Research

17 pages, 7220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Railroad Infrastructure Management: A Novel Tool for Automatic Interpretation of GPR Imaging to Minimize Human Intervention in Railroad Inspection

by Ammar Alzarrad, Caleb Wise, Arka Chattopadhyay, Sudipta Chowdhury, Abby Cisko and Jeremy Beasley

CivilEng 2024, 5(2), 378-394; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5020019 - 16 Apr 2024

Viewed by 391

Abstract

Regular monitoring and inspection of military railroad tracks are necessary to ensure the safe transportation of military freight. Manual railroad inspection has drawbacks and limitations that can impact accuracy and efficiency. This study introduces a novel tool designed to automate Ground Penetrating Radar [...] Read more.

Regular monitoring and inspection of military railroad tracks are necessary to ensure the safe transportation of military freight. Manual railroad inspection has drawbacks and limitations that can impact accuracy and efficiency. This study introduces a novel tool designed to automate Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) imaging interpretation for railroad ballast condition assessment, aiming to reduce human intervention in inspections. The tool uses advanced signal processing techniques, such as the Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT) and Wavelet Transform (WT), to quantify ballast fouling levels accurately, enhancing maintenance and safety protocols for railroad tracks. Validation through comprehensive testing, including two case studies, demonstrates the tool’s superior efficacy over traditional manual inspection methods. This research represents a pivotal step towards more efficient and reliable infrastructure management, ensuring critical railroad systems’ safety and operational integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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35 pages, 17295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy-Based Design of Buckling-Restrained Steel Braced Frames for Concurrent Occurrences of Earthquake and Wind

by Taonian Shan and Eric M. Lui

CivilEng 2024, 5(2), 343-377; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5020018 - 15 Apr 2024

Viewed by 289

Abstract

This paper describes the development of a dual hazard spectrum for use in the dynamic analysis of steel frames subject to the combined effects of earthquakes and wind. The proposed spectrum is obtained by combining the power spectra of earthquakes and wind using [...] Read more.

This paper describes the development of a dual hazard spectrum for use in the dynamic analysis of steel frames subject to the combined effects of earthquakes and wind. The proposed spectrum is obtained by combining the power spectra of earthquakes and wind using the square root of the sum of squares (SRSS) combination method. An equivalent time excitation function is then computed using an inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) and serves as input for the dynamic analysis. Using time-history analysis on the OpenSees platform, the dynamic responses expressed in terms of peak and residual inter-story and roof drifts for two multistory steel frames located in two US cities (Los Angeles and Charleston) are obtained to demonstrate that designing these buildings based on just one hazard may not be adequate. For frames that are considered under-designed, an energy-based design procedure that uses buckling-restrained braces (BRBs) to dissipate the excess energy imparted to these frames is proposed so they will satisfy the FEMA 356 recommended drift limits for the performance levels of immediate occupancy and life safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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20 pages, 12870 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Nature of Cement on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Soil Concretes from Sandy Clay and Laterite

by Alain Kamdem, Emmanuel Elat, Javad Eslami, Jean Chills Amba, Moussa Sali, Michel Mbessa and Albert Noumowé

CivilEng 2024, 5(2), 307-326; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5020016 - 07 Apr 2024

Viewed by 327

Abstract

Soil concrete is a material produced by mixing the soil at the site with a hydraulic binder. This paper aims to study the influence of the nature of binder on the physical and mechanical properties of soil concrete. For the mixtures, three types [...] Read more.

Soil concrete is a material produced by mixing the soil at the site with a hydraulic binder. This paper aims to study the influence of the nature of binder on the physical and mechanical properties of soil concrete. For the mixtures, three types of soil were chosen and studied: sandy clay with a granular class of 0/5 (SA5), laterite with a granular class of 0/5 (LA5), and laterite with a granular class of 0/10 (LA10). Three different cements were used: CEM I 52.5, CEM II 42.5, and CEM III 32.5, with cement contents of 150 and 250 kg/m³. The soil concretes were designed for a constant spread of 32–33 cm measured on a mini-slump. The results showed that LA5-based soil concrete has a higher water content of about 8.8% more than SA5 and LA10-based soil concretes. For all the mixtures, the lowest porosity values were obtained with CEM III 32.5, followed by CEM I 52.5, and finally CEM II 42.5. For the three types of cement and the same soil granular size, the compressive strength, static, and dynamic modulus of SA5-based soil concretes are higher than LA5. It was noted that the mechanical properties of soil concretes made with CEM III 32.5 are higher than those made with CEM I 52.5 and CEM II 42.5. Regardless of the type of cement used, the mechanical properties obtained on LA10-based soil concrete are higher than those on LA5-based soil concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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19 pages, 4663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Methods to Increase Fatigue Life at Rib to Deck Connection in Orthotropic Steel Bridge Decks

by Diwakar KC, Bhim Kumar Dahal and Harish Dangi

CivilEng 2024, 5(1), 288-306; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5010015 - 20 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1114

Abstract

Orthotropic steel bridge decks (OSDs) are very popular all over the world because of the low dead load, high stiffness in the longitudinal direction, high strength ratio to weight, and can be used in various types of bridges. The life of these bridges [...] Read more.

Orthotropic steel bridge decks (OSDs) are very popular all over the world because of the low dead load, high stiffness in the longitudinal direction, high strength ratio to weight, and can be used in various types of bridges. The life of these bridges is affected by fatigue cracks in different portions. One of major areas where the fatigue cracks appear in these bridges is rib-to-deck connection. In this research finite element analysis is carried out by using ABAQUS/CAE 2022 software to determine the ways to increase the fatigue life at rib to deck connection in OSDs. In the first part, smaller models are simulated; stress concentration is analyzed and hot spot stress (HSS) is calculated according to International Institute of Welding (IIW) and Det Norske Veritas (DNV) recommendations. In the second part, a parametric analysis is carried out to analyze the effect of weld penetration, thickness of deck, thickness of rib and rib to deck connection type. In the third part, simulation of models similar to the real field is carried out to determine whether the double welded connections are better than single welded connections. Different models are analyzed for different load cases like single wheel load, double wheel load and also the position of the wheels is changed. The boundary conditions are changed to analyze whether the boundary condition has any significant effect on the result obtained. It is found that thicker decks, thinner ribs, and low penetrated welded connections reduce the stress concentrations at rib to deck connections which ultimately increase fatigue life. Among the parameters examined, deck thickness is the most important parameter. It is found that the percentage of stress increase with percentage decrease in deck thickness follows a power relation. The overall fatigue life of double welded connection is excepted to be lower since the stress concentration is maximum at the weld toe at deck on the outer side of the closed stiffener; however, if the cracks initiate on the inner side of closed stiffener, the cracks at the weld root of single welded connection can propagate much rapidly than the cracks initiating on the inner side of the closed stiffener at the weld toe, thereby reducing the fatigue life of the single-welded specimen significantly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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23 pages, 8902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Analysis of Textile Reinforced Concrete Shells: Force Interaction and Failure Types

by Iurii Vakaliuk, Silke Scheerer and Manfred Curbach

CivilEng 2024, 5(1), 224-246; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5010012 - 12 Mar 2024

Viewed by 534

Abstract

In the case of solid slabs made of reinforced concrete that are usually subjected to bending, large areas of the structure are stressed well below their load-bearing capacity. Contrary to this are shell structures, which can bridge large spans with little material if [...] Read more.

In the case of solid slabs made of reinforced concrete that are usually subjected to bending, large areas of the structure are stressed well below their load-bearing capacity. Contrary to this are shell structures, which can bridge large spans with little material if designed according to the force flow. To improve the efficiency of ceiling slabs, we want to utilize the shell load-bearing behavior on a smaller scale by resolving the solid interior accordingly. In order to study a wide range of such constructions virtually, a parametric multi-objective simulation environment is being developed in an ongoing research project. The basic analysis approaches that were implemented are presented in this paper. The basic workflow, the used programs and material models, and their calibration on the tests on textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) samples are described. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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22 pages, 6929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Element Model of Concrete-Filled, Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Tubes for Small-Scale Wind Turbine Towers

by Yikai Gong and Martin Noël

CivilEng 2024, 5(1), 169-190; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng5010009 - 02 Feb 2024

Viewed by 522

Abstract

The finite element method was used to study the feasibility of concrete-filled, fiber-reinforced polymer tubes (CFFTs) for small-scale wind turbine towers in remote areas. Although CFFTs have been successfully employed for a variety of structural applications, their use for wind turbine towers is [...] Read more.

The finite element method was used to study the feasibility of concrete-filled, fiber-reinforced polymer tubes (CFFTs) for small-scale wind turbine towers in remote areas. Although CFFTs have been successfully employed for a variety of structural applications, their use for wind turbine towers is novel and has yet to be investigated in detail. The objective of the study was to identify, for the first time, the most important parameters for design and compare the behavior of CFFT towers versus conventional steel and concrete towers. The model was first validated using experimental results reported in the literature followed by a series of parametric studies to evaluate the importance of several key parameters. In the first phase, the effect of different geometric properties (taper and concrete filling ratio) and reinforcement configurations (FRP laminate configuration, steel reinforcement ratio, and prestressing level) were investigated for cantilever tower models with concentrated lateral loads. A 10 m high CFFT wind turbine tower model was subsequently modeled and studied under different loading configurations. The influence of the height-to-diameter (h/D) ratio on cantilever CFFT models was also studied and a conservative preliminary design that can be refined for specific turbine systems and wind conditions was adopted using the h/D ratio. The CFFT tower model was compared to concrete and steel tubular models with similar geometry to study the advantages of CFFT towers and showed that CFFTs can be an efficient alternative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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13 pages, 4546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Static and Dynamic Behavior of Steel Storage Tanks over Different Types of Clay Soil

by Tarek N. Salem, Ayman El-Zohairy and Ahmed M. Abdelbaset

CivilEng 2023, 4(4), 1169-1181; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4040064 - 22 Nov 2023

Viewed by 768

Abstract

Steel storage tanks are widely used in different fields. Most of these tanks contain hazardous materials, which may lead to disasters and environmental damage for any design errors. There are many reasons which cause the failure of these tanks such as excessive base [...] Read more.

Steel storage tanks are widely used in different fields. Most of these tanks contain hazardous materials, which may lead to disasters and environmental damage for any design errors. There are many reasons which cause the failure of these tanks such as excessive base plate settlement, shear failure of soil, liquid sloshing, and buckling of the tank shell. In this study, five models of above-ground steel storage tanks resting over different types of clay soils (medium-stiff clay, stiff clay, and very stiff clay soils) are analyzed using the finite element program ADINA under the effect of static and dynamic loading. The soil underneath the tank is truly simulated using a 3D solid (porous media) element and the used material model is the Cam-clay soil model. The fluid in the tank is modeled depending on the Navier–Stokes fluid equation. Moreover, the earthquake record used in this analysis is the horizontal component of the Loma Prieta Earthquake. The analyzed tanks are circular steel tanks with the same height (10 m) and different diameters (ranging from 15 m to 40 m). The soil under the tanks has a noticeable effect on the dynamic behavior of the studied tanks. The tanks resting over the medium-stiff clay (the weakest soil) give a lower permanent settlement after the earthquake because of its low elastic modulus which leads to the absorption of the earthquake waves in comparison to the other types of soil. There are 29.6% and 35.6% increases in the peak dynamic stresses under the tanks in the cases of stiff clay and very stiff clay soils, respectively. The maximum values of the dynamic vertical stresses occur at a time around 13.02 s, which is close to the peak ground acceleration of the earthquake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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23 pages, 6586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formwork Engineering for Sustainable Concrete Construction

by Jonny Nilimaa, Yaser Gamil and Vasiola Zhaka

CivilEng 2023, 4(4), 1098-1120; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4040060 - 17 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4245

Abstract

This study provides a comprehensive review of the engineering challenges of formwork in concrete construction. The paper investigates different formwork systems, their design based on form pressure, and the difficulties of form stripping. Alternative binders are gaining more and more interest by opening [...] Read more.

This study provides a comprehensive review of the engineering challenges of formwork in concrete construction. The paper investigates different formwork systems, their design based on form pressure, and the difficulties of form stripping. Alternative binders are gaining more and more interest by opening new opportunities for sustainable concrete materials and their impact on form pressure and concrete setting is also investigated in this paper. The discussion involves several engineering challenges such as sustainability, safety, and economy, while it also explores previous case studies, and discusses future trends in formwork design. The findings pinpoint that choosing an appropriate formwork system depends significantly on project-specific constraints and that the development of innovative materials and technologies presents significant benefits but also new challenges, including the need for training and regulation. Current trends in formwork design and use show promising possibilities for the integration of digital technologies and the development of sustainable and ‘smart’ formwork systems. Continued research within the field has the possibility to explore new formwork materials and technologies, which will contribute to the implementation of more effective and sustainable practices in concrete construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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15 pages, 4163 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stiffness Moduli Modelling and Prediction in Four-Point Bending of Asphalt Mixtures: A Machine Learning-Based Framework

by Nicola Baldo, Fabio Rondinella, Fabiola Daneluz, Pavla Vacková, Jan Valentin, Marcin D. Gajewski and Jan B. Król

CivilEng 2023, 4(4), 1083-1097; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4040059 - 16 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1184

Abstract

Stiffness modulus represents one of the most important parameters for the mechanical characterization of asphalt mixtures (AMs). At the same time, it is a crucial input parameter in the process of designing flexible pavements. In the present study, two selected mixtures were thoroughly [...] Read more.

Stiffness modulus represents one of the most important parameters for the mechanical characterization of asphalt mixtures (AMs). At the same time, it is a crucial input parameter in the process of designing flexible pavements. In the present study, two selected mixtures were thoroughly investigated in an experimental trial carried out by means of a four-point bending test (4PBT) apparatus. The mixtures were prepared using spilite aggregate, a conventional 50/70 penetration grade bitumen, and limestone filler. Their stiffness moduli (SM) were determined while samples were exposed to 11 loading frequencies (from 0.1 to 50 Hz) and 4 testing temperatures (from 0 to 30 °C). The SM values ranged from 1222 to 24,133 MPa. Observations were recorded and used to develop a machine learning (ML) model. The main scope was the prediction of the stiffness moduli based on the volumetric properties and testing conditions of the corresponding mixtures, which would provide the advantage of reducing the laboratory efforts required to determine them. Two of the main soft computing techniques were investigated to accomplish this task, namely decision trees with the Categorical Boosting algorithm and artificial neural networks. The outcomes suggest that both ML methodologies achieved very good results, with Categorical Boosting showing better performance (MAPE = 3.41% and R² = 0.9968) and resulting in more accurate and reliable predictions in terms of the six goodness-of-fit metrics that were implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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20 pages, 3183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Criteria Risk Analysis of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Application in Structures

by Sama Tajasosi, Ashkan Saradar, Jalil Barandoust, Mohammad Mohtasham Moein, Reza Zeinali and Moses Karakouzian

CivilEng 2023, 4(3), 1016-1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4030055 - 11 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1538

Abstract

In developing countries, ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) has not garnered sufficient attention, and its potential industrial applications remain largely unexplored and underdeveloped. The purpose of this paper is to assess the risk associated with integrating UHPC technology into the construction industry, focusing on economic, [...] Read more.

In developing countries, ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) has not garnered sufficient attention, and its potential industrial applications remain largely unexplored and underdeveloped. The purpose of this paper is to assess the risk associated with integrating UHPC technology into the construction industry, focusing on economic, technical, and environmental facets, as highlighted by global research endeavors in this domain. In this study, a risk model is validated by analyzing diverse UHPC mix proportions from various studies and assessing the associated risk indices concerning constituent materials. The findings demonstrate that incorporating UHPC as a more robust alternative to earlier generations is plausible when considering multiple perspectives within the concrete industry. The preeminence of compressive strength and the significance of service life as a pivotal cost factor during the maintenance period, coupled with comprehensive risk indices, underscore the excellence of UHPC. Comparing UHPC with high-performance concrete (HPC) and normal concrete (NC), it becomes evident that UHPC exerts a notably lower adverse impact on the ecosystem. Additionally, UHPC proves to be a more economically viable option, warranting the replacement of existing technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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14 pages, 963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of the Efficiency of Mediterranean Container Ports: A Data Envelopment Analysis Approach

by Tatiana P. Moschovou and Dimitrios Kapetanakis

CivilEng 2023, 4(3), 726-739; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4030041 - 27 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1229

Abstract

The current paper presents the results of a study that analyzed and evaluated the efficiency of the largest container ports in the wider area of the Mediterranean Basin. The research question that this paper seeks to respond to is how the resources (inputs) [...] Read more.

The current paper presents the results of a study that analyzed and evaluated the efficiency of the largest container ports in the wider area of the Mediterranean Basin. The research question that this paper seeks to respond to is how the resources (inputs) of a container port reflect its level of activity and efficiency. In particular, what is the relationship between ports’ infrastructures, equipment and their productivity and the ports’ ability to attract economic activities as well as the extent of their effect on a port’s efficiency? The methodology uses the data envelopment analysis (DEA) output-oriented model following a cross-sectional approach. The research conducts two modeling approaches, the CCR and the BCC model. The analysis goes deeper and compares port efficiency estimates in relation to medium-sized and large ports’ classification and their total market share. The main findings indicated an average efficiency of 0.88 and 0.89 assuming constant and variable returns of scale, respectively, implying that the ports can increase their output levels up to approximately 1.2 times without any change in their inputs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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23 pages, 482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Priority Criteria (PC) Based Particle Swarm Optimization of Reinforced Concrete Frames (PCPSO)

by Yohannes L. Alemu, Bedilu Habte, Tom Lahmer and Girum Urgessa

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 679-701; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020039 - 16 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1224

Abstract

Simplicity and optimality are commonly associated with the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. As a result, numerous variants and hybrids of PSO have been developed and implemented to address structural optimization problems. The undeniable importance of the initialization technique in determining the overall [...] Read more.

Simplicity and optimality are commonly associated with the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. As a result, numerous variants and hybrids of PSO have been developed and implemented to address structural optimization problems. The undeniable importance of the initialization technique in determining the overall performance of a given optimization algorithm cannot be overstated. Optimization algorithms, such as PSO, typically rely on a random, uniformly distributed initialization. Through multiple iterations and updates, these algorithms aim to achieve optimal results. The underlying assumption behind such an initialization approach is that a fair or reasonable arrangement of particles is best accomplished through randomization, and thus the entire optimization process is iterated based on this assumption. However, this initialization technique raises concerns regarding the attainment of optimality and convergence, leaving room for further examination. In this paper, we challenge this assumption by introducing a priority concept. The key idea is that particles should not be initialized randomly since randomness alone does not guarantee a reasonable allocation of design variable values in iterative optimization. This can lead to misguided velocity updates and ultimately, a time-consuming pursuit of optimality. To address this issue, we formulate priority criteria (PC) and propose an enhanced PSO variant called Priority Criteria PSO (PCPSO). The PC can be incorporated into any PSO variant or hybrid without impacting the parameter settings, constraints, and penalty approaches of the respective algorithms. A case study involving 2D reinforced concrete frames was conducted to compare the performance of the ordinary PSO algorithm with the PCPSO. The results clearly demonstrate that the introduction of the PC leads to a significant cost reduction when compared to PSO with an inertia damping factor. Additionally, the PCPSO algorithm exhibits accelerated convergence. Furthermore, to alleviate the computational burden associated with structural analysis at each iteration, a reanalysis approach called Combined Approximations (CA) is mathematically formulated and implemented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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20 pages, 9861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seismic Interaction between Multistory Pilotis RC Frames and Shorter Structures with Different Story Levels—Floor-to-Column Pounding

by Grigorios E. Manoukas and Chris G. Karayannis

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 618-637; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020036 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1149

Abstract

Structural pounding between adjoining multistory buildings with different total heights and different story levels has been repeatedly identified as a frequent cause of severe damage during seismic excitations. This phenomenon is very intense when upper floor slabs of short buildings hit the columns [...] Read more.

Structural pounding between adjoining multistory buildings with different total heights and different story levels has been repeatedly identified as a frequent cause of severe damage during seismic excitations. This phenomenon is very intense when upper floor slabs of short buildings hit the columns of taller and more flexible structures within their deformable length. On the other hand, it is well accepted that infill masonry panels strongly affect the seismic response and overall behavior of multistory reinforced concrete (RC) frames and especially in the common case of an open first story (pilotis). Thereupon, the interaction between a multistory frame with an open first floor and shorter and stiffer adjacent buildings was studied and the influence of the open first story on pounding investigated with inelastic dynamic step-by-step analyses. The results of the pounding cases of an 8-story RC frame with a single story and 4-story buildings were examined. Three cases of short structures were considered as follows: a frame structure, a stiff structure and a very stiff non-self-vibrating one. All studied interaction cases included type A (floor-to-floor) pounding cases and type B (floor-to-column) pounding cases. This study focused on the influence of an open first story (pilotis) on the pounding phenomenon. Therefore, all examined two-building poundings were studied considering two cases: the first case involving a fully infilled 8-story frame and second case involving an infilled 8-story structure with an open first story (pilotis). Moreover, as expected due to the asymmetry of the examined two-structured pounding pairs, the directions (plus and minus) of the seismic excitation proved to be important for the evaluation of the developing capacity demands. In the present study for the first time, it is stressed that pounding cases between structures with different geometries (asymmetric) have to be examined in both directions (plus and minus) of each seismic excitation. From the results, it can be deduced that the developing shear forces on the columns that suffer a hit in the case of type B pounding exceed the shear strength of the column even if detailing for critical regions according to Eurocode 8 is applied. Further, it is inferred that pilotis configuration increases the developing pounding forces and consequently increases the capacity demands mainly in terms of the ductility of the column that suffers the hit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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22 pages, 12308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adjustment of Tall Building Behavior by Guided Optimization of Magneto-Rheological Damper Control Parameters

by Amin Akhnoukh, Ahmed Fady Farid, Ahmed M. M. Hasan and Youssef F. Rashed

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 596-617; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020035 - 26 May 2023

Viewed by 1230

Abstract

Magneto-rheological dampers (MR-Dampers) are increasingly being used in construction applications to reduce the dynamic response of structures to seismic activities or severe wind loading. Sensors attached to the structure will signal the computer to supply the dampers with an electric charge that transfers [...] Read more.

Magneto-rheological dampers (MR-Dampers) are increasingly being used in construction applications to reduce the dynamic response of structures to seismic activities or severe wind loading. Sensors attached to the structure will signal the computer to supply the dampers with an electric charge that transfers the MR fluid to a near-solid material with different physical and mechanical properties (viscoelastic behavior). Control algorithms govern the fluid to near-solid conversion, which controls the behavior of the damper and the performance of the structure under the seismic or wind loading event. The successful optimization of control parameters minimizes the overall structural response to dynamic forces. The main objective of this research is to change the output behavior of specific floors within a building subjected to seismic excitation by optimizing the MR-Damper control parameters to impact the behavior of a specific floor or number of floors within the building. The adjustment of control parameters to attain this objective was validated in multiple case studies throughout this research. The successful implementation of the research outcome will result in optimized MR-damper design to meet the performance-based criteria of building projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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12 pages, 3507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Insulation of Hybrid GFRP-Lightweight Concrete Structures

by Mário R. T. Arruda, Pedro Cantor and Renato Bicelli

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 584-595; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020034 - 25 May 2023

Viewed by 1241

Abstract

This paper presents a numerical study on the thermal effect of the insulation of lightweight concrete in hybrid GFRP-concrete structures. In these hybrid structures, the GFRP profiles are totally covered by normal and lightweight concrete and subjected to thermal loads. The problem with [...] Read more.

This paper presents a numerical study on the thermal effect of the insulation of lightweight concrete in hybrid GFRP-concrete structures. In these hybrid structures, the GFRP profiles are totally covered by normal and lightweight concrete and subjected to thermal loads. The problem with GFRP structures is their weak thermal resistance, even at moderately high temperatures. To promote some thermal insulation, it is recommended to cover the GFRP profile with concrete, but this increases its weight. Therefore, lightweight concrete may be a good solution due to its insulation capabilities. For this study, the thermal loads used in the numerical campaign are based on a nominal fire-curved ISO-834, and the temperature is measured at several points. Using these temperatures, it is possible to conclude that the effect of lightweight concrete may provide structural benefits when compared with classical standard structural concrete for covering GFRP profiles using different cover values (from 5.0 cm to 2.5 cm). For this work, commercial finite element software was used for the thermal nonlinear analysis. It was possible to conclude that with lightweight concrete, it is likely to have half of the cover and still maintain the same level of insulation as regular concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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16 pages, 3759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility Study on the Effect of FRP Shear Reinforcements on the Behaviour of FRP-Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams

by Fawzi Latosh, Abobakr Al-Sakkaf and Ashutosh Bagchi

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 522-537; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020030 - 05 May 2023

Viewed by 1530

Abstract

Unlike steel reinforcements in concrete, Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) materials are light and free from corrosion. Therefore, FRP materials are increasingly being used in structural engineering as a replacement for steel reinforcements. While the use of FRP bars as longitudinal reinforcements in concrete [...] Read more.

Unlike steel reinforcements in concrete, Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) materials are light and free from corrosion. Therefore, FRP materials are increasingly being used in structural engineering as a replacement for steel reinforcements. While the use of FRP bars as longitudinal reinforcements in concrete deep beams has been studied somewhat widely, their use and effectiveness as web reinforcements are not well studied. In this study, the effect of the FRP web reinforcements on the behaviour and strength of FRP-reinforced concrete deep beams were investigated in an experimental study. Four glass fiber-reinforced concrete (RC) simply supported deep beam specimens were tested under a concentrated load with different shear span-to-depth ratios and web reinforcement ratios. The behaviour of the deep beams was described in terms of load–deflection behaviour, crack developments, strain in FRP reinforcements, and failure modes. The experimental investigation emphasized the significance of web reinforcements in determining the reinforced concrete deep beam behaviour, such as mid-span deflection, crack breadth, failure modes, and ultimate strengths. Furthermore, to predict the behavior of deep beams, numerical Finite Element models using Abaqus software were created. The present test results were compared to those predicted using the Finite Element models. This investigation shows that web reinforcement is quite important for FRP-RC deep beams to achieve a robust behaviour by enhancing its capacity and deformability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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16 pages, 14779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Code-Based Investigation on the Impact of Corrosion on the Ultimate Compressive Strength of Steel Angle Members Using Thickness Reduction Method

by Chamath Ravindu Senevirathna, Chaminda S. Bandara and Sudath C. Siriwardane

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 506-521; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020029 - 27 Apr 2023

Viewed by 975

Abstract

Damage assessment of corroded steel members due to severe exposure conditions, has been a vital component for determining the strengthening requirements of existing deteriorated structures, to overcome possible devastating failures. This article mainly focuses on steel angle members, which are mostly used as [...] Read more.

Damage assessment of corroded steel members due to severe exposure conditions, has been a vital component for determining the strengthening requirements of existing deteriorated structures, to overcome possible devastating failures. This article mainly focuses on steel angle members, which are mostly used as axially loaded members in different types of applications. In this study, the strategy of thickness reduction at corroded locations was demonstrated as a simple, convenient, and accurate method to represent the corrosion-equivalent properties of steel angles under axial compression. Further, the viability of the thickness reduction approach was evaluated in code-based and numerical approaches. Four standards, BS 5950-1:2000, BS EN 1993-1-1:2005, ASCE 10-15 and ANSI/AISC 360-16 were investigated to identify their applicability to obtain the residual compression capacities of corroded members. The capacity estimations of codes were compared with experimental data to demonstrate that the estimations of codes are not accurate when the level of corrosion is high. Finally, 39 corroded steel angle members of 10 different corrosion patterns were numerically modeled and analyzed to demonstrate the impact of different corrosion patterns on the compression capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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23 pages, 9595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Modeling and Analysis of Strengthened Steel–Concrete Composite Beams in Sagging and Hogging Moment Regions

by Ayman El-Zohairy, Suzan Mustafa, Hesham Shaaban, Hani Salim and Abbas A. Allawi

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 483-505; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020028 - 27 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1898

Abstract

Strengthening of composite beams is highly needed to upgrade the capacities of existing beams. The strengthening methods can be classified as active or passive techniques. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to provide detailed FE simulations for strengthened and unstrengthened steel–concrete [...] Read more.

Strengthening of composite beams is highly needed to upgrade the capacities of existing beams. The strengthening methods can be classified as active or passive techniques. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to provide detailed FE simulations for strengthened and unstrengthened steel–concrete composite beams at the sagging and hogging moment regions with and without profiled steel sheeting. The developed models were verified against experimental results from the literature. The verified models were used to present comparisons between the effect of using external post-tensioning and CFRP laminates as strengthening techniques. Applying external post-tensioning at the sagging moment regions is more effective because of the exhibited larger eccentricity. In the form of an initial camber and compressive stresses in the bottom flange prior to loading, this reasonable eccentricity induces reverse loading on the reinforced beams, reducing the net tensile stress induced during loading. Using CFRP laminates on the concrete slab for continuous composite beams is more effective in enhancing the beam capacity in comparison with using the external post-tension. However, reductions in the beam ductility were obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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18 pages, 3686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Features of Regulation Document Translation into a Machine-Readable Format within the Verification of Building Information Models

by Elena Makisha

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 373-390; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020022 - 03 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1389

Abstract

The transition to a design based on information modeling has paved the way for automated verification of project documentation. The most complicated type of design documentation check is the assessment of compliance with the requirements of regulatory documents since its automation requires the [...] Read more.

The transition to a design based on information modeling has paved the way for automated verification of project documentation. The most complicated type of design documentation check is the assessment of compliance with the requirements of regulatory documents since its automation requires the translation of statements written in natural language into a machine-readable format. At the same time, building codes and regulations should be suitable for translation into machine-readable form. However, a large number of provisions presented in regulatory documents cannot be subjected to automated verification due to their specific features. This study aimed to analyze the suitability of the regulatory provisions to be translated into a machine-readable format, identify limiting factors, and establish recommendations to avoid these factors. This study was conducted based on the example of the code of rules for “Residential Apartment Buildings” (SP 54.13330.2016) applied in the Russian Federation. During the research, a previously developed algorithm that generates rules for checking building information models and is based on the RuleML language was applied to the provisions of the standard above to identify statements that can and cannot be translated. As a result, 356 statements were received, which were divided into five groups: requirements suitable for translation into a machine-readable format, requirements containing links to other documents (regulatory and not only), requirements of uncertain interpretation, requirements that cannot be verified based on an information model, and informative requirements. For the first group of statements, there were examples given for both the statements and the rules derived from them. For the other four groups, examples of statements were supplied with factors preventing the translation of requirements into a machine-readable format and solutions on how to avoid these factors. An analysis of the distribution of statements (related to the above-mentioned groups) by sections of the standard showed that a significant part of the requirements is suitable for translation into a machine-readable format. The possible obstacles to translation can be overcome by attracting experts and using programming tools. The paper also makes recommendations on how to arrange new standard structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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14 pages, 4647 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Fire Mechanical Properties of Concrete Incorporating Waste EPS (Styrofoam) as Aggregate Replacement

by Ilham I. Mohammed, Nazim Abdul Nariman, Pshtiwan Shakor, Osama Ismail and Kozhin Rizgar

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 359-372; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020021 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2103

Abstract

Reusing waste is one of the most recent topics and one of the main contributors to sustainability. It is known that concrete is one of the most common materials to produce different types of construction members around the world. That is due to [...] Read more.

Reusing waste is one of the most recent topics and one of the main contributors to sustainability. It is known that concrete is one of the most common materials to produce different types of construction members around the world. That is due to mainly its low cost, availability, long period of durability, and ability to withstand harsh environments. On the other hand, due to the rapid changes that have happened in the last few decades in the production of decorative materials, some material types of cladding are used for decoration purposes, such as Styrofoam (EPS) (trade name “Astropol”), which is developed from disposal materials. Discovering and implementing a method of reusing these wastes in concrete is beneficial for the environment to reduce waste around the globe. In the current study, Styrofoam (Astropol) waste was used as a replacement for fine aggregate since concrete structures contain this material in their composition. It is important to test these materials for fire resistance and expose them to an elevated temperature in order to discover the post-fire mechanical properties of the composite material. The experimental result showed that the post-fire compressive strength of concrete containing different ratios of EPS (Astropol) increases compared to conventional concrete. The compressive strengths were 19.94 MPa, 19.295 MPa, 16.806 MPa, and 17.66 MPa for 0%, 15%, 25%, and 50%, respectively, while the post-fire indirect tensile strength for all specimens containing EPS reduced as the fire duration and temperature increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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12 pages, 2174 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Direct Tensile Strength Testing Method for Concrete from Existing Structures

by Jonny Nilimaa and Rasoul Nilforoush

CivilEng 2023, 4(1), 333-344; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4010019 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6676

Abstract

Tensile strength is a crucial property for the function, safety and durability of all concrete structures. The general procedure to assess the tensile properties of concrete from existing structures is to perform indirect tests and predict the tensile strength based on established empirical [...] Read more.

Tensile strength is a crucial property for the function, safety and durability of all concrete structures. The general procedure to assess the tensile properties of concrete from existing structures is to perform indirect tests and predict the tensile strength based on established empirical relationships. In this study, the direct tensile strength of concrete was investigated using cylindrical specimens. The aim of the study was to propose, test and evaluate a general method for direct tensile tests of concrete from existing structures. A total of 16 specimens were tested under deformation-controlled tensile-loading until failure. The concrete samples were prepared with 10 or 15 mm grooves at mid-height to obtain cracking in the groove region, where the crack-opening sensors were installed. The load and corresponding deformation were recorded continuously during the test to obtain the load–crack-width relationship of the concrete. The tests showed that the method can be used to assess the tensile properties of concrete from existing structures. The study provides important insights regarding the assessment of direct tensile strength of concrete and the results can be used to improve the structural health monitoring of existing structures and thereby ensure their safety and durability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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24 pages, 5978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring the Diffusion Coefficient of Paste and Concrete by Using Dental X-ray Equipment

by Amir Behravan, M. Tyler Ley, Dan Cook, Qinang Hu, Anna Rywelski and Russell Brorsen

CivilEng 2023, 4(1), 224-247; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4010014 - 24 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1272

Abstract

The penetration of ions plays an important role in the durability of concrete structures. This study aims to establish the feasibility of using dental X-ray equipment to measure the concentration and penetration of iodide within cementitious systems. This technique is known as checking [...] Read more.

The penetration of ions plays an important role in the durability of concrete structures. This study aims to establish the feasibility of using dental X-ray equipment to measure the concentration and penetration of iodide within cementitious systems. This technique is known as checking ion penetration (CHIP). This test uses iodide as a tracer because it has a high electron density, and so it can be observed with X-ray imaging as it penetrates the concrete. Concentration profiles from CHIP are used to calculate the apparent diffusion coefficient (D_ac). These results are similar to measurements from bulk chloride ponding tests. The D_ac is used to predict the service life or evaluate the quality of an as-built concrete structure or concrete mixture. Because of the wide availability of dental equipment, CHIP shows promise to be used as a method to measure the in-place quality control of the concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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20 pages, 5814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Motion Recognition Method for Construction Workers Using Selective Depth Inspection and Optimal Inertial Measurement Unit Sensors

by Tingsong Chen, Nobuyoshi Yabuki and Tomohiro Fukuda

CivilEng 2023, 4(1), 204-223; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4010013 - 22 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1849

Abstract

The construction industry holds the worst safety record compared to other industrial sectors, and approximately 88% of accidents result in worker injury. Meanwhile, after the development and wide application of deep learning in recent years, image processing has greatly improved the accuracy of [...] Read more.

The construction industry holds the worst safety record compared to other industrial sectors, and approximately 88% of accidents result in worker injury. Meanwhile, after the development and wide application of deep learning in recent years, image processing has greatly improved the accuracy of human motion detection. However, owing to equipment limitations, it is difficult to effectively improve depth-related problems. Wearable devices have also become popular recently, but because construction workers generally work outdoors, the variable environment makes the application of wearable devices more difficult. Therefore, reducing the burden on workers while stabilizing the detection accuracy is also an issue that needs to be considered. In this paper, an integrated sensor fusion method is proposed for the hazard prevention of construction workers. First, a new approach, called selective depth inspection (SDI), was proposed. This approach adds preprocessing and imaging assistance to the ordinary depth map optimization, thereby significantly improving the calculation efficiency and accuracy. Second, a multi-sensor-based motion recognition system for construction sites was proposed, which combines different kinds of signals to analyze and correct the movement of workers on the site, to improve the detection accuracy and efficiency of the specific body motions at construction sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

18 pages, 2221 KiB

Open AccessReview

Assessment of Soil–Structure Interaction Approaches in Mechanically Stabilized Earth Retaining Walls: A Review

by Hamza Imran, Duaa Al-Jeznawi, Musab Aied Qissab Al-Janabi and Luís Filipe Almeida Bernardo

CivilEng 2023, 4(3), 982-999; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4030053 - 01 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1784

Abstract

Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls are recognized for their cost-effectiveness and superior performance as earth-retaining structures. The integration of internally reinforced walls has transformed soil preservation practices, garnering significant attention from the global technical community. The construction method of MSE walls has recently [...] Read more.

Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls are recognized for their cost-effectiveness and superior performance as earth-retaining structures. The integration of internally reinforced walls has transformed soil preservation practices, garnering significant attention from the global technical community. The construction method of MSE walls has recently gained widespread popularity, likely due to its cost efficiency and simplicity compared to traditional externally reinforced walls. This paper provides a comprehensive review of MSE walls, including their historical development, aesthetics, benefits, drawbacks, factors influencing lateral displacements and stress responses, and the concept of the MSE wall system. Key approaches for analyzing seismic soil–structure interaction (SSI) issues are emphasized, investigating the dynamic interaction between the structure and soil through various research methodologies. This study incorporates multiple publications, offering an in-depth review of the current state of dynamic SSI studies considering surrounding structures. The findings emphasize the significant sensitivity of the dynamic behavior of mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls to soil–structure interaction, highlighting the necessity for continuous research in this area. The paper identifies research gaps and proposes future directions to enhance MSE wall design and application, facilitating further advancements in earth-retaining structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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21 pages, 7060 KiB

Open AccessReview

Eco-Friendly Geopolymer Composites Prepared from Agro-Industrial Wastes: A State-of-the-Art Review

by Asiya Alawi, Abdalrhman Milad, Diego Barbieri, Moad Alosta, George Uwadiegwu Alaneme and Qadir Bux alias Imran Latif

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 433-453; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020025 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

Portland cement (PC) is a common material used in civil infrastructure engineering. Cement production emits roughly 2.2 billion tons of CO₂ per year, contributing 8% of global emissions in 2016. This contributes to almost half of the calcination process, and together with [...] Read more.

Portland cement (PC) is a common material used in civil infrastructure engineering. Cement production emits roughly 2.2 billion tons of CO₂ per year, contributing 8% of global emissions in 2016. This contributes to almost half of the calcination process, and together with thermal combustion, clinker generation could be responsible for 90% of the sector’s emissions. One effective technique for dealing with these industrial by-product wastes is to employ them to make cement replacements such as concrete and mortar, which can be used in a variety of applications. As a result, the purpose of this research is to review the current advancements, challenges, and future perspectives on the utilization of agro-industrial waste (AIW) produced around the world in cement-based products. Geopolymers (GPs), on the other hand, reduce carbon dioxide emissions and have the potential to be a complete or partial replacement for PC in the construction sector. The GP technology enables the use of AIW in combination with an alumina–silicate (A–S) phase with minimal environmental impact. GP-cement is mostly produced by activating alkali silicates or alkali sols with secondary raw materials such as calcined clays, fly ash (FA), zeolite, metakaolin, etc. Mixing various resource materials, including additives, A–S, and alkali sols, alkali concentrations, optimizing the curing temperature, the SiO₂/Na₂O ratio, microstructural behavior, and other factors, results in GP-cement with outstanding mechanical and durability characteristics. The review concludes that AIW-based geopolymer composites have shown promising results in terms of their mechanical properties, durability, and environmental sustainability, which makes them emerge as promising future building materials with applications in a wide range of industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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25 pages, 3063 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Corrosion Assessment Models for Buried Transmission Pipelines

by Xian-Kui Zhu

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 391-415; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020023 - 07 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2021

Abstract

Most transmission pipelines are buried underground per regulations, and external corrosion is the leading cause of failures of buried pipelines. For assessing aged pipeline integrity, many corrosion assessment models have been developed over the past decades. This paper delivers a technical review of [...] Read more.

Most transmission pipelines are buried underground per regulations, and external corrosion is the leading cause of failures of buried pipelines. For assessing aged pipeline integrity, many corrosion assessment models have been developed over the past decades. This paper delivers a technical review of corrosion assessment models for determining the remaining strength of thin- and thick-walled pipelines containing corrosion defects. A review of burst prediction models for defect-free pipes is given first, including the strength- and flow-theory-based solutions, and then of those for corroded pipes. In terms of the reference stress, the corrosion models are categorized into four generations. The first three generations correspond to the flow stress, ultimate tensile stress (UTS), and a combined function of UTS and strain-hardening rate, while the fourth generation considers the wall-thickness effect. This review focuses on recent advances in corrosion assessment methods, including analytical models and machine learning models for thick-walled pipelines. Experimental data are used to evaluate these burst pressure prediction models for defect-free and corroded pipes for a wide range of pipeline steels from low to high grades (i.e., Grade B to X120). On this basis, the best corrosion models are recommended, and major technical challenges and gaps for further study are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

13 pages, 2298 KiB

Open AccessHypothesis

Challenges in Determining the Scope of Rail Megaprojects: Responding to Ever-Increasing Infrastructure Demand

by Koorosh Gharehbaghi, Kong Fah Tee and Kerry McManus

CivilEng 2023, 4(2), 538-550; https://doi.org/10.3390/civileng4020031 - 08 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2724

Abstract

While megaprojects can be defined as highly complex, time-consuming, and cost-intensive endeavors, for rail infrastructures they are even more problematic. As a starting point, for rail megaprojects, their scope may, at times, alter due to some risks and uncertainties. As many such projects [...] Read more.

While megaprojects can be defined as highly complex, time-consuming, and cost-intensive endeavors, for rail infrastructures they are even more problematic. As a starting point, for rail megaprojects, their scope may, at times, alter due to some risks and uncertainties. As many such projects exceed many years in development, their scope and formation will not be a linear trajectory. It is, therefore, the aim of this paper to evaluate the difficulties in determining the scope of rail megaprojects. This paper first introduces the theoretical framework via adaptive decision-making and policy setting when dealing with mega rail projects. Through sustainable development, carefully applied research is undertaken to highlight some of the key shortfalls of current practices when dealing with mega rail projects. This includes categorizing sustainability into four dimensions: social, economic, environmental, and engineering for rail infrastructure. To address the existing gap in the literature, including the appropriate alignment of policy planning and design, this paper will carefully review the complex science of rail megaprojects. This can be seen as a conceptual framework, which combines complex theory and practice to develop a theoretical perspective to initiate, plan, execute, and commission mega rail projects. Particularly with an international focus, this paper will review global development, targeting rail infrastructures. For rail megaprojects, strategically integrated objectives are traditionally key functions within the regional land transport network along with the national network and are necessary to (i) improve connectivity, both nationally and inter-regionally for people, communities, regions, and industry via effectively linking the existing broad-based transport network; (ii) enhance logistical systems and trade; (iii) provide a consistent framework for continuous sustainable development; and (iv) provide a consistent framework for long-term economic and social benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in CivilEng)

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