposition of ZnO on Si\SiO₂ Modified with Tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane

by Behnam Moeini, Tahereh G. Avval, Hidde H. Brongersma, Stanislav Průša, Pavel Bábík, Elena Vaníčková, Brian R. Strohmeier, David S. Bell, Dennis Eggett, Steven M. George and Matthew R. Linford

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4688; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134688 - 29 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1252

Abstract

Delayed atomic layer deposition (ALD) of ZnO, i.e., area selective (AS)-ALD, was successfully achieved on silicon wafers (Si\SiO₂) terminated with tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane (TDMAMS). This resist molecule was deposited in a home-built, near-atmospheric pressure, flow-through, gas-phase reactor. TDMAMS had previously been shown to [...] Read more.

Delayed atomic layer deposition (ALD) of ZnO, i.e., area selective (AS)-ALD, was successfully achieved on silicon wafers (Si\SiO₂) terminated with tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane (TDMAMS). This resist molecule was deposited in a home-built, near-atmospheric pressure, flow-through, gas-phase reactor. TDMAMS had previously been shown to react with Si\SiO₂ in a single cycle/reaction and to drastically reduce the number of silanols that remain at the surface. ZnO was deposited in a commercial ALD system using dimethylzinc (DMZ) as the zinc precursor and H₂O as the coreactant. Deposition of TDMAMS was confirmed by spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and wetting. ALD of ZnO, including its selectivity on TDMAMS-terminated Si\SiO₂ (Si\SiO₂\TDMAMS), was confirmed by in situ multi-wavelength ellipsometry, ex situ SE, XPS, and/or high-sensitivity/low-energy ion scattering (HS-LEIS). The thermal stability of the TDMAMS resist layer, which is an important parameter for AS-ALD, was investigated by heating Si\SiO₂\TDMAMS in air and nitrogen at 330 °C. ALD of ZnO takes place more readily on Si\SiO₂\TDMAMS heated in the air than in N₂, suggesting greater damage to the surface heated in the air. To better understand the in situ ALD of ZnO on Si\SiO₂\TDMAMS and modified (thermally stressed) forms of it, the ellipsometry results were plotted as the normalized growth per cycle. Even one short pulse of TDMAMS effectively passivates Si\SiO₂. TDMAMS can be a useful, small-molecule inhibitor of ALD of ZnO on Si\SiO₂ surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Thin Films and Interfaces)

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20 pages, 6929 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Highly Active Nickel (II) Oxide-Supported Cerium Oxide Catalysts for Valorization of Glycerol into Oxygenated Fuel Additives

by Jimmy Nelson Appaturi, Pedro Maireles-Torres, Taghrid S. Alomar, Najla AlMasoud, Zeinhom M. El-Bahy, Tau Chuan Ling and Eng-Poh Ng

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4713; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134713 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 890

Abstract

Acetylation of glycerol to yield monoacetin (MAT), diacetin (DAT), and triacetin (TAT) over NiO-supported CeO₂ (xNiO/CeO₂) catalysts is reported. The catalysts were synthesized utilizing a sol-gel technique, whereby different quantities of NiO (x = 9, 27, and [...] Read more.

Acetylation of glycerol to yield monoacetin (MAT), diacetin (DAT), and triacetin (TAT) over NiO-supported CeO₂ (xNiO/CeO₂) catalysts is reported. The catalysts were synthesized utilizing a sol-gel technique, whereby different quantities of NiO (x = 9, 27, and 45 wt%) were supported onto the CeO₂ substrate, and hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTABr) served as a porogen. The utilization of EDX elemental mapping analysis confirmed the existence of evenly distributed Ni²⁺ ion and octahedral NiO nanoparticles on the CeO₂ surface through the DRS UV-Vis spectroscopy. The most active catalyst is 27NiO/CeO₂ based on TAT selectivity in the glycerol acetylation with ethanoic acid, attaining 97.6% glycerol conversion with 70.5% selectivity to TAT at 170 °C with a 1:10 glycerol/ethanoic acid molar ratio for 30 min using a non-microwave instant heating reactor. The 27NiO/CeO₂ is reusable without significant decline in catalytic performance after ten consecutive reaction cycles, indicating high structure stability with accessible active acidity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Porous Materials and Nanozeolites)

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10 pages, 413 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Traps and Lorentz Force on Charge Transport in Organic Semiconductors

by Seema Morab, Manickam Minakshi Sundaram and Almantas Pivrikas

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4691; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134691 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 843

Abstract

Charge transport characteristics in organic semiconductor devices become altered in the presence of traps due to defects or impurities in the semiconductors. These traps can lead to a decrease in charge carrier mobility and an increase in recombination rates, thereby ultimately affecting the [...] Read more.

Charge transport characteristics in organic semiconductor devices become altered in the presence of traps due to defects or impurities in the semiconductors. These traps can lead to a decrease in charge carrier mobility and an increase in recombination rates, thereby ultimately affecting the overall performance of the device. It is therefore important to understand and mitigate the impact of traps on organic semiconductor devices. In this contribution, the influence of the capture and release times of trap states, recombination rates, and the Lorentz force on the net charge of a low-mobility organic semiconductor was determined using the finite element method (FEM) and Hall effect method through numerical simulations. The findings suggest that increasing magnetic fields had a lesser impact on net charge at constant capture and release times of trap states. On the other hand, by increasing the capture time of trap states at a constant magnetic field and fixed release time, the net charge extracted from the semiconductor device increased with increasing capture time. Moreover, the net charge extracted from the semiconductor device was nearly four and eight times greater in the case of the non-Langevin recombination rates of 0.01 and 0.001, respectively, when compared to the Langevin rate. These results imply that the non-Langevin recombination rate can significantly enhance the performance of semiconductor devices, particularly in applications that require efficient charge extraction. These findings pave the way for the development of more efficient and cost-effective electronic devices with improved charge transport properties and higher power conversion efficiencies, thus further opening up new avenues for research and innovation in this area of modern semiconductor technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analytical and Computational Methods in Material and Mechanical Engineering)

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18 pages, 885 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Effect of Thermal Treatments and Ion Substitution on Sintering and Crystallization of Bioactive Glasses: A Review

by Francesco Gerardo Mecca, Devis Bellucci and Valeria Cannillo

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4651; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134651 - 28 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1152

Abstract

Bioactive glasses (BGs) are promising materials for bone regeneration due to their ability to bond with living bone tissue. However, thermal stability and mechanical properties of BGs need improvement for better clinical performance. In this paper, we present an overview of the influence [...] Read more.

Bioactive glasses (BGs) are promising materials for bone regeneration due to their ability to bond with living bone tissue. However, thermal stability and mechanical properties of BGs need improvement for better clinical performance. In this paper, we present an overview of the influence of different ions on the sintering and crystallization of BGs. Specifically, this review focuses on the impact of thermal treatments on the crystallization of 45S5 and other significant BG compositions. Potential applications of these thermally treated BGs, such as scaffolds, BG-based composites, and thermally sprayed coatings, are explored. Moreover, the substitution of ions has been investigated as a method to enhance the thermal properties of BGs. Notably, zinc, potassium, and strontium have been studied extensively and have demonstrated promising effects on both the thermal and the mechanical properties of BGs. However, it is important to note that research on ion inclusion in BGs is still in its early stages, and further investigation is necessary to fully comprehend the effects of different ions on sintering and crystallization. Therefore, future studies should focus on optimizing the ion substitution method to improve the thermal, mechanical, and even biological properties of BGs, thereby enhancing their potential for various biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation, Characteristics and Application of Bioactive Glass)

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17 pages, 6550 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Investigation of the Bonding Mechanism between Overlapping Textile Layers for FRP Repair Based on Dry Textile Patches

by David Rabe, Juan Daniel Ortega Arbulu, Eric Häntzsche and Chokri Cherif

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4680; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134680 - 28 Jun 2023

Viewed by 724

Abstract

Lots of damaged fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) components are replaced by new components instead of repairing. Furthermore, only very labor-intensive repair methods are available on the market to fully restore the integrity of the structure. This requires a high level of experience or, alternatively, [...] Read more.

Lots of damaged fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) components are replaced by new components instead of repairing. Furthermore, only very labor-intensive repair methods are available on the market to fully restore the integrity of the structure. This requires a high level of experience or, alternatively, very cost-intensive technology, such as the use of computer tomography and robotics. The high costs and CO₂ emissions caused by the manufacture of FRP components then bear no relation to their service life. The research project IGF-21985 BR “FRP-Repair” aims to solve the named challenges. Using semiconductor oxide catalysts, the matrix can be locally depolymerized by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and thus removed from the damaged area of the FRP component. Subsequently, the damaged fibers in this area can be detached. By using customized textile repair patches and local thermoset reinfiltration, the repair area is restored. With this process, the fiber structure can be repaired locally with new fibers on the textile level. The repair is similar to the original production of a fiber composite in an infusion process. No additional adhesive material is used. As a result, repaired FRP structures with restored mechanics and a near-original surface can be realized. This article provides an insight into the actual steps of the development of the FRP component repair process using dry textile patches. The empirical investigation of overlapped rovings and UD material showed the expected results. Residual fracture forces of up to 86% could be achieved. The most interesting approach on the roving level was splicing the overlapping fibers. The free ends of the fibers of the patch and part are mechanically bonded. This bond at the textile level is further strengthened by infusion with matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Composite Materials for Structural Maintenance, Repair, and Control)

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21 pages, 6359 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Thermal Decomposition Path—Studied by the Simultaneous Thermogravimetry Coupled with Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry—Of Imidazoline/Dimethyl Succinate Hybrids and Their Biological Characterization

by Marta Worzakowska, Małgorzata Sztanke, Jolanta Rzymowska and Krzysztof Sztanke

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4638; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134638 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 766

Abstract

The thermal decomposition path of synthetically and pharmacologically useful hybrid materials was analyzed in inert and oxidizing conditions for the first time and presented in this article. All the imidazoline/dimethyl succinate hybrids (1–5) were studied using the simultaneous thermogravimetry [...] Read more.

The thermal decomposition path of synthetically and pharmacologically useful hybrid materials was analyzed in inert and oxidizing conditions for the first time and presented in this article. All the imidazoline/dimethyl succinate hybrids (1–5) were studied using the simultaneous thermogravimetry (TG) coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and quadrupole mass spectrometry (QMS). It was found that the tested compounds were thermally stable up to 200–208 °C (inert conditions) and up to 191–197 °C (oxidizing conditions). In both furnace atmospheres, their decomposition paths were multi-step processes. At least two major stages (inert conditions) and three major stages (oxidizing conditions) of their decomposition were observed. The first decomposition stage occurred between T_5% and 230–237 °C. It was connected with the breaking of one ester bond. This led to the emission of one methanol molecule and the formation of radicals capable of further radical reactions in both used atmospheres. At the second decomposition stage (T_max2) between 230–237 °C and 370 °C (inert conditions), or at about 360 °C (oxidizing conditions), the cleavage of the second ester bond and N-N and C-C bonds led to the emission of CH₃OH, HCN, N₂, and CO₂ and other radical fragments that reacted with each other to form clusters and large clusters. Heating the tested compounds to a temperature of about 490 °C resulted in the emission of NH₃, HCN, HNCO, aromatic amines, carbonyl fragments, and the residue (T_max2a) in both atmospheres. In oxidizing conditions, the oxidation of the formed residues (T_max3) was related to the production of CO₂, CO, and H₂O. These studies confirmed the same radical decomposition mechanism of the tested compounds both in inert and oxidizing conditions. The antitumor activities and toxicities to normal cells of the imidazoline/dimethyl succinate hybrids were also evaluated. As a result, the two hybrid materials (3 and 5) proved to be the most selective in biological studies, and therefore, they should be utilized in further, more extended in vivo investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Behavior of Polymeric and Other Advanced Materials)

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19 pages, 15245 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cleaning Strategies of Synthesized Bioactive Coatings by PEO on Ti-6Al-4V Alloys of Organic Contaminations

by Avital Schwartz, Alexey Kossenko, Michael Zinigrad, Viktor Danchuk and Alexander Sobolev

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4624; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134624 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 1824

Abstract

The effect of various cleaning methods on coating morphology and their effectiveness in removing organic contaminants has been studied in this research. Bioactive coatings containing titanium oxides and hydroxyapatite (HAP) were obtained through plasma electrolytic oxidation in aqueous electrolytes and molten salts. The [...] Read more.

The effect of various cleaning methods on coating morphology and their effectiveness in removing organic contaminants has been studied in this research. Bioactive coatings containing titanium oxides and hydroxyapatite (HAP) were obtained through plasma electrolytic oxidation in aqueous electrolytes and molten salts. The cleaning procedure for the coated surface was performed using autoclave (A), ultraviolet light (UV), radio frequency (RF), air plasma (P), and UV-ozone cleaner (O). The samples were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with an EDS detector, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray phase analysis (XRD), and contact angle (CA) measurements. The conducted studies revealed that the samples obtained from molten salt exhibited a finer crystalline structure morphology (275 nm) compared to those obtained from aqueous electrolytes (350 nm). After applying surface cleaning methods, the carbon content decreased from 5.21 at.% to 0.11 at.% (XPS), which directly corresponds to a reduction in organic contaminations and a decrease in the contact angle as follows: A > UV > P > O. This holds true for both coatings obtained in molten salt (25.3° > 19.5° > 10.5° > 7.5°) and coatings obtained in aqueous electrolytes (35.2° > 28.3° > 26.1° > 16.6°). The most effective and moderate cleaning method is ozone treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation: Technologies and Applications)

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11 pages, 8375 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Abruptly Autofocusing Vortex Beams for Rapid Controllable Femtosecond Two-Photon Polymerization

by Erse Jia, Chen Xie, Yue Yang, Na Xiao and Minglie Hu

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4625; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134625 - 27 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1026

Abstract

Micro-fabrication based on structured-beam-assisted Two-Photon Polymerization (2 PP) provides a rapid and flexible method for the manufacture of microstructures with complex morphologies. The tunable Abruptly Autofocusing Vortex (AAFV) beams were designed theoretically and generated experimentally based on a single-phase-only Spatial Light Modulator (SLM). [...] Read more.

Micro-fabrication based on structured-beam-assisted Two-Photon Polymerization (2 PP) provides a rapid and flexible method for the manufacture of microstructures with complex morphologies. The tunable Abruptly Autofocusing Vortex (AAFV) beams were designed theoretically and generated experimentally based on a single-phase-only Spatial Light Modulator (SLM). Their specific spatial intensity distributions were further utilized to assist the fabrication of a bowl-shaped Three-Dimensional (3D) micro-trap array via 2 PP with a one-step exposure technique. Finally, the fabricated microstructures act as a novel tool for the trapping and spatial positioning of micro-particles with different diameters, which shows potential applications in fiber optics and cell study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Ultrafast Non-linear Optics and Non-linear Optical Materials)

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12 pages, 1341 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ultrasensitive Detection of Malachite Green Isothiocyanate Using Nanoporous Gold as SERS Substrate

by Deepti Raj, Noor Tayyaba, Ginevra De Vita, Federico Scaglione and Paola Rizzi

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4620; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134620 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1017

Abstract

In this article, a high-performance nanostructured substrate has been fabricated for the ultrasensitive detection of the organic pollutant, Malachite green isothiocyanate (MGITC), in aquatic systems via the Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) technique. The chemical dealloying approach has been used to synthesize a [...] Read more.

In this article, a high-performance nanostructured substrate has been fabricated for the ultrasensitive detection of the organic pollutant, Malachite green isothiocyanate (MGITC), in aquatic systems via the Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) technique. The chemical dealloying approach has been used to synthesize a three-dimensional nanoporous gold substrate (NPG) consisting of pores and multigrained ligament structures along thickness. The formation of the framework in NPG-5h has been confirmed by SEM with an average ligament size of 65 nm at the narrower neck. Remarkable SERS performance has been achieved by utilizing the NPG-5h substrate for the detection of MGITC, showing a signal enhancement of 7.9 × 10⁹. The SERS substrate also demonstrated an impressively low-detection limit of 10⁻¹⁶ M. The presence of numerous active sites, as well as plasmonic hotspots on the nanoporous surface, can be accredited to the signal amplification via the Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) phenomenon. As a result, SERS detection technology with the fabricated-NPG substrate not only proves to be a simple and effective approach for detecting malachite green but also provides a basis for in situ detection approach of toxic chemicals in aquatic ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Vibrational Spectroscopy Developments of Material Characterization)

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15 pages, 9876 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of Process Conditions on Sulfuric Acid Leaching of Manganese Sludge

by Jafar Safarian, Ariel Skaug Eini, Markus Antonius Elinsønn Pedersen and Shokouh Haghdani

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4591; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134591 - 25 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1020

Abstract

Manganese sludge, an industrial waste product in the ferroalloy industry, contains various components and holds significant importance for sustainable development through its valorization. This study focuses on characterizing a manganese sludge and investigating its behavior during sulfuric acid leaching. The influence of process [...] Read more.

Manganese sludge, an industrial waste product in the ferroalloy industry, contains various components and holds significant importance for sustainable development through its valorization. This study focuses on characterizing a manganese sludge and investigating its behavior during sulfuric acid leaching. The influence of process conditions, including temperature, acid concentration, liquid to solid ratio, and leaching duration, was examined. The results revealed that Mn, Zn, and K are the main leachable components, and their overall leaching rates increase with increasing temperature, liquid to solid ratio, and time. However, the acid concentration requires optimization. High leaching rates of 90% for Mn, 90% for Zn, and 100% for K were achieved. Moreover, it was found that Pb in the sludge is converted to sulfate during the leaching, which yields a sulfate concentrate rich in PbSO₄. The leaching process for Mn and Zn species appears to follow a second or third order reaction, and the calculation of rate constants indicated that Mn leaching kinetics are two to five times higher than those for Zn. Thermodynamic calculations were employed to evaluate the main chemical reactions occurring during leaching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability, Circular Economy and Waste Recycling: Advances in Materials Research)

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35 pages, 10639 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review on Controlling Grain Boundary Character Distribution during Twinning-Related Grain Boundary Engineering of Face-Centered Cubic Materials

by Yu-Qing Zhang, Guo-Zheng Quan, Jiang Zhao, Yan-Ze Yu and Wei Xiong

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4562; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134562 - 24 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1812

Abstract

Grain boundary engineering (GBE) is considered to be an attractive approach to microstructure control, which significantly enhances the grain-boundary-related properties of face-centered cubic (FCC) metals. During the twinning-related GBE, the microstructures are characterized as abundant special twin boundaries that sufficiently disrupt the connectivity [...] Read more.

Grain boundary engineering (GBE) is considered to be an attractive approach to microstructure control, which significantly enhances the grain-boundary-related properties of face-centered cubic (FCC) metals. During the twinning-related GBE, the microstructures are characterized as abundant special twin boundaries that sufficiently disrupt the connectivity of the random boundary network. However, controlling the grain boundary character distribution (GBCD) is an extremely difficult issue, as it strongly depends on diverse processing parameters. This article provides a comprehensive review of controlling GBCD during the twinning-related GBE of FCC materials. To commence, this review elaborates on the theory of twinning-related GBE, the microscopic mechanisms used in the optimization of GBCD, and the optimization objectives of GBCD. Aiming to achieve control over the GBCD, the influence of the initial microstructure, thermo-mechanical processing (TMP) routes, and thermal deformation parameters on the twinning-related microstructures and associated evolution mechanisms are discussed thoroughly. Especially, the development of twinning-related kinetics models for predicting the evolution of twin density is highlighted. Furthermore, this review addresses the applications of twinning-related GBE in enhancing the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of FCC materials. Finally, future prospects in terms of controlling the GBCD during twinning-related GBE are proposed. This study will contribute to optimizing the GBCD and designing GBE routes for better grain-boundary-related properties in terms of FCC materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Heat Treatment of Advanced Metallic Materials (2nd Volume))

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29 pages, 3044 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Perspectives on Thermochemical Recycling of End-of-Life Plastic Wastes to Alternative Fuels

by Sonil Nanda, Tumpa R. Sarker, Kang Kang, Dongbing Li and Ajay K. Dalai

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4563; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134563 - 24 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2963

Abstract

Due to its resistance to natural degradation and decomposition, plastic debris perseveres in the environment for centuries. As a lucrative material for packing industries and consumer products, plastics have become one of the major components of municipal solid waste today. The recycling of [...] Read more.

Due to its resistance to natural degradation and decomposition, plastic debris perseveres in the environment for centuries. As a lucrative material for packing industries and consumer products, plastics have become one of the major components of municipal solid waste today. The recycling of plastics is becoming difficult due to a lack of resource recovery facilities and a lack of efficient technologies to separate plastics from mixed solid waste streams. This has made oceans the hotspot for the dispersion and accumulation of plastic residues beyond landfills. This article reviews the sources, geographical occurrence, characteristics and recyclability of different types of plastic waste. This article presents a comprehensive summary of promising thermochemical technologies, such as pyrolysis, liquefaction and gasification, for the conversion of single-use plastic wastes to clean fuels. The operating principles, drivers and barriers for plastic-to-fuel technologies via pyrolysis (non-catalytic, catalytic, microwave and plasma), as well as liquefaction and gasification, are thoroughly discussed. Thermochemical co-processing of plastics with other organic waste biomass to produce high-quality fuel and energy products is also elaborated upon. Through this state-of-the-art review, it is suggested that, by investing in the research and development of thermochemical recycling technologies, one of the most pragmatic issues today, i.e., plastics waste management, can be sustainably addressed with a greater worldwide impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plastic Waste Management for Environmental Protection)

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27 pages, 16391 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Manufacturing Process, Microstructure and Physico-Mechanical Properties of W-Cr Coatings Reinforced by Cr3C2 Phase Produced on Tool Steel through Laser Processing

by Dariusz Bartkowski and Aneta Bartkowska

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4542; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134542 - 23 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1057

Abstract

This paper presents study results of laser processing of W-Cr, WCr/Cr₃C₂ and Cr₃C₂ pre-coats applied on steel substrate in the form of paste. For this study, production parameters were selected to obtain the greatest possible durability of [...] Read more.

This paper presents study results of laser processing of W-Cr, WCr/Cr₃C₂ and Cr₃C₂ pre-coats applied on steel substrate in the form of paste. For this study, production parameters were selected to obtain the greatest possible durability of final coatings. Laser processing was carried out using a diode laser machine with a rated power of 3 kW. The laser beam scanning speed was constant at 3 m/min, but variable laser beam powers were used: 600 W, 900 W and 1200 W. Multiple laser tracks with 60% overlapping were used. After remelting the pre-coat with a steel substrate, new coatings were obtained. Following the experiment, microstructure, microhardness, wear, corrosion resistance and chemical composition were investigated. It was found that it is possible to produce W-Cr/Cr₃C₂ coatings through laser processing. These coatings do not have the characteristics of a composite coating; however, increasing the reinforcing phase in the pre-coat positively affects the wear resistance and microhardness. The addition of a reinforcing phase was found to lead to a microhardness of about 750–890 HV01 for 25% and 75% Cr₃C₂, respectively, in comparison to coating without Cr₃C₂. The wear resistance of coatings reinforced by chromium carbide improved more than twofold in reference to the W-Cr coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Advanced Materials and Coatings)

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9 pages, 739 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ion-Selective Scattering Studied Using the Variable-Energy Electron Irradiation in the Ba_0.2K_0.8Fe₂As₂ Superconductor

by Kyuil Cho, Marcin Kończykowski, Makariy A. Tanatar, Igor I. Mazin, Yong Liu, Thomas A. Lograsso and Ruslan Prozorov

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4520; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134520 - 22 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 831

Abstract

Low-temperature variable-energy electron irradiation was used to induce non-magnetic disorder in a single crystal of a hole-doped iron-based superconductor, Ba

_{1 - x}

K

_{x}

Fe

_{2}

As

_{2}

, x = 0.80. To avoid systematic errors, the beam energy was adjusted non-consequently [...] Read more.

Low-temperature variable-energy electron irradiation was used to induce non-magnetic disorder in a single crystal of a hole-doped iron-based superconductor, Ba

_{1 - x}

K

_{x}

Fe

_{2}

As

_{2}

, x = 0.80. To avoid systematic errors, the beam energy was adjusted non-consequently for five values between 1.0 and 2.5 MeV when sample resistance was measured in situ at 22 K. For all energies, the resistivity raises linearly with the irradiation fluence suggesting the creation of uncorrelated dilute point-like disorder (confirmed by simulations). The rate of the resistivity increase peaks at energies below 1.5 MeV. Comparison with calculated partial cross-sections points to the predominant creation of defects in the iron sublattice. Simultaneously, superconducting

T_{c}

, measured separately between the irradiation runs, is monotonically suppressed as expected, since it depends on the total scattering rate, hence on the total cross-section, which is a monotonically increasing function of the energy. Our work experimentally confirms an often-made assumption of the dominant role of the iron sub-lattice in iron-based superconductors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Superconducting Materials and Applications of Superconductivity)

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11 pages, 5930 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Constituent Phases and Micromechanical Properties of Steel Corrosion Layers Generated by Hyperbaric-Oxygen Accelerated Corrosion Test

by Baozhen Jiang, Kotaro Doi and Koichi Tsuchiya

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4521; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134521 - 22 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 847

Abstract

Hyperbaric oxygen-accelerated corrosion testing (HOACT) is a newly developed method to study in the labor the corrosion behavior of steel bars in concrete. This work aimed to intensively investigate the mechanical properties and microstructures of HOACT-generated corrosion products by means of nano-indentation tests, [...] Read more.

Hyperbaric oxygen-accelerated corrosion testing (HOACT) is a newly developed method to study in the labor the corrosion behavior of steel bars in concrete. This work aimed to intensively investigate the mechanical properties and microstructures of HOACT-generated corrosion products by means of nano-indentation tests, Raman micro-spectrometry, and scanning electron microscopy. The local elastic modulus and nanohardness varied over wide ranges of 6.8–75.2 GPa and 0.38–4.44 GPa, respectively. Goethite, lepidocrocite, maghemite, magnetite, and akageneite phases were identified in the corrosion products. Most regions of the rust layer were composed of a complex and heterogeneous mix of different phases, while some regions were composed of maghemite or akageneite only. The relationship between the micromechanical properties and typical microstructural features is finally discussed at the micro-scale level. It was found that the porosity of corrosion products can significantly influence their micromechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure, Characteristics, and Failure Behaviors of Cementitious Composites)

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31 pages, 45264 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Porous Material (Titanium Gas Diffusion Layer) in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell/Electrolyzer: Fabrication Methods & GeoDict: A Critical Review

by Javid Hussain, Dae-Kyeom Kim, Sangmin Park, Muhammad-Waqas Khalid, Sayed-Sajid Hussain, Bin Lee, Myungsuk Song and Taek-Soo Kim

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4515; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134515 - 21 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2137

Abstract

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a renewable energy source rapidly approaching commercial viability. The performance is significantly affected by the transfer of fluid, charges, and heat; gas diffusion layer (GDL) is primarily concerned with the consistent transfer of these components, which [...] Read more.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a renewable energy source rapidly approaching commercial viability. The performance is significantly affected by the transfer of fluid, charges, and heat; gas diffusion layer (GDL) is primarily concerned with the consistent transfer of these components, which are heavily influenced by the material and design. High-efficiency GDL must have excellent thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, permeability, corrosion resistance, and high mechanical characteristics. The first step in creating a high-performance GDL is selecting the appropriate material. Therefore, titanium is a suitable substitute for steel or carbon due to its high strength-to-weight and superior corrosion resistance. The second crucial parameter is the fabrication method that governs all the properties. This review seeks to comprehend numerous fabrication methods such as tape casting, 3D printing, freeze casting, phase separation technique, and lithography, along with the porosity controller in each process such as partial sintering, input design, ice structure, pore agent, etching time, and mask width. Moreover, other GDL properties are being studied, including microstructure and morphology. In the future, GeoDict simulation is highly recommended for optimizing various GDL properties, as it is frequently used for other porous materials. The approach can save time and energy compared to intensive experimental work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Porous Materials)

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20 pages, 17638 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Pore Structure in Cement Pastes with Micronized Natural Zeolite

by Ionut-Ovidiu Toma, George Stoian, Mihai-Marius Rusu, Ioan Ardelean, Nicanor Cimpoeşu and Sergiu-Mihai Alexa-Stratulat

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4500; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134500 - 21 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 968

Abstract

The continuous development of urban areas around the world led to an increase in construction material use and demand, with concrete seeing significant market uptake. Although significant progress has been made to reduce the environmental impact of concrete, there is still a stringent [...] Read more.

The continuous development of urban areas around the world led to an increase in construction material use and demand, with concrete seeing significant market uptake. Although significant progress has been made to reduce the environmental impact of concrete, there is still a stringent need for improvement. One of the most widely used methods to reduce the environmental impact of the cement industry and the construction industry alike is the replacement of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) by supplementary cementitious materials (SCM). Aside from by-products of industry, SCMs could also come from natural sources. Taking into account the porous structure of zeolites and their contribution to the improvement of the mechanical and durability properties of cement-based materials, the analysis of pore structure in cement pastes incorporating micronized natural zeolite is deemed necessary. In this research, the OPC was replaced by zeolite in three different percentages: 10%, 20%, and 30% by mass. The evolution of pore structure was investigated by means of nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry at the curing ages of 1, 7, and 28 days. The microstructure of cement pastes was assessed by scanning electron microscopy investigations at 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The obtained results show that smaller pore sizes are present in cement pastes containing zeolites during the first 7 days. However, at the age of 28 days, the reference mix exhibits a similar pore structure to the mix containing 10% micronized zeolite due to the presence of larger amounts of hydration products. Increasing the replacement percentage to 30% results in larger pores, as indicated by larger values of the relaxation time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Durability Studies on the Concrete and Related Composites)

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24 pages, 2090 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Bioengineering Composite Aerogel-Based Scaffolds That Influence Porous Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and In Vivo Regeneration for Bone Tissue Application

by Mariana Souto-Lopes, Maria Helena Fernandes, Fernando Jorge Monteiro and Christiane Laranjo Salgado

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4483; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124483 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1264

Abstract

Tissue regeneration of large bone defects is still a clinical challenge. Bone tissue engineering employs biomimetic strategies to produce graft composite scaffolds that resemble the bone extracellular matrix to guide and promote osteogenic differentiation of the host precursor cells. Aerogel-based bone scaffold preparation [...] Read more.

Tissue regeneration of large bone defects is still a clinical challenge. Bone tissue engineering employs biomimetic strategies to produce graft composite scaffolds that resemble the bone extracellular matrix to guide and promote osteogenic differentiation of the host precursor cells. Aerogel-based bone scaffold preparation methods have been increasingly improved to overcome the difficulties in balancing the need for an open highly porous and hierarchically organized microstructure with compression resistance to withstand bone physiological loads, especially in wet conditions. Moreover, these improved aerogel scaffolds have been implanted in vivo in critical bone defects, in order to test their bone regeneration potential. This review addresses recently published studies on aerogel composite (organic/inorganic)-based scaffolds, having in mind the various cutting-edge technologies and raw biomaterials used, as well as the improvements that are still a challenge in terms of their relevant properties. Finally, the lack of 3D in vitro models of bone tissue for regeneration studies is emphasized, as well as the need for further developments to overcome and minimize the requirement for studies using in vivo animal models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering)

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15 pages, 3491 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Process Parameter and Alloy Composition on Misoriented Eutectics in Single-Crystal Nickel-Based Superalloys

by Tobias Wittenzellner, Shieren Sumarli, Zijin Dai, Ocson Cocen, Helge Schaar, Fu Wang, Dexin Ma and Andreas Bührig-Polaczek

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4477; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124477 - 20 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1090

Abstract

The nucleation and the growth of misoriented micro-structure components in single crystals depend on various process parameters and alloy compositions. Therefore, in this study, the influence of different cooling rates on carbon-free, as well as carbon-containing, nickel-based superalloys was investigated. Castings were carried [...] Read more.

The nucleation and the growth of misoriented micro-structure components in single crystals depend on various process parameters and alloy compositions. Therefore, in this study, the influence of different cooling rates on carbon-free, as well as carbon-containing, nickel-based superalloys was investigated. Castings were carried out using the Bridgman and Bridgman–Stockbarger techniques under industrial and laboratory conditions, respectively, to analyze the impact of temperature gradients and withdrawing rates on six alloy compositions. Here, it was confirmed that eutectics could assume a random crystallographic orientation due to homogeneous nucleation in the residual melt. In carbon-containing alloys, eutectics also nucleated at low surface-to-volume ratio carbides due to the accumulation of eutectic-forming elements around the carbide. This mechanism occurred in alloys with high carbon contents and at low cooling rates. Furthermore, micro-stray grains were formed by the closure of residual melt in Chinese-script-shaped carbides. If the carbide structure was open in the growth direction, they could expand into the interdendritic region. Eutectics additionally nucleated on these micro-stray grains and consequently had a different crystallographic orientation compared with the single crystal. In conclusion, this study revealed the process parameters that induced the formation of misoriented micro-structures, which prevented the formation of these solidification defects by optimizing the cooling rate and the alloy composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Alloys)

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17 pages, 4878 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Specularly-Reflected Wave Guidance of Terahertz Plasmonic Metamaterial Based on the Metal-Wire-Woven Hole Arrays: Functional Design and Application of Transmission Spectral Dips

by Borwen You, Ryuji Iwasa, Po-Lun Chen, Tun-Yao Hung, Chih-Feng Huang, Chin-Ping Yu and Hsin-Ying Lee

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4463; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124463 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 849

Abstract

Terahertz (THz) plasmonic metamaterial, based on a metal-wire-woven hole array (MWW-HA), is investigated for the distinct power depletion in the transmittance spectrum of 0.1–2 THz, including the reflected waves from metal holes and woven metal wires. Woven metal wires have four orders of [...] Read more.

Terahertz (THz) plasmonic metamaterial, based on a metal-wire-woven hole array (MWW-HA), is investigated for the distinct power depletion in the transmittance spectrum of 0.1–2 THz, including the reflected waves from metal holes and woven metal wires. Woven metal wires have four orders of power depletion, which perform sharp dips in a transmittance spectrum. However, only the first-order dip at the metal–hole–reflection band dominates specular reflection with a phase retardation of approximately π. The optical path length and metal surface conductivity are modified to study MWW-HA specular reflection. This experimental modification shows that the first order of MWW-HA power depletion is sustainable and sensitively correlated with a bending angle of the woven metal wire. Specularly reflected THz waves are successfully presented in hollow-core pipe wave guidance specified from MWW-HA pipe wall reflectivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Applications of Terahertz Metamaterials)

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15 pages, 11416 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Micromechanical Analysis to the Viscoplastic Behavior of Sintered Silver Joints under Shear Loading

by Kun Ma, Xun Liu, Yameng Sun, Yifan Song, Zheng Feng, Yang Zhou and Sheng Liu

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4472; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124472 - 19 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1315

Abstract

Ag paste has been recognized as a promising substitute for Sn/Pb solder in SiC or GaN power electronic devices, owing to its ability to withstand high temperatures and facilitate low-temperature packing. The reliability of these high-power circuits is greatly influenced by the mechanical [...] Read more.

Ag paste has been recognized as a promising substitute for Sn/Pb solder in SiC or GaN power electronic devices, owing to its ability to withstand high temperatures and facilitate low-temperature packing. The reliability of these high-power circuits is greatly influenced by the mechanical properties of sintered Ag paste. However, there exist substantial voids inside the sintered silver layer after sintering, and the conventional macroscopic constitutive models have certain limitation to describe the shear stress–strain relationship of sintered silver materials. To analyze the void evolution and microstructure of sintered silver, Ag composite pastes composed of micron flake silver and nano-silver particles were prepared. The mechanical behaviors were studied at different temperatures (0–125 °C) and strain rates (1 × 10⁻⁴–1 × 10⁻²) for Ag composite pastes. The crystal plastic finite element method (CPFEM) was developed to describe the microstructure evolution and shear behaviors of sintered silver at varied strain rates and ambient temperatures. The model parameters were obtained by fitting experimental shear test data to a representative volume element (RVE) model built on representative volume elements, also known as Voronoi tessellations. The numerical predictions were compared with the experimental data, which showed that the introduced crystal plasticity constitutive model can describe the shear constitutive behavior of a sintered silver specimen with reasonable accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation Methods for Analyzing Fatigue and Fracture Behavior in Metallic Materials)

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31 pages, 3411 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Graphene-Based Materials for the Separator Functionalization of Lithium-Ion/Metal/Sulfur Batteries

by Zongle Huang, Wenting Sun, Zhipeng Sun, Rui Ding and Xuebin Wang

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4449; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124449 - 18 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1836

Abstract

With the escalating demand for electrochemical energy storage, commercial lithium-ion and metal battery systems have been increasingly developed. As an indispensable component of batteries, the separator plays a crucial role in determining their electrochemical performance. Conventional polymer separators have been extensively investigated over [...] Read more.

With the escalating demand for electrochemical energy storage, commercial lithium-ion and metal battery systems have been increasingly developed. As an indispensable component of batteries, the separator plays a crucial role in determining their electrochemical performance. Conventional polymer separators have been extensively investigated over the past few decades. Nevertheless, their inadequate mechanical strength, deficient thermal stability, and constrained porosity constitute serious impediments to the development of electric vehicle power batteries and the progress of energy storage devices. Advanced graphene-based materials have emerged as an adaptable solution to these challenges, owing to their exceptional electrical conductivity, large specific surface area, and outstanding mechanical properties. Incorporating advanced graphene-based materials into the separator of lithium-ion and metal batteries has been identified as an effective strategy to overcome the aforementioned issues and enhance the specific capacity, cycle stability, and safety of batteries. This review paper provides an overview of the preparation of advanced graphene-based materials and their applications in lithium-ion, lithium-metal, and lithium-sulfur batteries. It systematically elaborates on the advantages of advanced graphene-based materials as novel separator materials and outlines future research directions in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials)

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17 pages, 8827 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Study on the Overmolding Process of Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Poly (Aryl Ether Ketone) (PAEK)/Poly (Ether Ether Ketone) (PEEK) Thermoplastic Composites

by Ziyue Zhao, Jindong Zhang, Ran Bi, Chunhai Chen, Jianan Yao and Gang Liu

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4456; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124456 - 18 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1450

Abstract

This paper used poly (aryl ether ketone) (PAEK) resin with a low melting temperature to prepare laminate via the compression-molding process for continuous-carbon-fiber-reinforced composites (CCF-PAEK). Then, poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK), or a short-carbon-fiber-reinforced poly (ether ether ketone) (SCF-PEEK) with a high melting [...] Read more.

This paper used poly (aryl ether ketone) (PAEK) resin with a low melting temperature to prepare laminate via the compression-molding process for continuous-carbon-fiber-reinforced composites (CCF-PAEK). Then, poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK), or a short-carbon-fiber-reinforced poly (ether ether ketone) (SCF-PEEK) with a high melting temperature, was injected to prepare the overmolding composites. The shear strength of short beams was used to characterize the interface bonding strength of composites. The results showed that the interface properties of the composite were affected by the interface temperature, which was adjusted by mold temperature. PAEK and PEEK formed a better interfacial bonding at higher interface temperatures. The shear strength of the SCF-PEEK/CCF-PAEK short beam was 77 MPa when the mold temperature was 220 °C and 85 MPa when the mold temperature was raised to 260 °C. The melting temperature did not significantly affect the shear strength of SCF-PEEK/CCF-PAEK short beams. For the melting temperature increasing from 380 °C to 420 °C, the shear strength of the SCF-PEEK/CCF-PAEK short beam ranged from 83 MPa to 87 MPa. The microstructure and failure morphology of the composite was observed using an optical microscope. A molecular dynamics model was established to simulate the adhesion of PAEK and PEEK at different mold temperatures. The interfacial bonding energy and diffusion coefficient agreed with the experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Manufacturing Technologies of Thermoplastic Composites)

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16 pages, 9825 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hydrothermal Synthesis of MoS₂/SnS₂ Photocatalysts with Heterogeneous Structures Enhances Photocatalytic Activity

by Guansheng Ma, Zhigang Pan, Yunfei Liu, Yinong Lu and Yaqiu Tao

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4436; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124436 - 16 Jun 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1411

Abstract

The use of solar photocatalysts to degrade organic pollutants is not only the most promising and efficient strategy to solve pollution problems today but also helps to alleviate the energy crisis. In this work, MoS₂/SnS₂ heterogeneous structure catalysts were prepared [...] Read more.

The use of solar photocatalysts to degrade organic pollutants is not only the most promising and efficient strategy to solve pollution problems today but also helps to alleviate the energy crisis. In this work, MoS₂/SnS₂ heterogeneous structure catalysts were prepared by a facile hydrothermal method, and the microstructures and morphologies of these catalysts were investigated using XRD, SEM, TEM, BET, XPS and EIS. Eventually, the optimal synthesis conditions of the catalysts were obtained as 180 °C for 14 h, with the molar ratio of molybdenum to tin atoms being 2:1 and the acidity and alkalinity of the solution adjusted by hydrochloric acid. TEM images of the composite catalysts synthesized under these conditions clearly show that the lamellar SnS₂ grows on the surface of MoS₂ at a smaller size; high-resolution TEM images show lattice stripe distances of 0.68 nm and 0.30 nm for the (002) plane of MoS₂ and the (100) plane of SnS₂, respectively. Thus, in terms of microstructure, it is confirmed that the MoS₂ and SnS₂ in the composite catalyst form a tight heterogeneous structure. The degradation efficiency of the best composite catalyst for methylene blue (MB) was 83.0%, which was 8.3 times higher than that of pure MoS₂ and 16.6 times higher than that of pure SnS₂. After four cycles, the degradation efficiency of the catalyst was 74.7%, indicating a relatively stable catalytic performance. The increase in activity could be attributed to the improved visible light absorption, the increase in active sites introduced at the exposed edges of MoS₂ nanoparticles and the construction of heterojunctions opening up photogenerated carrier transfer pathways and effective charge separation and transfer. This unique heterostructure photocatalyst not only has excellent photocatalytic performance but also has good cycling stability, which provides a simple, convenient and low-cost method for the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photocatalytic Materials for Environmental and Energy Applications)

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14 pages, 1284 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Natural Plant-Derived Compounds in Food and Cosmetics: A Paradigm of Shikonin and Its Derivatives

by Sonia Malik, Patrycja Brudzyńska, Muhammad Rehan Khan, Oksana Sytar, Abdullah Makhzoum and Alina Sionkowska

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4377; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124377 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2273

Abstract

Shikonin and its derivatives are the natural naphthoquinone compounds produced in the roots of the Boraginaceae family. These red pigments have been used for a long time in coloring silk, as food colorants, and in the Chinese traditional system of medicines The resurgence [...] Read more.

Shikonin and its derivatives are the natural naphthoquinone compounds produced in the roots of the Boraginaceae family. These red pigments have been used for a long time in coloring silk, as food colorants, and in the Chinese traditional system of medicines The resurgence of public interest in natural and plant-based products has led to this category of compounds being in high demand due to their wide range of biological activities including antioxidant, antitumor, antifungal, anti-inflammatory ones. Different researchers worldwide have reported various applications of shikonin derivatives in the area of pharmacology. Nevertheless, the use of these compounds in the food and cosmetics fields needs to be explored more in order to make them available for commercial utilization in various food industries as a packaging material and to enhance their shelf life without any side effects. Similarly, the antioxidant properties and skin whitening effects of these bioactive molecules may be used successfully in various cosmetic formulations. The present review delves into the updated knowledge on the various properties of shikonin derivatives in relation to food and cosmetics. The pharmacological effects of these bioactive compounds are also highlighted. Based on various studies, it can be concluded that these natural bioactive molecules have potential to be used in different sectors, including functional food, food additives, skin, health care, and to cure various diseases. Further research is required for the sustainable production of these compounds with minimum disturbances to the environment and in order to make them available in the market at an economic price. Simultaneous studies utilizing recent techniques in computational biology, bioinformatics, molecular docking, and artificial intelligence in laboratory and clinical trials would further help in making these potential candidates promising alternative natural bioactive therapeutics with multiple uses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends in Materials for Cosmetic Formulations)

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14 pages, 7656 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Investigating the Influence of Mg Content Variations on Microstructures, Heat-Treatment, and Mechanical Properties of Al-Cu-Mg Alloys

by Abdul Wahid Shah, Seong-Ho Ha, Jabir Ali Siddique, Bong-Hwan Kim, Young-Ok Yoon, Hyun-Kyu Lim and Shae K. Kim

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4384; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124384 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 905

Abstract

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of varying magnesium levels in the α-Al + S + T region of the Al-Cu-Mg ternary phase diagram on the solidification process, microstructure development, tensile properties, and precipitation hardening of Al-Cu-Mg-Ti alloys. The [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of varying magnesium levels in the α-Al + S + T region of the Al-Cu-Mg ternary phase diagram on the solidification process, microstructure development, tensile properties, and precipitation hardening of Al-Cu-Mg-Ti alloys. The outcomes indicate that alloys with 3% and 5% Mg solidified with the formation of binary eutectic α-Al-Al₂CuMg (S) phases, whereas in the alloy with 7% Mg, the solidification process ended with the formation of eutectic α-Al-Mg₃₂(Al, Cu)₄₉ (T) phases. Additionally, a significant number of T precipitates were noticed inside the granular α-Al grains in all alloys. In the as-cast condition, the 5% Mg-added alloy showed the best combination of yield strength (153 MPa) and elongation (2.5%). Upon T6 heat treatment, both tensile strength and elongation increased. The 7% Mg-added alloy had the best results, with a yield strength of 193 MPa and an elongation of 3.4%. DSC analysis revealed that the increased tensile strength observed after the aging treatment was associated with the formation of solute clusters and S″/S′ phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization of Metallic Materials: Microstructure, Forming, and Heat Treatment)

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12 pages, 3811 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

High-Temperature Liquid–Liquid Phase Transition in Glass-Forming Liquid Pd₄₃Ni₂₀Cu₂₇P₁₀

by Huanyi Zhou, Pengfei Yu, Xiaoyu Miao, Cunjin Peng, Lulu Fu, Conghui Si, Qifang Lu, Shunwei Chen and Xiujun Han

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4353; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124353 - 13 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1006

Abstract

Liquid–liquid phase transition (LLPT) is a transition from one liquid state to another with the same composition but distinct structural change, which provides an opportunity to explore the relationships between structural transformation and thermodynamic/kinetic anomalies. Herein the abnormal endothermic LLPT in Pd₄₃ [...] Read more.

Liquid–liquid phase transition (LLPT) is a transition from one liquid state to another with the same composition but distinct structural change, which provides an opportunity to explore the relationships between structural transformation and thermodynamic/kinetic anomalies. Herein the abnormal endothermic LLPT in Pd₄₃Ni₂₀Cu₂₇P₁₀ glass-forming liquid was verified and studied by flash differential scanning calorimetry (FDSC) and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations. The results show that the change of the atomic local structure of the atoms around the Cu-P bond leads to the change in the number of specific clusters <0 2 8 0> and <1 2 5 3>, which leads to the change in the liquid structure. Our findings reveal the structural mechanisms that induce unusual heat-trapping phenomena in liquids and advance the understanding of LLPT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Alloys)

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16 pages, 8907 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mesoporous Silica Modified with Polydopamine and Zinc Ions as a Potential Carrier in the Controlled Release of Mercaptopurine

by Mariusz Sandomierski, Martyna Chojnacka, Maria Długosz, Monika Pokora, Joanna Zwolińska, Łukasz Majchrzycki and Adam Voelkel

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4358; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124358 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1064

Abstract

Mercaptopurine is one of the drugs used in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. A problem with mercaptopurine therapy is its low bioavailability. This problem can be solved by preparing the carrier that releases the drug in lower doses but over a longer [...] Read more.

Mercaptopurine is one of the drugs used in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. A problem with mercaptopurine therapy is its low bioavailability. This problem can be solved by preparing the carrier that releases the drug in lower doses but over a longer period of time. In this work, polydopamine-modified mesoporous silica with adsorbed zinc ions was used as a drug carrier. SEM images confirm the synthesis of spherical carrier particles. The particle size is close to 200 nm, allowing for its use in intravenous delivery. The zeta potential values for the drug carrier indicate that it is not prone to agglomeration. The effectiveness of drug sorption is indicated by a decrease in the zeta potential and new bands in the FT-IR spectra. The drug was released from the carrier for 15 h, so all of the drug can be released during circulation in the bloodstream. The release of the drug from the carrier was sustained, and no ‘burst release’ was observed. The material also released small amounts of zinc, which are important in the treatment of the disease because these ions can prevent some of the adverse effects of chemotherapy. The results obtained are promising and have great application potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Materials for Biomedical Applications)

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13 pages, 6973 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Efficient Lithium-Based Upconversion Nanoparticles for Single-Particle Imaging and Temperature Sensing

by Yahya A. Alzahrani, Abdulaziz Alromaeh and Masfer Alkahtani

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4354; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124354 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 984

Abstract

Upconversion Nanoparticles (UCNPs) have attracted exceptional attention due to their great potential in high-contrast, free-background biofluorescence deep tissue imaging and quantum sensing. Most of these interesting studies have been performed using an ensemble of UCNPs as fluorescent probes in bioapplications. Here, we report [...] Read more.

Upconversion Nanoparticles (UCNPs) have attracted exceptional attention due to their great potential in high-contrast, free-background biofluorescence deep tissue imaging and quantum sensing. Most of these interesting studies have been performed using an ensemble of UCNPs as fluorescent probes in bioapplications. Here, we report a synthesis of small and efficient YLiF₄:Yb,Er UCNPs for single-particle imaging as well as sensitive optical temperature sensing. The reported particles demonstrated a bright and photostable upconversion emission at a single particle level under a low laser intensity excitation of 20 W/cm². Furthermore, the synthesized UCNPs were tested and compared to the commonly used two-photon excitation QDs and organic dyes and showed a nine times better performance at a single particle level under the same experimental conditions. In addition, the synthesized UCNPs demonstrated sensitive optical temperature sensing at a single particle level within the biological temperature range. The good optical properties of single YLiF₄:Yb,Er UCNPs open an avenue for small and efficient fluorescent markers in imaging and sensing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Nanomaterials and Composites Materials for Multifunctional Applications)

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21 pages, 5983 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Luminescence Properties of Epitaxial Cu₂O Thin Films Electrodeposited on Metallic Substrates and Cu₂O Single Crystals

by Laima Trinkler, Dajin Dai, Liuwen Chang, Mitch Ming-Chi Chou, Tzu-Ying Wu, Jevgenijs Gabrusenoks, Dace Nilova, Rihards Ruska, Baiba Berzina and Ramunas Nedzinskas

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4349; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124349 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1203

Abstract

The luminescent properties of epitaxial Cu₂O thin films were studied in 10–300 K temperature range and compared with the luminescent properties of Cu₂O single crystals. Cu₂O thin films were deposited epitaxially via the electrodeposition method on either [...] Read more.

The luminescent properties of epitaxial Cu₂O thin films were studied in 10–300 K temperature range and compared with the luminescent properties of Cu₂O single crystals. Cu₂O thin films were deposited epitaxially via the electrodeposition method on either Cu or Ag substrates at different processing parameters, which determined the epitaxial orientation relationships. Cu₂O (100) and (111) single crystal samples were cut from a crystal rod grown using the floating zone method. Luminescence spectra of thin films contain the same emission bands as single crystals around 720, 810 and 910 nm, characterizing

V_{O}^{2 +}

,

V_{O}^{+}

and

V_{Cu}

defects, correspondingly. Additional emission bands, whose origin is under discussion, are observed around 650–680 nm, while the exciton features are negligibly small. The relative mutual contribution of the emission bands varies depending on the thin film sample. The existence of the domains of crystallites with different orientations determines the polarization of luminescence. The PL of both Cu₂O thin films and single crystals is characterized by negative thermal quenching in the low-temperature region; the reason of this phenomenon is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Growth and Applications of Oxide Thin Films and Heterostructures)

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24 pages, 6781 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Carbon Nanofibers on the Strain Rate and Interlaminar Shear Strength of Carbon/Epoxy Composites

by Paulo Santos, Abílio P. Silva and Paulo N. B. Reis

Materials 2023, 16(12), 4332; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124332 - 12 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 937

Abstract

The static bending properties, different strain rates and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) with two epoxy resins nano-enhanced with carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are studied. The effect on ILSS behavior from aggressive environments, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), [...] Read more.

The static bending properties, different strain rates and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) with two epoxy resins nano-enhanced with carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are studied. The effect on ILSS behavior from aggressive environments, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), water and temperature, are also analyzed. The laminates with Sicomin resin and 0.75 wt.% CNFs and with Ebalta resin with 0.5 wt.% CNFs show significant improvements in terms of bending stress and bending stiffness, up to 10%. The values of ILLS increase for higher values of strain rate, and in both resins, the nano-enhanced laminates with CNFs show better results to strain-rate sensitivity. A linear relationship between the logarithm of the strain rate was determined to predict the bending stress, bending stiffness, bending strain and ILSS for all laminates. The aggressive solutions significantly affect the ILSS, and their effects are strongly dependent on the concentration. Nevertheless, the alkaline solution promotes higher decreases in ILSS and the addition of CNFs is not beneficial. Regardless of the immersion in water or exposure to high temperatures a decrease in ILSS is observed, but, in this case, CNF content reduces the degradation of the laminates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fatigue and Fracture Behavior of Composite Materials)

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