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21 pages, 12927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calibration of Acoustic Emission Parameters in Relation to the Equilibrium Moisture Content Variations in a Pinus sylvestris Beam

by Beatrice Bartolucci, Francesca Frasca, Anna Maria Siani and Chiara Bertolin

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 5236; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11115236 - 04 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2172

Abstract

Under constant temperature conditions, air relative humidity variations affect hygroscopic objects, such as wood, modifying their moisture content and provoking, at low values, damages and fractures. The parameters (amplitude, counts, and energy) derived from the acoustic emission non-destructive technique are calibrated with respect [...] Read more.

Under constant temperature conditions, air relative humidity variations affect hygroscopic objects, such as wood, modifying their moisture content and provoking, at low values, damages and fractures. The parameters (amplitude, counts, and energy) derived from the acoustic emission non-destructive technique are calibrated with respect to equilibrium moisture content values using 14 samplings of Pinus sylvestris. The experimental procedure uses multi-technique approaches involving a universal testing machine, digital image correlation, and acoustic emissions, and notes that the three parameters of acoustic emission strictly depend on the equilibrium moisture content. For a better interpretation, a statistical approach is applied to model the equilibrium moisture content variations radially and longitudinally. Amplitude, counts, and energy are calibrated as a function of the equilibrium moisture content, indicating that all three parameters are necessary to have an integral vision of the conservation of a wooden material. Moreover, the shape of the macro-fractures that occur at the surface can be associated with the level of moisture or dryness of the sample. Finally, the proposed method can be used in situ because, through acoustic emission monitoring, it is possible to quantify the fingerprint of the state of conservation of a material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 4392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Life Prediction Model Based on Monitoring Electrical Properties of Self-Sensing Cement-Based Materials

by Mostafa Adresi, Jean-Marc Tulliani, Giuseppe Lacidogna and Paola Antonaci

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 5080; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11115080 - 30 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2631

Abstract

Assessing the damage level in concrete infrastructures over time is a critical issue to plan their timely maintenance with proper actions. Self-sensing concretes offer new opportunities for damage assessment by monitoring their electrical properties and relating their variations to damage levels. In this [...] Read more.

Assessing the damage level in concrete infrastructures over time is a critical issue to plan their timely maintenance with proper actions. Self-sensing concretes offer new opportunities for damage assessment by monitoring their electrical properties and relating their variations to damage levels. In this research, fatigue tests were conducted to study the response of a self-sensing concrete under high-cycle dynamic loading. The concept of G-value was defined as the slope of the voltage response baseline of the self-sensing concrete over time that reflects the damage created under the fatigue-loading test. Based on this definition, log (G)–log (N) curves were obtained using a linear regression approach, with N representing the number of cycles during the fatigue tests. While traditional fatigue curves S-log (N) are used to estimate the remaining life under fatigue loading, log (G)–log (N) diagrams can be used to determine the damage level based on the voltage response of the self-sensing concrete as a function of the loading history. This finding can be useful for the estimation of the lifetime and remaining life of self-sensing concrete structures and infrastructure, eventually helping to optimize the related maintenance operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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16 pages, 4916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Defining a Non-Destructive In Situ Approach for the Determination of Historical Mortar Strength Using the Equotip Hardness Tester

by Elisa Mammoliti, Antonio Ferretti, Michele Malavolta, Riccardo Teloni, Paolo Ruggeri and Graziella Roselli

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 4788; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11114788 - 23 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2795

Abstract

The determination of mechanical parameters of historical mortars is a crucial aspect in the analysis of masonry in ancient buildings, especially for evaluating their quality and planning the appropriate restoration interventions. Due to conservation reasons, creating a comprehensive database is generally not possible [...] Read more.

The determination of mechanical parameters of historical mortars is a crucial aspect in the analysis of masonry in ancient buildings, especially for evaluating their quality and planning the appropriate restoration interventions. Due to conservation reasons, creating a comprehensive database is generally not possible because cutting out masonry specimens relates to damaging historical structures. This study starts with the need to characterize the mortar quality of different buildings in the town of Camerino (Central Italy) which has been strongly damaged by the 2016–2017 seismic sequence. A non-destructive collecting data strategy based on the use of the Equotip hardness tester (EQ) has been set up by evaluating the most appropriates impact strategy (single or repeated) and the range of measurements to calculate the basic statistics. The seismic damage suffered by the buildings allowed the rare opportunity to take samples from several walls and carry out laboratory tests to determine their Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS). The comparison between the results of the two types of tests made it possible to calibrate a relationship between the EQ values and the UCS. The Pearson’s coefficient of determination derived from an exponential interpolation (R₂ = 0.81) confirmed a strong relationship between the EQ values derived from the tests on the specimens and the UCS. Moreover, comparing the in situ EQ measurements with the ones performed on the specimens prepared for the compressive tests, a general underestimation of the in situ EQ values has been observed, possibly due to the presence of a superficial alteration layer of the exposed mortar. From these results, we propose a correction of the in situ measurements able to obtain a more appropriate strength estimate of the historical mortars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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13 pages, 5672 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurements of the Magnetic Field Variations Related with the Size of V-Shaped Notches in Steel Pipes

by J. Jesús Villegas-Saucillo, José Javier Díaz-Carmona, Marco A. Escarola-Rosas, Héctor Vázquez-Leal, Jaime Martínez-Castillo and Agustín L. Herrera-May

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 3940; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11093940 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1758

Abstract

Gas and oil pipeline networks require periodic inspections to detect cracks or notches that can cause industrial accidents and environmental contamination. For these inspections, the metal magnetic memory (MMM) method could be used as a non-destructive testing (NDT) technique, which does not need [...] Read more.

Gas and oil pipeline networks require periodic inspections to detect cracks or notches that can cause industrial accidents and environmental contamination. For these inspections, the metal magnetic memory (MMM) method could be used as a non-destructive testing (NDT) technique, which does not need expensive equipment and high-skilled operators. However, more investigations are required to quantify the size and shape of defects in ferromagnetic pipes using the MMM signals. We present experimental measurements of MMM signals around five small V-shaped notches of an ASTM-A36 steel pipe using a three-axis magnetoresistive sensor. The V-shaped notches have different values of depth (500 µm, 1000 µm, 1500 µm, 2000 µm and 2500 µm) and width (1000 µm, 1500 µm, 2000 µm, 3000 µm and 3500 µm). We measured the variations of tangential and normal MMM signals around these defects and their relationships with the size of each defect. The first V-notch defect (500 μm depth and 1000 μm width) registers variations of the tangential and normal MMM signals of 14.32 μT ± 1.62 μT and 27.95 μT ± 1.14 μT, respectively. On the other hand, the fifth V-notch defect (2500 μm depth and 3500 μm width) has variations of the tangential and normal MMM signals of 68.75 μT ± 1.10 μT and 71.37 μT ± 0.72 μT, respectively. The MMM method could be used for real-time monitoring of V-shaped notches in steel pipes. This method does not require special treatment of steel pipes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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14 pages, 5839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of Fresnel–Kirchhoff Integral Method for the Study of Volume Dielectric Bodies

by Soumia Imane Taleb, Cristian Neipp, Jorge Francés, Andrés Márquez, Mariela L. Alvarez, Antonio Hernández, Sergi Gallego and Augusto Beléndez

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 3800; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11093800 - 22 Apr 2021

Viewed by 2001

Abstract

In this work, we test a nondestructive optical method based on the Fresnel–Kirchhoff integral, which could be applied to different fields of engineering, such as detection of small cracks in structures, determination of dimensions for small components, analysis of composition of materials, etc. [...] Read more.

In this work, we test a nondestructive optical method based on the Fresnel–Kirchhoff integral, which could be applied to different fields of engineering, such as detection of small cracks in structures, determination of dimensions for small components, analysis of composition of materials, etc. The basic idea is to apply the Fresnel–Kirchhoff integral method to the study of the properties of small-volume dielectric objects. In this work, we study the validity of this method. To do this, the results obtained by using this technique were compared to those obtained by rigorously solving the Helmholtz equation for a dielectric cylinder of circular cross-section. As an example of the precision of the method, the Fresnel–Kirchhoff integral method was applied to obtain the refractive index of a hair by fitting the theoretical curve to the experimental results of the diffraction pattern of the hair measured with a CCD camera. In a same manner, the method also was applied to obtain the dimensions of a crack artificially created in a piece of plastic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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10 pages, 1919 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation between Uniaxial Compression Test and Ultrasonic Pulse Rate in Cement with Different Pozzolanic Additions

by Leticia Presa, Jorge L. Costafreda and Domingo Alfonso Martín

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 3747; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11093747 - 21 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1911

Abstract

This work aims to study the relationship between the compression resistance and velocity from ultrasonic pulses in samples of mortars with 25% of pozzolanic content. Pozzolanic cement is a low-priced sustainable material that can reduce costs and CO₂ emissions that are produced [...] Read more.

This work aims to study the relationship between the compression resistance and velocity from ultrasonic pulses in samples of mortars with 25% of pozzolanic content. Pozzolanic cement is a low-priced sustainable material that can reduce costs and CO₂ emissions that are produced in the manufacturing of cement from the calcination of calcium carbonate. Using ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) to estimate the compressive resistance of mortars with pozzolanic content reduces costs when evaluating the quality of structures built with this material since it is not required to perform an unconfined compression test. The objective of this study is to establish a correlation in order to estimate the compression resistance of this material from its ultrasonic pulse velocity. For this purpose, we studied a total of 16 cement samples, including those with additions of pozzolanic content with different compositions and a sample without any additions. The results obtained show the mentioned correlation, which establishes a basis for research with a higher number of samples to ascertain if it holds true at greater curing ages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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18 pages, 2693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Identification of Tensile Force in Tie-Rods by Interferometric Radar Measurements

by Domenico Camassa, Anna Castellano, Aguinaldo Fraddosio, Giuseppe Miglionico and Mario Daniele Piccioni

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3687; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083687 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 1906

Abstract

An experimental investigation on the accuracy of dynamically determined tensile force in tie-rods by applying the interferometric radar technique was performed. Tie-rods were used in historical masonry constructions for absorbing thrusts of arches and vaults, and the radar interferometry may represent a fast [...] Read more.

An experimental investigation on the accuracy of dynamically determined tensile force in tie-rods by applying the interferometric radar technique was performed. Tie-rods were used in historical masonry constructions for absorbing thrusts of arches and vaults, and the radar interferometry may represent a fast and easy non-destructive approach for the tensile force identification in the occasion of structural assessments. Laboratory dynamic tests on a cable under a known tensile force show that, provided that a suitable dynamic identification model is used, tensile force evaluations made stating from interferometric radar measurements were characterized by a very good accuracy (mean error in the tensile force estimation less than 2%), comparable with evaluations made starting from accelerometric measurements. In particular, the dynamic identification model considered is a modified version of a model proposed in the literature. The influence on the accuracy in the determination of the tensile force of some features of the experimental setup, like, e.g., the employ of corner reflectors, is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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11 pages, 2562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Modeling of Nondestructive Testing of Various Conductive Objects inside Metal Enclosures Using ELF/VLF Magnetic Fields

by Hoyoung Kim and Vijay Harid

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3665; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083665 - 19 Apr 2021

Viewed by 1679

Abstract

Nondestructive evaluation of various conductive objects through metal enclosures is investigated by using ELF/VLF magnetic induction fields in detailed simulations. ELF/VLF magnetic fields (<30 kHz) have a unique ability to penetrate highly conductive or permeable shields. Using a magnetic dipole source antenna, objects [...] Read more.

Nondestructive evaluation of various conductive objects through metal enclosures is investigated by using ELF/VLF magnetic induction fields in detailed simulations. ELF/VLF magnetic fields (<30 kHz) have a unique ability to penetrate highly conductive or permeable shields. Using a magnetic dipole source antenna, objects hidden inside a metal enclosure are imaged via examining distortions to the field outside the enclosure. The field distortion is parametrically studied by varying the size, conductivity, and permeability of the hidden objects. Furthermore, the importance of the conductivity of the enclosure itself is investigated using both low (10⁶ S/m) and high (10⁸ S/m) conductivity metallic shields. It is shown that the responses are quite sensitive to the object and shield parameters; both qualitative and quantitative properties of the field distortions are described in detail. The simulation results suggest that properties of hidden conductive or permeable objects, over a relatively wide range of parameters (both geometry and material), can be inferred nondestructively using ELF/VLF magnetic induction fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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13 pages, 3597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interpretation of Nondestructive Magnetic Measurements on Irradiated Reactor Steel Material

by Gábor Vértesy, Antal Gasparics, Ildikó Szenthe and Inge Uytdenhouwen

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3650; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083650 - 18 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1553

Abstract

Neutron irradiation-generated embrittlement of nuclear pressure vessel steel was inspected by a nondestructive magnetic method, called magnetic adaptive testing (MAT). This method is based on systematic measurement and evaluation of minor magnetic hysteresis loops. Result of MAT measurement was compared with the result [...] Read more.

Neutron irradiation-generated embrittlement of nuclear pressure vessel steel was inspected by a nondestructive magnetic method, called magnetic adaptive testing (MAT). This method is based on systematic measurement and evaluation of minor magnetic hysteresis loops. Result of MAT measurement was compared with the result of the traditional Charpy measurement. Good correlation was found between these parameters. One of the main findings of the present work is that the considerable part of scatter of points obtained by magnetic measurement can be attributed to local material inhomogeneity. Another important conclusion is that the embrittlement highly depends on the initial local material conditions, i.e., the initial microstructure, which are very different even within the same block of reactor steel material. By taking this into account, the magnetic descriptors obtain more precise determination of the local embrittlement than the traditionally used destructive mechanical parameters from Charpy data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 3890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Health Monitoring of Walking Dragline Excavator Using Acoustic Emission

by Vera Barat, Artem Marchenkov, Dmitry Kritskiy, Vladimir Bardakov, Marina Karpova, Mikhail Kuznetsov, Anastasia Zaprudnova, Sergey Ushanov and Sergey Elizarov

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3420; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083420 - 11 Apr 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3756

Abstract

The article is devoted to the organization of the structural health monitoring of a walking dragline excavator using the acoustic emission (AE) method. Since the dragline excavator under study is a large and noisy industrial facility, preliminary prospecting researches were carried out to [...] Read more.

The article is devoted to the organization of the structural health monitoring of a walking dragline excavator using the acoustic emission (AE) method. Since the dragline excavator under study is a large and noisy industrial facility, preliminary prospecting researches were carried out to conduct effective control by the AE method, including the study of AE sources, AE waveguide, and noise parameters analysis. In addition, AE filtering methods were improved. It is shown that application of the developed filtering algorithms allows to detect AE impulses from cracks and defects against a background noise exceeding the useful signal in amplitude and intensity. Using the proposed solutions in the monitoring of a real dragline excavator during its operation made it possible to identify a crack in one of its elements (weld joint in a dragline back leg). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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22 pages, 3301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Precision and Four-Dimensional Tracking System with Dual Receivers of Pipeline Inspection Gauge

by Yue Long, Songling Huang, Lisha Peng, Wenzhi Wang, Shen Wang and Wei Zhao

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3366; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083366 - 08 Apr 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2120

Abstract

Pipeline inspection gauges (PIGs) are widely used for nondestructive testing of oil and natural gas pipelines, while above ground markers (AGMs) can locate and track the PIG through a variety of methods, including magnetic flux leakage signals, acoustic signals, and extremely low-frequency (ELF) [...] Read more.

Pipeline inspection gauges (PIGs) are widely used for nondestructive testing of oil and natural gas pipelines, while above ground markers (AGMs) can locate and track the PIG through a variety of methods, including magnetic flux leakage signals, acoustic signals, and extremely low-frequency (ELF) magnetic signals. Traditional AGMs have the disadvantages of low positioning accuracy and only one-dimensional tracking capability. In this paper, a newly-designed PIG tracking system based on the ELF magnetic field is proposed by assembling dual receivers. Moreover, this paper develops a magnetic field sign-integration algorithm to achieve high-precision and four-dimensional (4-D) tracking of PIG. The simulation and experiment results demonstrate that the tracking system has the capability of 4-D tracking. In comparison with the previously published work, the designed tracking system improves the positioning accuracy and orientation tracking accuracy by more than 50%. The dual receivers tracking system also has the characteristic of high-robustness. Even in the state of lateral offset or tilt, it can still achieve accurate tracking of PIG. The realization of PIG’s high-precision 4-D tracking can improve the accuracy of defect location. Moreover, it can also provide the latest pipeline network layout and facilitate pipeline maintenance and pipeline surveying applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 2938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nondestructive Contactless Monitoring of Damage in Joints between Composite Structural Components Incorporating Sensing Elements via 3D-Printing

by Dimitrios G. Dimogianopoulos and Dionysios E. Mouzakis

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(7), 3230; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11073230 - 03 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1649

Abstract

A vibration-testing framework for detecting and identifying failing joints between composite structural members without dedicated equipment (accelerometers, amplifiers) or time-consuming system modeling methods is introduced. The sensing element is a 2826MB Metglas^® magnetoelastic strip embedded in one of the members during its [...] Read more.

A vibration-testing framework for detecting and identifying failing joints between composite structural members without dedicated equipment (accelerometers, amplifiers) or time-consuming system modeling methods is introduced. The sensing element is a 2826MB Metglas^® magnetoelastic strip embedded in one of the members during its 3D-printing (layer-by-layer) fabrication process in fused deposition modeling mode. External dynamic loading of the structure causes changes to the strip’s magnetization, thus inducing voltage to a nearby placed coil in a contactless manner. The resulting signal depends on the structure’s behavior under loading (and therefore its condition), and may be recorded without amplification or filtering by conventional oscilloscopes. Its frequency analysis reveals patterns of shifted frequency and/or altered damping at specific modes attributed to failing joints. Apart from yielding results using less dedicated equipment than other vibration-testing methods, the current framework offers two additional benefits: (i) Excitation may be applied to the same structural point for all monitored joints; (ii) estimation of damping values for a given mode does not have to rely on empirical or system modelling techniques (both requiring dedicated expertise). Test runs with structures formed by two or three composite slabs joined in-series indicate promising results with successful detection and identification of failing joints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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14 pages, 5084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monte-Carlo-Based Estimation of the X-ray Energy Spectrum for CT Artifact Reduction

by Ehsan Nazemi, Nathanaël Six, Domenico Iuso, Björn De Samber, Jan Sijbers and Jan De Beenhouwer

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(7), 3145; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11073145 - 01 Apr 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3738

Abstract

Beam hardening and scattering effects can seriously degrade image quality in polychromatic X-ray CT imaging. In recent years, polychromatic image reconstruction techniques and scatter estimation using Monte Carlo simulation have been developed to compensate for beam hardening and scattering CT artifacts, respectively. Both [...] Read more.

Beam hardening and scattering effects can seriously degrade image quality in polychromatic X-ray CT imaging. In recent years, polychromatic image reconstruction techniques and scatter estimation using Monte Carlo simulation have been developed to compensate for beam hardening and scattering CT artifacts, respectively. Both techniques require knowledge of the X-ray tube energy spectrum. In this work, Monte Carlo simulations were used to calculate the X-ray energy spectrum of FleXCT, a novel prototype industrial micro-CT scanner, enabling beam hardening and scatter reduction for CT experiments. Both source and detector were completely modeled by Monte Carlo simulation. In order to validate the energy spectra obtained via Monte Carlo simulation, they were compared with energy spectra obtained via a second method. Here, energy spectra were calculated from empirical measurements using a step wedge sample, in combination with the Maximum Likelihood Expectation Maximization (MLEM) method. Good correlation was achieved between both approaches, confirming the correct modeling of the FleXCT system by Monte Carlo simulation. After validation of the modeled FleXCT system through comparing the X-ray spectra for different tube voltages inside the detector, we calculated the X-ray spectrum of the FleXCT X-ray tube, independent of the flat panel detector response, which is a prerequisite for beam hardening and scattering CT artifacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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13 pages, 2232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid Hidden Markov Model for Pipeline Leakage Detection

by Mingchi Zhang, Xuemin Chen and Wei Li

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(7), 3138; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11073138 - 01 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2539

Abstract

In this paper, a deep neural network hidden Markov model (DNN-HMM) is proposed to detect pipeline leakage location. A long pipeline is divided into several sections and the leakage occurs in different section that is defined as different state of hidden Markov model [...] Read more.

In this paper, a deep neural network hidden Markov model (DNN-HMM) is proposed to detect pipeline leakage location. A long pipeline is divided into several sections and the leakage occurs in different section that is defined as different state of hidden Markov model (HMM). The hybrid HMM, i.e., DNN-HMM, consists of a deep neural network (DNN) with multiple layers to exploit the non-linear data. The DNN is initialized by using a deep belief network (DBN). The DBN is a pre-trained model built by stacking top-down restricted Boltzmann machines (RBM) that compute the emission probabilities for the HMM instead of Gaussian mixture model (GMM). Two comparative studies based on different numbers of states using Gaussian mixture model-hidden Markov model (GMM-HMM) and DNN-HMM are performed. The accuracy of the testing performance between detected state sequence and actual state sequence is measured by micro

F_{1}

score. The micro

F_{1}

score approaches 0.94 for GMM-HMM method and it is close to 0.95 for DNN-HMM method when the pipeline is divided into three sections. In the experiment that divides the pipeline as five sections, the micro

F_{1}

score for GMM-HMM is 0.69, while it approaches 0.96 with DNN-HMM method. The results demonstrate that the DNN-HMM can learn a better model of non-linear data and achieve better performance compared to GMM-HMM method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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25 pages, 11408 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Hilbert–Huang Transform for Vibration-Based Damage Detection of Utility Timber Poles

by Ipshita Das, Mohammad Taufiqul Arif, Aman Maung Than Oo and Mahbube Subhani

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(7), 2974; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11072974 - 26 Mar 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2202

Abstract

In this study, vibration based non-destructive testing (NDT) technique is adopted for assessing the condition of in-service timber pole. Timber is a natural material, and hence the captured broadband signal (induced from impact using modal hammer) is greatly affected by the uncertainty on [...] Read more.

In this study, vibration based non-destructive testing (NDT) technique is adopted for assessing the condition of in-service timber pole. Timber is a natural material, and hence the captured broadband signal (induced from impact using modal hammer) is greatly affected by the uncertainty on wood properties, structure, and environment. Therefore, advanced signal processing technique is essential in order to extract features associated with the health condition of timber poles. In this study, Hilbert–Huang Transform (HHT) and Wavelet Packet Transform (WPT) are implemented to conduct time-frequency analysis on the acquired signal related to three in-service poles and three unserviceable poles. Firstly, mother wavelet is selected for WPT using maximum energy to Shannon entropy ratio. Then, the raw signal is divided into different frequency bands using WPT, followed by reconstructing the signal using wavelet coefficients in the dominant frequency bands. The reconstructed signal is then further decomposed into mono-component signals by Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD), known as Intrinsic Mode Function (IMF). Dominant IMFs are selected using correlation coefficient method and instantaneous frequencies of those dominant IMFs are generated using HHT. Finally, the anomalies in the instantaneous frequency plots are efficiently utilised to determine vital features related to pole condition. The results of the study showed that HHT with WPT as pre-processor has a great potential for the condition assessment of utility timber poles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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17 pages, 8277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Damage Evolution Analysis in a “Spaghetti” Bridge Model Using the Acoustic Emission Technique

by Boris Nahuel Rojo Tanzi, Mario Sobczyk, Tiago Becker, Luis Alberto Segovia González, Sabrina Vantadori, Ignacio Iturrioz and Giuseppe Lacidogna

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2718; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062718 - 18 Mar 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4762

Abstract

This paper applies the Acoustic Emission (AE) Technique to analyze the damage process in a one-meter span bridge model that was built from spaghetti sticks during a loading test. The AE signals are analyzed in terms of four coefficients that are evaluated as [...] Read more.

This paper applies the Acoustic Emission (AE) Technique to analyze the damage process in a one-meter span bridge model that was built from spaghetti sticks during a loading test. The AE signals are analyzed in terms of four coefficients that are evaluated as predictors of structure failure, with frequency variation appearing to be the strongest indicator of instability. The AE data are also compared to theoretical predictions that are given by the Bundle Model, confirming that underlying general patterns in damage processes are highly influenced by the geometric distribution of the structure and the loading pattern that is applied to it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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13 pages, 5479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Image Correlation to Measure Macroscopic Strains by Hygric Swelling in Sandstone Rocks

by Belén Ferrer, María-Baralida Tomás and David Mas

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2495; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062495 - 11 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1378

Abstract

Some materials undergo hygric expansion when soaked. In porous rocks, this effect is enhanced by the pore space, because it allows water to reach every part of its volume and to hydrate most swelling parts. In the vicinity, this enlargement has negative structural [...] Read more.

Some materials undergo hygric expansion when soaked. In porous rocks, this effect is enhanced by the pore space, because it allows water to reach every part of its volume and to hydrate most swelling parts. In the vicinity, this enlargement has negative structural consequences as adjacent elements support some compressions or displacements. In this work, we propose a normalized cross-correlation between rock surface texture images to determine the hygric expansion of such materials. We used small porous sandstone samples (11 × 11 × 30 mm³) to measure hygric swelling. The experimental setup comprised an industrial digital camera and a telecentric objective. We took one image every 5 min for 3 h to characterize the whole swelling process. An error analysis of both the mathematical and experimental methods was performed. The results showed that the proposed methodology provided, despite some limitations, reliable hygric swelling information by a non-contact methodology with an accuracy of 1 micron and permitted the deformation in both the vertical and horizontal directions to be explored, which is an advantage over traditional linear variable displacement transformers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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16 pages, 1338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Invasive Testing of Physical Systems Using Topological Sensitivity

by María Higuera, José M. Perales, María-Luisa Rapún and José M. Vega

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(3), 1341; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11031341 - 02 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2184

Abstract

A review of available results on non-destructive testing of physical systems, using the concept of topological sensitivity, is presented. This mathematical tool estimates the sensitivity of a set of measurements in some given sensors, distributed along the system, to defects/flaws that produce a [...] Read more.

A review of available results on non-destructive testing of physical systems, using the concept of topological sensitivity, is presented. This mathematical tool estimates the sensitivity of a set of measurements in some given sensors, distributed along the system, to defects/flaws that produce a degradation of the system. Such degradation manifests itself on the properties of the system. The good performance of this general purpose post-processing method is reviewed and illustrated in some applications involving non-destructive testing. These applications include structural health monitoring, considering both elastodynamic ultrasonic guided Lamb waves and active infrared thermography. Related methods can also be used in other fields, such as diagnosis/prognosis of engineering devices, which is also considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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17 pages, 15701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Imaging of CRP and Ultrasonic Tomography to Detect Decay in a Living Adult Holm Oak (Quercus ilex L.) in Sardinia (Italy)

by Michele Puxeddu, Francesco Cuccuru, Silvana Fais, Giuseppe Casula and Maria Giovanna Bianchi

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(3), 1199; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11031199 - 28 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2749

Abstract

A field-integrated methodology using 3D ultrasonic tomography supported by close range photogrammetry (CRP) has been developed and evaluated as a tool to detect the presence and patterns of decay forms in a living adult holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) in an urban [...] Read more.

A field-integrated methodology using 3D ultrasonic tomography supported by close range photogrammetry (CRP) has been developed and evaluated as a tool to detect the presence and patterns of decay forms in a living adult holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) in an urban green area of the city of Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy. Close range photogrammetry was used to compute a high resolution 3D model of the studied tree, texturized with natural colors. Moreover, following the implemented workflow process it was possible to evaluate the deformation pattern of the studied tree over time. In a second step of our integrated approach, and in order to diagnose the state of health of the inner part of the studied tree in a non-invasive way, laboratory and in situ non-invasive ultrasonic techniques were applied. The results of the close range photogrammetry analysis supported the optimal design of the 3D ultrasonic tomography of the living adult holm oak. Ultrasonic tomography is one of the most powerful non-destructive testing techniques for the full-volume inspection of a structure. It produced physical information on the inner structure of the stem of the investigated tree. The results of the study show that the integrated application of close range photogrammetry and 3D ultrasonic tomography is a powerful tool for a highly accurate and objective evaluation of the external and internal decay of trees and for monitoring their conservation states. With the fully integrated approach, the diagnostic process aimed to prevent instability and the failure of trees can be greatly improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 10154 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Materials Behavior in a Monumental Vault Strengthened by a Carbon Net in a Mineral Matrix Subjected to Seismic Influence

by Łukasz Bednarz, Izabela Drygała, Joanna Dulińska and Jerzy Jasieńko

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(3), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11031015 - 23 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1691

Abstract

The application of the elasto-plastic material model known as the Barcelona Model (BM) for numerical assessment of a historical vault subjected to earthquake sequence is presented in this work. As a case study, part of a masonry vault erected in Southern Poland in [...] Read more.

The application of the elasto-plastic material model known as the Barcelona Model (BM) for numerical assessment of a historical vault subjected to earthquake sequence is presented in this work. As a case study, part of a masonry vault erected in Southern Poland in the 12th century was chosen. For the study purposes, a 3D finite element model (FEM) of the vault was prepared using the ABAQUS/Standard software program. The essential details of the structure geometry were taken from the 3D scan of the vault. The first variant of the masonry vault was the structure without any strengthening, whereas the second variant was with strengthening system realized by application on composite materials, i.e., the carbon fiber reinforced cementitious matrix (C-FRCM). The results of the dynamic analysis revealed that an evident nonlinear performance of the masonry materials of the vault in both cases was detected for both FE models of the structure. The analysis proved that the foreshock–mainshock–aftershock sequence caused substantial damages in structural parts of the masonry vault. The distribution of plastic strains and damages allowed assessment of the impact of the full seismic sequence on the masonry vault. In the case of the unstrengthen vault the level of cracking and stiffness loss reached 90%. In the case of the vault strengthened with the FRCM system the tensile damage level was significantly lower. It did not exceed 30%. In addition, the first plastic zone of the unstrengthened masonry structural elements of the vault became visible after the foreshock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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16 pages, 36354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of a Thermography Nondestructive Technique for Determining the Quality of Historical Frescoed Masonries: Applications on the Templar Church of San Bevignate

by Vittorio Gusella, Federico Cluni and Riccardo Liberotti

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(1), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010281 - 30 Dec 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2037

Abstract

Thermography is a non-destructive and non-contact technique allowing, without taking samples, gaining information about several aspects of heritage buildings. This contribution presents the last phase of a research path, started with laboratory tests and now aimed at a real case of great cultural [...] Read more.

Thermography is a non-destructive and non-contact technique allowing, without taking samples, gaining information about several aspects of heritage buildings. This contribution presents the last phase of a research path, started with laboratory tests and now aimed at a real case of great cultural value, which involved the use of the thermal imaging camera to unveil in-depth defects and the wall texture, hidden by valuable plasters or frescoes, in order to correlate the quality of the masonry to its mechanical properties. For this, a method has been devised, made of an original integration of thermographic and post-processing techniques, and recently was applied for the first time to a real case study: the Italian Templar church of San Bevignate, part of an architectural complex from the 13th century located in the city of Perugia. The opportunity to establish the masonry quality of a historical building using non-destructive testing (NDT) represents a little-known possibility to frame not only important factors for the conservation of the frescoes but also information on the seismic vulnerability of historical masonry architectures in order to preserve the artefact from being damaged during the surveys and to plan any effective intervention of restoration and structural reinforcement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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17 pages, 6180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermoelastic Investigation of Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Composites Using a Drop-Weight Impact Test

by Zahra Andleeb, Sohail Malik, Hassan Abbas Khawaja, Anders Samuelsen Nordli, Ståle Antonsen, Ghulam Hussain and Mojtaba Moatamedi

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(1), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010207 - 28 Dec 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3661

Abstract

Composite materials are becoming more popular in technological applications due to the significant weight savings and strength offered by these materials compared to metallic materials. In many of these practical situations, the structures suffer from drop-impact loads. Materials and structures significantly change their [...] Read more.

Composite materials are becoming more popular in technological applications due to the significant weight savings and strength offered by these materials compared to metallic materials. In many of these practical situations, the structures suffer from drop-impact loads. Materials and structures significantly change their behavior when submitted to impact loading conditions compared to quasi-static loading. The present work is devoted to investigating the thermal process in carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) subjected to a drop test. A novel drop-weight impact test experiment is performed to evaluate parameters specific to 3D composite materials. A strain gauge rosette and infrared thermography are employed to record the kinematic and thermal fields on the composites’ surfaces. This technique is nondestructive and offers an extensive full-field investigation of a material’s response. The combination of strain and infrared thermography data allows a comprehensive analysis of thermoelastic effects in CFRP when subjected to impacts. The experimental results are validated using numerical analysis by developing a MATLAB^® code to analyze whether the coupled heat and wave equation phenomenon exists in a two-dimensional polar coordinate system by discretizing through a forward-time central-space (FTCS) finite-difference method (FDM). The results show the coupling has no significant impact as the waves generated due to impact disappears in 0.015 s. In contrast, heat diffusion happens for over a one-second period. This study demonstrates that the heat equation alone governs the CFRP heat flow process, and the thermoelastic effect is negligible for the specific drop-weight impact load. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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16 pages, 2426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of a New Methodology Based on the Impulse Excitation Technique for the Nondestructive Determination of Local Material Properties in Composite Laminates

by Carlo Boursier Niutta

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(1), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010101 - 24 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1707

Abstract

A new approach for the nondestructive determination of the elastic properties of composite laminates is presented. The approach represents an improvement of a recently published experimental methodology based on the Impulse Excitation Technique, which allows nondestructively assessing local elastic properties of composite laminates [...] Read more.

A new approach for the nondestructive determination of the elastic properties of composite laminates is presented. The approach represents an improvement of a recently published experimental methodology based on the Impulse Excitation Technique, which allows nondestructively assessing local elastic properties of composite laminates by isolating a region of interest through a proper clamping system. Different measures of the first resonant frequency are obtained by rotating the clamping system with respect to the material orientation. Here, in order to increase the robustness of the inverse problem, which determines the elastic properties from the measured resonant frequencies, information related to the modal shape is retained by considering the effect of an additional concentrated mass on the first resonant frequency. According to the modal shape and the position of the mass, different values of the first resonant frequency are obtained. Here, two positions of the additional mass, i.e., two values of the resonant frequency in addition to the unloaded frequency value, are considered for each material orientation. A Rayleigh–Ritz formulation based on higher order theory is adopted to compute the first resonant frequency of the clamped plate with concentrated mass. The elastic properties are finally determined through an optimization problem that minimizes the discrepancy on the frequency reference values. The proposed approach is validated on several materials taken from the literature. Finally, advantages and possible limitations are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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11 pages, 2385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Surface Roughness Influence in Non-Destructive Magnetic Measurements Applied to Reactor Pressure Vessel Steels

by Gábor Vértesy, Antal Gasparics, James M. Griffin, Jino Mathew, Michael E. Fitzpatrick and Inge Uytdenhouwen

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(24), 8938; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10248938 - 15 Dec 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1895

Abstract

The influence of surface roughness on magnetic measurements of Reactor Pressure Vessel Steels was investigated by applying two types of magnetic, non-destructive measurement on nuclear reactor pressure vessel steel samples: magnetic adaptive testing (MAT) and magnetic Barkhausen noise measurement (MBN). The surface roughness [...] Read more.

The influence of surface roughness on magnetic measurements of Reactor Pressure Vessel Steels was investigated by applying two types of magnetic, non-destructive measurement on nuclear reactor pressure vessel steel samples: magnetic adaptive testing (MAT) and magnetic Barkhausen noise measurement (MBN). The surface roughness was modified by primary and secondary machine cutting forces. Different settings of machine cutting produced different surface conditions. It was found that for both measurements a monotonic correlation was found to exist between magnetic parameters and surface roughness. Results of the MAT measurements found that the correlation depends on the speed (i.e., on the applied slew rate) of the magnetizing current. In a similar fashion, results from the MBN method show good agreement with MAT, where the response diminishes with an increase in surface roughness. The results show the importance of accounting for surface condition in the interpretation of results of non-destructive magnetic testing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 2576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Edge Effect Analysis and Edge Defect Detection of Titanium Alloy Based on Eddy Current Testing

by Yuedong Xie, Jiyao Li, Yang Tao, Shupei Wang, Wuliang Yin and Lijun Xu

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(24), 8796; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10248796 - 09 Dec 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2699

Abstract

Titanium alloy is widely used in the area of aerospace and aviation due to its excellent properties. Eddy current testing (ECT) is among the most extensively used non-destructive techniques for titanium alloy material inspection. However, most previous research has focused on inspecting defects [...] Read more.

Titanium alloy is widely used in the area of aerospace and aviation due to its excellent properties. Eddy current testing (ECT) is among the most extensively used non-destructive techniques for titanium alloy material inspection. However, most previous research has focused on inspecting defects far from the edge of the material. It is a challenging task for edge crack detection because of edge effect. This study aims to investigate the influences of sensor parameters on edge effect and defect detection capability, and in the meantime, optimize sensor parameters to improve the capability of edge defect detection. The simulation method for edge effect evaluation is proposed including the 2^k factorial design used for factor screening, and the regression model is fitted and validated for sensor design and optimization for edge defect detection. A simulation scheme is designed to investigate the defect detection capability. An approach comprehensively analyzing the influence of coil parameters on edge effect and defect detection capability is applied to determine the optimal coil parameters for edge defect detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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17 pages, 1900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MIMO LS-SVR-Based Multi-Point Vibration Response Prediction in the Frequency Domain

by Cheng Wang, Delei Chen, Haiyang Huang, Wei Zhan, Xiongming Lai and Jianwei Chen

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(24), 8784; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10248784 - 08 Dec 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1718

Abstract

To predict the multi-point vibration response in the frequency domain when the uncorrelated multi-source loads are unknown, a data-driven and multi-input multi-output least squares support vector regression (MIMO LS-SVR)-based method in the frequency domain is proposed. Firstly, the relationship between the measured multi-point [...] Read more.

To predict the multi-point vibration response in the frequency domain when the uncorrelated multi-source loads are unknown, a data-driven and multi-input multi-output least squares support vector regression (MIMO LS-SVR)-based method in the frequency domain is proposed. Firstly, the relationship between the measured multi-point vibration response and unmeasured multi-point vibration response is formulated using the transfer function in the frequency domain. Secondly, the data-driven multiple regression analysis problem of multi-point vibration response prediction in the frequency domain is described formally, and its mathematical model is established. With the measured multi-point vibration response as the input and the unmeasured multi-point vibration response as the output, the vibration response history data are assembled as a MIMO training dataset at each frequency. Thirdly, using the MIMO LS-SVR algorithm and MIMO history training dataset, the multi-point vibration response prediction model is built at each frequency point. By comparing the transmissibility matrix method, multiple linear regression model-based method, and MIMO neural network method, the application scope of the proposed method and its advantages are analyzed. The experimental results for acoustic and vibration experiment on a cylindrical shell verified that the MIMO LS-SVR-based method predicts the multi-point vibration response effectively when the loads are unknown, and has higher precision than the transfer function method, multiple linear regression method, MIMO neural network method, and transmissibility matrix method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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16 pages, 3248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response of a Tensegrity Simplex in Experimental Tests of a Modal Hammer at Different Self-Stress Levels

by Leszek Małyszko and Andrzej Rutkiewicz

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(23), 8733; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238733 - 06 Dec 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2413

Abstract

The natural frequencies and eigenmodes of the tensegrity simplex are determined experimentally in impact hammer tests. To study an effect of prestressing, the tests are carried out on a physical model 1.2 m high and 0.5 m diameter with build-in transducers for measuring [...] Read more.

The natural frequencies and eigenmodes of the tensegrity simplex are determined experimentally in impact hammer tests. To study an effect of prestressing, the tests are carried out on a physical model 1.2 m high and 0.5 m diameter with build-in transducers for measuring actual values of forces in cables at 13 prestress levels. The recorded data for each pre-stress level from three three-axial accelerometers are combined to extract the first five natural frequencies and modes by means of the method of experimental modal analysis. It was experimentally confirmed that the first rotational frequency depends on the pre-stress level and its sensitivity to the self-stress state is high enough to be successfully used in vibrational health monitoring. A proprietary formula was proposed for the relationship between frequency and the pre-stress level to control the dynamic properties of the simplex. An excellent comparison between the experimental results of the frequency and the formula was obtained. A comparison of numerical results of the finite element method with truss element and experiment is also shown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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14 pages, 5546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

AE-RTISNet: Aeronautics Engine Radiographic Testing Inspection System Net with an Improved Fast Region-Based Convolutional Neural Network Framework

by Zhi-Hao Chen and Jyh-Ching Juang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(23), 8718; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238718 - 05 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2388

Abstract

To ensure safety in aircraft flying, we aimed to use deep learning methods of nondestructive examination with multiple defect detection paradigms for X-ray image detection. The use of the fast region-based convolutional neural network (Fast R-CNN)-driven model was to augment and improve the [...] Read more.

To ensure safety in aircraft flying, we aimed to use deep learning methods of nondestructive examination with multiple defect detection paradigms for X-ray image detection. The use of the fast region-based convolutional neural network (Fast R-CNN)-driven model was to augment and improve the existing automated non-destructive testing (NDT) diagnosis. Within the context of X-ray screening, limited numbers and insufficient types of X-ray aeronautics engine defect data samples can, thus, pose another problem in the performance accuracy of training models tackling multiple detections. To overcome this issue, we employed a deep learning paradigm of transfer learning tackling both single and multiple detection. Overall, the achieved results obtained more than 90% accuracy based on the aeronautics engine radiographic testing inspection system net (AE-RTISNet) retrained with eight types of defect detection. Caffe structure software was used to perform network tracking detection over multiple Fast R-CNNs. We determined that the AE-RTISNet provided the best results compared with the more traditional multiple Fast R-CNN approaches, which were simple to translate to C++ code and installed in the Jetson^™ TX2 embedded computer. With the use of the lightning memory-mapped database (LMDB) format, all input images were 640 × 480 pixels. The results achieved a 0.9 mean average precision (mAP) on eight types of material defect classifier problems and required approximately 100 microseconds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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10 pages, 6924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Detection of Welding Defects Using Faster R-CNN

by Sang-jin Oh, Min-jae Jung, Chaeog Lim and Sung-chul Shin

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(23), 8629; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238629 - 02 Dec 2020

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 4023

Abstract

In the shipbuilding industry, the non-destructive testing for welding quality inspection is mainly used for the permanent storage of the testing results and the radio-graphic testing which can visually inspect the interior of the welded part. Experts are required to properly detect the [...] Read more.

In the shipbuilding industry, the non-destructive testing for welding quality inspection is mainly used for the permanent storage of the testing results and the radio-graphic testing which can visually inspect the interior of the welded part. Experts are required to properly detect the test results and it takes a lot of time and cost to manually Interpret the radio-graphic testing image of the structure over 500 blocks. The algorithms that automatically interpret the existing radio-graphic testing images to extract features through image pre-processing and classify the defects using neural networks, and only partial automation is performed. In order to implement the feature extraction and classification in one algorithm and to implement the overall automation, this paper proposes a method of automatically detecting welding defect using Faster R-CNN which is a deep learning basis. We analyzed the data to learn algorithms and compared the performance improvements using data augmentation method to artificially increase the limited data. In order to appropriately extract the features of the radio-graphic testing image, two internal feature extractors of Faster R-CNN were selected, compared, and performance evaluation was performed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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23 pages, 10695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Damage Detection Method Based on Continuous Wavelet Transformation of Lamb Wave Signals

by M. Saqib Hameed, Zheng Li and Kaihong Zheng

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(23), 8610; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238610 - 01 Dec 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2804

Abstract

A damage estimation method based on continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) of the normalized Lamb wave signals is proposed here. Lamb waves are actuated and sensed using piezoelectric (lead zirconate titanate, PZT) transducers arranged in the form of square detection cells on a plate-like [...] Read more.

A damage estimation method based on continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) of the normalized Lamb wave signals is proposed here. Lamb waves are actuated and sensed using piezoelectric (lead zirconate titanate, PZT) transducers arranged in the form of square detection cells on a plate-like structure. Excitation sequences based on pitch–catch and pulse–echo configurations are tested for the same arrangement of the transducers. The possibilities of the existence of damage for each actuator–senor pair are formed by using the normalized coefficient of CWT. The size of the possible damage region is directly controlled through envelopes defined by the coefficients of CWT, and no additional parameter is required to define its size. The aggregate damage image is constructed by the fusion of damage possibilities from all actuator–sensor pairs using damage indices based on conjunctive and compromised fusion schemes. The results indicate that the proposed method can estimate the location and severity of multiple damage with signals directly from the damaged plate, without the need of baseline signals from the undamaged plate, and the time-compensated signals provide better damage imaging than the raw signals. The most accurate and computationally inexpensive combination is the pulse–echo configuration with damage index based on conjunctive image fusion scheme. The method is computationally inexpensive and can be applied for multiple damage estimations in large structures to reduce the evaluation cost and inspection time during on-line structural health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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19 pages, 5189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Nondestructive Testing Methods for Solder, Sinter, and Adhesive Interconnects in Power and Opto-Electronics

by Maximilian Schmid, Sri Krishna Bhogaraju, E Liu and Gordon Elger

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(23), 8516; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238516 - 28 Nov 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3172

Abstract

Reliability is one of the major requirements for power and opto-electronic devices across all segments. High operation temperature and/or high thermomechanical stress cause defects and degradation of materials and interconnects, which may lead to malfunctions with costly or even life-threatening consequences. To avoid [...] Read more.

Reliability is one of the major requirements for power and opto-electronic devices across all segments. High operation temperature and/or high thermomechanical stress cause defects and degradation of materials and interconnects, which may lead to malfunctions with costly or even life-threatening consequences. To avoid or at least reduce failures, nondestructive testing (NDT) methods are common within development and production of power and opto-electronics. Currently, the dominating NDT methods are X-ray, scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), and transient thermal analysis (TTA). However, they have different strengths and weaknesses with respect to materials and mechanical designs. This paper compares these NDT methods for different interconnect technologies, i.e., reflow soldering, adhesive, and sintered interconnection. While X-ray provided adequate results for soldered interfaces, inspection of adhesives and sintered interconnects was not possible. With SAM, evaluation of adhesives and sintered interconnects was also feasible, but quality depended strongly on the sample under test. TTA enabled sufficiently detailed results for all the interconnect applications. Automated TTA equipment, as the in-house developed tester used within this investigation, enabled measurement times compatible with SAM and X-ray. In the investigations, all methods revealed their pros and cons, and their selection has to depend on the sample under tests and the required analysis depth and data details. In the paper, guidelines are formulated for an appropriate decision on the NDT method depending on sample and requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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19 pages, 8190 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Unstable Subsurface Rock Structure Using Ground Penetrating Radar: An EEMD-Based Processing Method

by Yang Jin and Yunling Duan

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(23), 8499; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238499 - 28 Nov 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2277

Abstract

Surrounding rock quality of underground caverns is crucial to structural safety and stability in geological engineering. Classic measures for rock quality investigation are destructive and time consuming, and therefore technology evolution for efficiently evaluating rock quality is significantly required. In this paper, the [...] Read more.

Surrounding rock quality of underground caverns is crucial to structural safety and stability in geological engineering. Classic measures for rock quality investigation are destructive and time consuming, and therefore technology evolution for efficiently evaluating rock quality is significantly required. In this paper, the non-destructive technology ground penetrating radar (GPR) assisted by an ensemble empirical mode decomposition (EEMD)-based signal processing approach is investigated for identifying unstable subsurface rock structures. By decomposing the pre-processed GPR signals into multiple intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) and residues, one typical IMF can preserve the distinct local modes and is considered to reconstruct the subterranean profile. Promising results have been achieved in simple scenarios and filed measurements. The reconstructed profiles can accurately illustrate the subsurface interfaces and eliminate the interference signals. Unstable rock structures have been identified in further field applications. Therefore, the developed approach is efficient in unstable rock structure identification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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9 pages, 1816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing Guidelines for the Use of Passive Thermography on Cultural Heritage in Tropical Climates

by Manogna Kavuru and Elisabetta Rosina

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(23), 8411; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10238411 - 26 Nov 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2054

Abstract

Infrared thermography (IRT) has been a very successful tool for the diagnosis and monitoring of cultural heritage restoration projects. It has been used to identify anomalies, moisture issues, etc., in historic buildings. Although it is a promising tool, one of the limitations is [...] Read more.

Infrared thermography (IRT) has been a very successful tool for the diagnosis and monitoring of cultural heritage restoration projects. It has been used to identify anomalies, moisture issues, etc., in historic buildings. Although it is a promising tool, one of the limitations is that a method to deploy it onsite has not been standardized. This is due to the different variables that might affect thermal signatures captured by the thermal camera, when onsite. Especially since environmental conditions play a major role in thermography, the process must vary from region to region significantly. That said, efforts have been made over the years to establish some base standards for designated purposes of infrared thermography in the construction field. These standards and best practice methods, although comprehensive, do not effectively help with issues that are contextual to the location of the building, for instance, tropical climates, such as India. This paper aims to suggest guidelines for a passive approach of thermography, based on practical applications and procedures followed during the thermographic survey at the former British Residency in Hyderabad, India. Additionally, this paper explores the avenues through which region specific guidelines can be established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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13 pages, 4672 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MEMS Vibrational Power Generator for Bridge Slab and Pier Health Monitoring

by Katsufumi Hashimoto, Tomoki Shiotani, Hiroyuki Mitsuya and Kai-Chun Chang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 8258; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228258 - 21 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2462

Abstract

Micro energy harvesters (MEH) based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are rapidly developing, providing a green and virtually infinite energy source. The electrostatic vibratory power generator outputs electric power when it vibrates, motivating us to apply it to vibrating civil infrastructures excited by ambient [...] Read more.

Micro energy harvesters (MEH) based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are rapidly developing, providing a green and virtually infinite energy source. The electrostatic vibratory power generator outputs electric power when it vibrates, motivating us to apply it to vibrating civil infrastructures excited by ambient and daily traffic loadings. In this study, an innovative monitoring system utilizing MEH devices was proposed for detecting slab damage and pier scours for bridge structures. Its performance was numerically investigated with finite element models, where the damage in slabs was modeled with a reduced Young’s modulus and scours with fixed boundaries of inclined depth. It was shown that the powers generated at each MEH varied as the target structure’s modal frequency shifted and amplitude changed by damage or scour. A power generation index was proposed to identify slab damage and a reference-free method was introduced to detect uneven pier scours. Utilizing an electrostatic vibration-based MEH (MEMS vibrational power generator), this pioneering study showed that MEMS vibrational power generators can work as sensors for an infrastructure structural health monitoring system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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12 pages, 1908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Wavelet Transform to Damage Identification in the Steel Structure Elements

by Anna Knitter-Piątkowska and Arkadiusz Dobrzycki

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 8198; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228198 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1856

Abstract

This work concerns the concept and verification of the experimental possibility of using a wavelet transform to assess a steel structure’s condition. In the research, a developed measuring stand was used. Mechanical waves in the metal plate were excited by the impact. These [...] Read more.

This work concerns the concept and verification of the experimental possibility of using a wavelet transform to assess a steel structure’s condition. In the research, a developed measuring stand was used. Mechanical waves in the metal plate were excited by the impact. These waves were recorded with an electroacoustic transducer and registered in the form of electrical signals. Both the signals generated by the actuator of the plate and the signals reaching the transducer were recorded. The registered data were decomposed into wavelet coefficients. Laboratory tests have shown the possibility of applying this type of test to identify damage in steel structural elements—the relationship between the details of the wavelet transform and the type of damage was demonstrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 6874 KiB

Open AccessArticle

NDT Methods Suitable for Evaluation the Condition of Military Fortification Construction in the Field

by Zezulová Eva, Hasilová Kamila, Komárková Tereza, Stoniš Patrik, Štoller Jiří and Anton Ondřej

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 8161; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228161 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 1771

Abstract

The protective structure is designed to protect the live force against the impact of a shock wave and projectiles, it cannot be diagnosed by the destructive method which devalues the protective structure by sampling. The authors are looking for a combination of suitable [...] Read more.

The protective structure is designed to protect the live force against the impact of a shock wave and projectiles, it cannot be diagnosed by the destructive method which devalues the protective structure by sampling. The authors are looking for a combination of suitable non-destructive technology (NDT) methods that would be used in the future to prove the degree of damage to cement-based protective structures after an explosion. This article represents the first part of an experiment designed to verify the applicability of NDT methods, to evaluate the degree of damage of the protective structure in the field. The experiment consists of three parts. The first part is a laboratory verification of the initial material characteristics of the materials used. The first test set of structural elements is made of steel fiber-reinforced concrete. The elements are evaluated using NDT methods and for comparison by destructive laboratory methods. The second part is the impact of structures using explosion and evaluation of the condition of structures using NDT methods in the field. The last part is used to verify the results of the NDT method, which ensures the residual strength of the structure in the laboratory and try to find the relationship between changes in the results of NDT methods and the residual strength. Radiography was included in the introductory and concluding parts of the experiment to verify the results. Although this method is not suitable for using in-situ, it is the only standardized method of the NDT methods used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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18 pages, 4194 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New System to Determine the Evolution of the Dynamic Young’s Modulus from Early Ages in Masonry Mortars

by Engerst Yedra, Daniel Ferrández, Carlos Morón and Edmundo Gómez

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 8129; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228129 - 17 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1911

Abstract

This work presents a new method to determine the evolution of the dynamic Young’s modulus (MOE) from small mechanical disturbances caused by cement mortar samples and whose value is collected using a low-cost Arduino accelerometer. The results obtained are correlated with measurements made [...] Read more.

This work presents a new method to determine the evolution of the dynamic Young’s modulus (MOE) from small mechanical disturbances caused by cement mortar samples and whose value is collected using a low-cost Arduino accelerometer. The results obtained are correlated with measurements made using traditional ultrasound techniques, in addition to the evolution of MOE being related to the variation in mechanical properties that cement mortars experience over time. In this way, in this work, a secure application method is presented that allows us to advance the knowledge of construction materials with the incorporation of construction and demolition waste (CDW) and—more specifically—of cement mortars made with aggregates recycled from ceramic or concrete waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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13 pages, 3248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Joint Localization Method for Acoustic Emission Source Based on Time Difference of Arrival and Beamforming

by Xiaoran Wang, Xiandong Liu, Tian He, Junfei Tai and Yingchun Shan

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 8045; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10228045 - 13 Nov 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

Time difference of arrival (TDOA) method and beamforming method are often individually utilized in the localization of acoustic emission source of a plate. Based on the performances of the two methods, a novel joint localization method for acoustic emission source is proposed in [...] Read more.

Time difference of arrival (TDOA) method and beamforming method are often individually utilized in the localization of acoustic emission source of a plate. Based on the performances of the two methods, a novel joint localization method for acoustic emission source is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the performances of TDOA method and beamforming method are studied based on the simulation signals. Then, aiming at the advantages and disadvantages of these two methods, a joint localization method is proposed. Finally, the performances of joint localization method are verified by simulation and experiment. Both simulation and experimental results show that the accuracy of the joint localization method is improved, and the calculation amount is greatly reduced in comparison to the TDOA method and the beamforming method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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12 pages, 2937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Multiple Local Damage to an Offshore Jacket Substructure Using a Novel Strain Expansion–Reduction Approach

by Jia-Hao He, Ding-Peng Liu, Cheng-Hsien Chung and Hsin-Haou Huang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(22), 7991; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10227991 - 11 Nov 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1489

Abstract

Modal parameter monitoring is a widely used structural health monitoring method. However, among other limitations, this method cannot effectively identify slight damage under ambient conditions. This study proposed a novel strain expansion–reduction approach for identifying damage. To verify the feasibility of the proposed [...] Read more.

Modal parameter monitoring is a widely used structural health monitoring method. However, among other limitations, this method cannot effectively identify slight damage under ambient conditions. This study proposed a novel strain expansion–reduction approach for identifying damage. To verify the feasibility of the proposed method, we numerically and experimentally tested the method using a rigid acrylic frame. The frame was artificially damaged at various depths to reflect various damage scenarios. The increase in the damage index provided an accurate estimation of damage severity. For the case with merely 0.5% damage zone in one slat, the index is increased by 259% of the intact case. When the damage zone was doubled, the index increases significantly by 467% of the intact case, demonstrating excellent sensitivity of the proposed method. To guarantee practical use, the numerical model of the proposed method was applied to an offshore wind turbine jacket substructure and successfully identified multiple damage sites and the damage severity with extremely high (>10) damage index. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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17 pages, 3675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multiobjective Perspective to Optimal Sensor Placement by Using a Decomposition-Based Evolutionary Algorithm in Structural Health Monitoring

by Tsung-Yueh Lin, Jin Tao and Hsin-Haou Huang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(21), 7710; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10217710 - 30 Oct 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1976

Abstract

The objective of optimal sensor placement in a dynamic system is to obtain a sensor layout that provides as much information as possible for structural health monitoring (SHM). Whereas most studies use only one modal assurance criterion for SHM, this work considers two [...] Read more.

The objective of optimal sensor placement in a dynamic system is to obtain a sensor layout that provides as much information as possible for structural health monitoring (SHM). Whereas most studies use only one modal assurance criterion for SHM, this work considers two additional metrics, signal redundancy and noise ratio, combining into three optimization objectives: Linear independence of mode shapes, dynamic information redundancy, and vibration response signal strength. A modified multiobjective evolutionary algorithm was combined with particle swarm optimization to explore the optimal solution sets. In the final determination, a multiobjective decision-making (MODM) strategy based on distance measurement was used to optimize the aforementioned objectives. We applied it to a reduced finite-element beam model of a reference building and compared it with other selection methods. The results indicated that MODM suitably balanced the objective functions and outperformed the compared methods. We further constructed a three-story frame structure for experimentally validating the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. The results indicated that complete structural modal information can be effectively obtained by applying the MODM approach to identify sensor locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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11 pages, 8840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

THz Reflective Imaging System Utilizing Broadband Homodyne Amplification for Artifact-Free See-Through Imaging

by Kiwon Moon, Il-Min Lee, Eui Su Lee and Kyung Hyun Park

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(20), 7228; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10207228 - 16 Oct 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2050

Abstract

Terahertz (THz) technology offers unique see-through imaging capability for various non-destructive inspection applications. In this work, we implemented a broadband continuous-wave THz imaging system to study technical issues related to the see-through imaging, including frequency-dependent resolution, material loss, and interference-induced artifacts. The interference-induced [...] Read more.

Terahertz (THz) technology offers unique see-through imaging capability for various non-destructive inspection applications. In this work, we implemented a broadband continuous-wave THz imaging system to study technical issues related to the see-through imaging, including frequency-dependent resolution, material loss, and interference-induced artifacts. The interference-induced false contrast and artifacts were observed, which were suppressed by broadband imaging techniques adopting the homodyne signal amplification by interferometric setup to overcome the material loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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18 pages, 7595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Metal Magnetic Memory Testing Technology to the Detection of Stress Corrosion Defect

by Bingxun Zhao, Kai Yao, Libo Wu, Xinglong Li and Yue-Sheng Wang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(20), 7083; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10207083 - 12 Oct 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2335

Abstract

The damage of equipment manufactured with ferromagnetic materials in service can be effectively detected by Metal Magnetic Memory Testing (MMMT) technology, which has received extensive attention in various industry fields. The effect of stress or strain on Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) signals of [...] Read more.

The damage of equipment manufactured with ferromagnetic materials in service can be effectively detected by Metal Magnetic Memory Testing (MMMT) technology, which has received extensive attention in various industry fields. The effect of stress or strain on Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) signals of ferromagnetic materials has been researched by many scholars for assessing stress concentration and fatigue damage. However, there is still a lack of research on the detection of stress corrosion damage of ferromagnetic materials by MMMT technology. In this paper, the electrochemical corrosion system was designed for corrosion experiments, and three different experiments were performed to study the effect of corrosion on MFL signals. The distribution of MFL signals on the surface of the specimen was investigated. The results indicated that both the normal component H_n and tangential component H_t of MFL signals presented different signal characteristics when the specimen was subjected to different working conditions. Finally, two characterization parameters, S_n and S_t, were defined to evaluate the corrosion degree of the specimen, and S_t is better. The direct dependence of corrosion depth on the parameter was developed and the average error rates between the predicted and measured values are 8.94% under the same working condition. Therefore, the expression can be used to evaluate the corrosion degree of the specimen quantitatively. The results are significant for detecting and assessing the corrosion defect of ferromagnetic materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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21 pages, 41666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Spec-Radiation Method as a Fast Alternative to the Re-Radiation Method for the Detection of Flaws in Wooden Particleboards

by Andreas Sebastian Schmelt and Jens Twiefel

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(19), 6663; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10196663 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2024

Abstract

For real-time evaluation of non-destructive air-coupled ultrasonic testing of wood-based materials, efficient and reliable calculation methods from ultrasonic holography are essential. Presented here is the spec-radiation method as a fast alternative to the re-radiation method. The spec-radiation method offers a more accurate and [...] Read more.

For real-time evaluation of non-destructive air-coupled ultrasonic testing of wood-based materials, efficient and reliable calculation methods from ultrasonic holography are essential. Presented here is the spec-radiation method as a fast alternative to the re-radiation method. The spec-radiation method offers a more accurate and up to 88% faster evaluation than the re-radiation method for the determination of flaws in particleboards. Flaws of sub-wavelength sizes can be identified and their shape and location can be determined with this method. The spec-radiation method produces a better reproduction of the sound field than the re-radiation method, especially in the area of the measuring plane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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14 pages, 6481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Local Damages Effect on Mechanical Responses of Underwater Shield Tunnel via Field Testing and Numerical Simulation

by Xuyan Tan, Weizhong Chen, Luyu Wang and Jianping Yang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(18), 6575; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10186575 - 21 Sep 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2082

Abstract

The investigation of concrete structural performance is crucial to maintain the stability of infrastructure. In order to assess structural stability, this work focuses on the development of an integrated framework to detect damaged conditions in the field and analyze their effect on mechanical [...] Read more.

The investigation of concrete structural performance is crucial to maintain the stability of infrastructure. In order to assess structural stability, this work focuses on the development of an integrated framework to detect damaged conditions in the field and analyze their effect on mechanical performance through nondestructive testing (NDT) technology and numerical models. First, a ground penetrating radar (GPR) and an infrared camera work collaboratively to identify the damaged positions of the concrete structure, with parameters calibrated by laboratory experiments. Then, a finite element model is established to study structural mechanical performance based on field conditions and detected results. In addition, the influenced regions induced by local damage are studied under different boundary conditions. As a case study, the devised method was employed in the Nanjing Yangtze River tunnel for stability assessment and disaster prevention. The detected results of the damaged conditions agree well with the actual conditions in the field. Numerical results show that the circumferential stress component is more significant than that observed longitudinally. The effect of local damage on stress implies a positive correlation with the rise of water pressure, in which the maximum stress response to the variation of water level is 45KPa per meter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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16 pages, 7601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electromagnetic Acoustic Detection of Steel Plate Defects Based on High-Energy Pulse Excitation

by Suzhen Liu, Ke Chai, Chuang Zhang, Liang Jin and Qingxin Yang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(16), 5534; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165534 - 11 Aug 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2464

Abstract

The conventional electromagnetic ultrasonic transducers (EMATs) rely on the static magnetic field created by magnets. The magnet increases the size of the EMATs, and the strong magnetic force of the magnet attracts the detected steel and even ferromagnetic particles. It can cause mechanical [...] Read more.

The conventional electromagnetic ultrasonic transducers (EMATs) rely on the static magnetic field created by magnets. The magnet increases the size of the EMATs, and the strong magnetic force of the magnet attracts the detected steel and even ferromagnetic particles. It can cause mechanical damage to the transducer and the detected objects. A new high-energy acoustic excitation system, without a static bias magnetic is designed, which does not include any magnets. As the core of the system, the high-energy pulse excitation power supplies a transient high voltage to the excitation coil by the LC oscillation circuit. The maximum amplitude of current can reach 1700 A, which is much larger than the current in the conventional EMATs. Compared with the conventional EMATs, the intensity of the ultrasonic signal is greatly strengthened and the size of the EMAT is effectively reduced. Therefore, it can detect high-temperature steel plates at a higher lift-off distance. In this paper, the transduction mechanism of high-energy pulse electromagnetic acoustic on ferromagnetic materials was studied, and the high-energy pulse excitation coil used for the A0 mode Lamb wave was designed. The interaction rule of the magnetic field, the force field, and the acoustic field, was obtained. Then, the EMAT lift-off characteristic experiment of the high-energy pulse excitation was carried out, and the defect detection experiment was conducted on a cracked steel plate. The results show that the A0 mode Lamb waves have caused a high signal-to-noise ratio and can accurately locate the crack, which has a great advantage in detecting the microcrack defects of ferromagnetic materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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30 pages, 6480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nondestructive Evaluation of Solids Based on Deformation Wave Theory

by Sanichiro Yoshida, Conor McGibboney and Tomohiro Sasaki

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(16), 5524; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165524 - 10 Aug 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1963

Abstract

The application of a recent field theory of deformation and fracture to nondestructive testing (NDT) is discussed. Based on the principle known as the symmetry of physical laws, the present field theory formulates all stages of deformation including the fracturing stage on the [...] Read more.

The application of a recent field theory of deformation and fracture to nondestructive testing (NDT) is discussed. Based on the principle known as the symmetry of physical laws, the present field theory formulates all stages of deformation including the fracturing stage on the same theoretical basis. The formalism derives wave equations that govern the spatiotemporal characteristics of the differential displacement field of solids under deformation. The evolution from the elastic to the plastic stage of deformation is characterized by a transition from longitudinal (compression) wave to decaying longitudinal/transverse wave characteristics. The evolution from the plastic to the fracturing stage is characterized by transition from continuous wave to solitary wave characteristics. Further, the evolution from the pre-fracturing to the final fracturing stage is characterized by transition from the traveling solitary wave to stationary solitary wave characteristics. In accordance with these transitions, the criterion for deformation stage is defined as specific spatiotemporal characteristics of the differential displacement field. The optical interferometric technique, known as Electronic Speckle-Pattern Interferometry (ESPI), is discussed as an experimental tool to visualize those wave characteristics and the associated deformation-stage criteria. The wave equations are numerically solved for the elastoplastic stages, and the resultant spatiotemporal behavior of the differential displacement field is compared with the experimental results obtained by ESPI. Agreement between the experimental and numerical results validates the present methodology at least for the elastoplastic stages. The solitary wave characteristics in the fracturing stages is discussed based on the experimental results and dislocation theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 5836 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Volume Correlation Applied to X-ray Micro-Tomography Images in Uniaxial Creep Tests on Anisotropic Clayey Rock

by Hailing Shi, Jerome Hosdez, Thomas Rougelot, Shouyi Xie, Jianfu Shao, Jean Talandier and Giuseppe Lacidogna

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(14), 4898; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10144898 - 16 Jul 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2140

Abstract

Creep tests are commonly performed to characterize time-dependent deformation of geological materials. Classical measuring methods are not suitable for long term tests and not able to provide full three-dimensional strain fields. In this study, Digital Volume Correlation (DVC) is applied to X-ray micro-tomography [...] Read more.

Creep tests are commonly performed to characterize time-dependent deformation of geological materials. Classical measuring methods are not suitable for long term tests and not able to provide full three-dimensional strain fields. In this study, Digital Volume Correlation (DVC) is applied to X-ray micro-tomography (XRMT) images from creep tests on a hard clayey rock. In situ uniaxial compression creep tests are performed under different levels of stress and with different loading orientations with respect to the structural anisotropy of rock. Based on the XRMT images taken during the creep tests, DVC is applied to compute the full three dimensional strain fields and global averages strains of tested samples. The effects of bedding planes and hard inclusions on the non-uniform distribution of strains are analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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33 pages, 19120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Scope of Spectral Width Parameter of Frequency Domain Methods in Random Fatigue

by Jie Xu, Yaolei Zhang, Qinghua Han, Jia Li and Giuseppe Lacidogna

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(14), 4715; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10144715 - 08 Jul 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2227

Abstract

In the current fatigue life calculation theory, the most commonly used method is the frequency domain method. However, most of the frequency domain fatigue life prediction models do not indicate the scope of the application of the spectral width parameter. Different frequency domain [...] Read more.

In the current fatigue life calculation theory, the most commonly used method is the frequency domain method. However, most of the frequency domain fatigue life prediction models do not indicate the scope of the application of the spectral width parameter. Different frequency domain methods have strict applicability to the spectral width parameter, and improper model selection will lead significant error. Therefore, it is particularly important to determine the scope of application of the spectral width parameter for different frequency-domain methods. This paper firstly introduces the current frequency domain methods, then simulates the analogue spectrum and selects three materials for comparison in the different frequency-domain methods. By analyzing and comparing the results of random fatigue life and relative error results, the application of different frequency-domain methods is obtained, and random vibration simulation verification is carried out with the practical engineering example, which can provide a reference for the selection of life prediction models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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26 pages, 6896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Elastic Wave Propagation in Rectangular Waveguide Structure: Determination of Dispersion Curves and Their Application in Nondestructive Techniques

by Eduardo Becker Groth, Thomas Gabriel Rosauro Clarke, Guilherme Schumacher da Silva, Ignacio Iturrioz and Giuseppe Lacidogna

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(12), 4401; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10124401 - 26 Jun 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4275

Abstract

The use of mechanic waves for assessing structural integrity is a well-known non-destructive technique (NDT). The ultrasound applied in the guided wave in particular requires significant effort in order to understand the complexities of the propagation so as to develop new methods in [...] Read more.

The use of mechanic waves for assessing structural integrity is a well-known non-destructive technique (NDT). The ultrasound applied in the guided wave in particular requires significant effort in order to understand the complexities of the propagation so as to develop new methods in damage detection, in this case, knowing the interaction between the wave propagation and the geometry of the waveguides is mandatory. In the present work, the wave propagation in rectangular steel rod is presented. In this study, the section dimensions were fixed as 5 × 15 [mm], a typical element of the flexible riser structural amour commonly used in the offshore oil industry. The studies here presented were restricted to [0, 100 KHz] frequencies. This frequency interval is in the range of commercial waveguide equipment commonly applied in ducts in NDT applications. The computation of the dispersion curves is performed by using three different methodologies: (i) analytical solutions, (ii) a method that combines analytical approaches with finite element methods (SAFE), and (iii) experimental method that extracted information from the rod using laser vibrometers and piezoelectric actuators. Finally, two applications based on the dispersion curves determined in the rectangular waveguide are presented to illustrate the possibilities of the curve dispersion knowledge related to the specific geometry in the development and application linked to NDT. The first application consists on showing the possibilities of the techniques that use a fiber grating Bragg cell (FGB) to measure the wave displacement and the second application involves the simulation of pre-fissured prismatic waveguide aimed at searching to induce three characteristic acoustic events. The model was built combining the finite element method and a version of the discrete element method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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16 pages, 7505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electromagnetic Testing of Moisture Separation Reheater Tube based on Multivariate Singular Spectral Analysis

by Van Su Luong, Minhhuy Le, Khoa Dang Nguyen, Dang-Khanh Le and Jinyi Lee

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(11), 3954; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113954 - 06 Jun 2020

Viewed by 3563

Abstract

Moisture separator reheater (MSR) tubing systems are an important part of a pressurized-water power plant to increase the efficiency of the heat transfer rate. The MSR tubes are finned tubes which are made of ferritic stainless steel (SS439) with a high strength and [...] Read more.

Moisture separator reheater (MSR) tubing systems are an important part of a pressurized-water power plant to increase the efficiency of the heat transfer rate. The MSR tubes are finned tubes which are made of ferritic stainless steel (SS439) with a high strength and corrosion resistance characteristics. However, corrosion can appear along with the fins after a long period of operation of the MSR tubes that requires nondestructive testing (NDT) of the MSR tubes’ periodically. Electromagnetic testing (ET) is an efficient NDT method for the inspection of far-side corrosion in the MSR tubes. However, the ET sensor signal is affected by signal noise from the fins. Material degradation that make it challenging to inspect and evaluate the corrosion. In this study, we proposed three ET methods, including magnetic flux leakage testing, eddy current testing and partial saturation eddy current testing, and incorporated with a multivariate singular spectral analysis (MSSA) filter to improve the detectability of the corrosion in the MSR tubes. The proposed MSSA filter was compared with the multivariate wavelet transform filter and Gabor transform filter, and the results showed more efficient and stable results of the MSSA filter in the extraction of the corrosion signal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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23 pages, 5727 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acoustic Emission Monitoring of the Turin Cathedral Bell Tower: Foreshock and Aftershock Discrimination

by Amedeo Manuello Bertetto, Davide Masera and Alberto Carpinteri

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(11), 3931; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113931 - 05 Jun 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2727

Abstract

Historical churches, tall ancient masonry buildings, and bell towers are structures subjected to high risks due to their age, elevation, and small base-area-to-height ratio. In this paper, the results of an innovative monitoring technique for structural integrity assessment applied to a historical bell [...] Read more.

Historical churches, tall ancient masonry buildings, and bell towers are structures subjected to high risks due to their age, elevation, and small base-area-to-height ratio. In this paper, the results of an innovative monitoring technique for structural integrity assessment applied to a historical bell tower are reported. The emblematic case study of the monitoring of the Turin Cathedral bell tower (northwest Italy) is herein presented. First of all, the damage evolution in a portion of the structure localized in the lower levels of the tall masonry building is described by the evaluation of the cumulative number of acoustic emissions (AEs) and by different parameters able to predict the time dependence of the damage development, in addition to the 3D localization of the AE sources. The b-value analysis shows a decreasing trend down to values compatible with the growth of localized micro and macro-cracks in the portion of the structure close to the base of the tower. These results seem to be in good agreement with the static and dynamic analysis performed numerically by an accurate FEM (finite element model). Similar results were also obtained during the application of the AE monitoring to the wooden frame sustaining the bells in the tower cell. Finally, a statistical analysis based on the average values of the b-value are carried out at the scale of the monument and at the seismic regional scale. In particular, according to recent studies, a comparison between the b-value obtained by AE signal analysis and the regional activity is proposed in order to correlate the AE detected on the structure to the seismic activity, discriminating foreshock, and aftershock intervals in the analyzed time series. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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15 pages, 3882 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Deformation Stage and Crack Initiation in TC11 Alloys Using Acoustic Emission

by Jiaoyan Huang, Zhiheng Zhang, Cong Han and Guoan Yang

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(11), 3674; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113674 - 26 May 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2066

Abstract

The Acoustic Emission (AE) is a widely used real-time monitoring technique for the deformation damage and crack initiation of areo-engine blades. In this work, a tensile test for TC11 titanium alloy, one of the main materials of aero-engine, was performed. The AE signals [...] Read more.

The Acoustic Emission (AE) is a widely used real-time monitoring technique for the deformation damage and crack initiation of areo-engine blades. In this work, a tensile test for TC11 titanium alloy, one of the main materials of aero-engine, was performed. The AE signals from different stages of this test were collected. Then, the AE signals were decomposed by the Variational Mode Decomposition (VMD) method, in which the signals were divided into two different frequency bands. We calculated the engery ratio by dividing the two different frequency bands to characterize TC11′s degree of deformation. The results showed that when the energy ratio was −0.5 dB, four stages of deformation damage of the TC11 titanium alloy could be clearly identified. We further combined the calculated Partial Energy Ratio (PER) and Weighted Peak Frequency (WPF) to identify the crack initiation of the TC11 titanium alloy. The results showed that the identification accuracy was 96.33%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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Review

Jump to: Research

19 pages, 2283 KiB

Open AccessReview

Design of a Computed Tomography Automation Architecture

by Nicholas Hashem, Mitchell Pryor, Derek Haas and James Hunter

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2858; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062858 - 23 Mar 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4811

Abstract

This paper presents a literature review on techniques related to the computed tomography procedure that incorporate automation elements in their research investigations or industrial applications. Computed tomography (CT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) technique in that the imaging and inspection are performed without [...] Read more.

This paper presents a literature review on techniques related to the computed tomography procedure that incorporate automation elements in their research investigations or industrial applications. Computed tomography (CT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) technique in that the imaging and inspection are performed without damaging the sample, allowing for additional or repeated analysis if necessary. The reviewed literature is organized based on the steps associated with a general NDT task in order to define an end-to-end computed tomography automation architecture. The process steps include activities prior to image collection, during the scan, and after the data are collected. It further reviews efforts related to repeating this process based on a previous scan result. By analyzing the multiple existing but disparate efforts found in the literature, we present a framework for fully automating NDT procedures and discuss the remaining technical gaps in the developed framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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28 pages, 4394 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advancements in Non-Destructive Testing Techniques for Structural Health Monitoring

by Patryk Kot, Magomed Muradov, Michaela Gkantou, George S. Kamaris, Khalid Hashim and David Yeboah

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062750 - 18 Mar 2021

Cited by 109 | Viewed by 10335

Abstract

Structural health monitoring (SHM) is an important aspect of the assessment of various structures and infrastructure, which involves inspection, monitoring, and maintenance to support economics, quality of life and sustainability in civil engineering. Currently, research has been conducted in order to develop non-destructive [...] Read more.

Structural health monitoring (SHM) is an important aspect of the assessment of various structures and infrastructure, which involves inspection, monitoring, and maintenance to support economics, quality of life and sustainability in civil engineering. Currently, research has been conducted in order to develop non-destructive techniques for SHM to extend the lifespan of monitored structures. This paper will review and summarize the recent advancements in non-destructive testing techniques, namely, sweep frequency approach, ground penetrating radar, infrared technique, fiber optics sensors, camera-based methods, laser scanner techniques, acoustic emission and ultrasonic techniques. Although some of the techniques are widely and successfully utilized in civil engineering, there are still challenges that researchers are addressing. One of the common challenges within the techniques is interpretation, analysis and automation of obtained data, which requires highly skilled and specialized experts. Therefore, researchers are investigating and applying artificial intelligence, namely machine learning algorithms to address the challenges. In addition, researchers have combined multiple techniques in order to improve accuracy and acquire additional parameters to enhance the measurement processes. This study mainly focuses on the scope and recent advancements of the Non-destructive Testing (NDT) application for SHM of concrete, masonry, timber and steel structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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17 pages, 2327 KiB

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Terahertz Inspection of Buildings and Architectural Art

by Kirsti Krügener, Jan Ornik, Lorentz M. Schneider, Alexander Jäckel, Corinna L. Koch-Dandolo, Enrique Castro-Camus, Nicole Riedl-Siedow, Martin Koch and Wolfgang Viöl

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(15), 5166; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10155166 - 27 Jul 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3780

Abstract

We present a broad literature review on the uses of terahertz radiation for the inspection architectural art, as well as building structures. As an example of the uses of terahertz in this field, we also include original results on a non-destructive assessment of [...] Read more.

We present a broad literature review on the uses of terahertz radiation for the inspection architectural art, as well as building structures. As an example of the uses of terahertz in this field, we also include original results on a non-destructive assessment of a conservation intervention on murals of the Konstantinbasilika in Trier, Germany while using terahertz time-of-flight spectroscopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing (NDT): Volume II)

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