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Photonics
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Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement
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Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement

A special issue of Photonics (ISSN 2304-6732). This special issue belongs to the section "Lasers, Light Sources and Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 July 2023) | Viewed by 32662

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Yuxi Ruan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfield Ave., Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
Interests: laser interferometry; optical sensing and measurement; laser dynamics; microwave photonic
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Bin Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Physics and Optoelectronics, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan 411105, China
Interests: laser interferometry; optical sensing; optical fiber sensor; laser dynamics; optoelectronic signal processing; machine learning for optical sensing and measurement; embedded systems for measurement and instrumentation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Yuanlong Fan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Technology, Xidian University-Hangzhou, Hangzhou 311231, China
Interests: nonlinear dynamics of semiconductor lasers; nanolasers; optical sensing and measurement
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

During the last decade, advances in photonics are increasingly replacing older technologies, allowing for new capabilities in sensing and measurement. These new components lead to the development of a diverse array of new optical and optoelectronic measuring and sensor systems, enabling cutting-edge applications in diverse areas of science and engineering. To further boost the impact of this exciting and rapidly evolving field, this Special Issue intends to bring together contributions from leading experts in the field, fostering effective solutions for the future challenges in photonic sensing and measurement. Topics of this Special Issue include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Optical fiber sensors;
  • Biophotonics;
  • Optical instrumentation and measurements;
  • Photonic devices for sensing and measurements;
  • Integrated photonic sensors;
  • Interferometers;
  • Laser sensors;
  • Microwave photonic sensing.

Articles, perspectives, and reviews are all welcome.

Dr. Yuxi Ruan
Dr. Bin Liu
Dr. Yuanlong Fan
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Photonics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • lasers
  • photonics
  • instrumentation and measurements
  • sensors
  • laser interferometry
  • laser dynamics
  • microwave photonics
  • optical fiber

Published Papers (25 papers)

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15 pages, 1600 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of Photonic Platforms and Devices for On-Chip Sensing
by Raghi S. El Shamy, Mohamed A. Swillam and Xun Li
Photonics 2023, 10(11), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10111233 - 03 Nov 2023
Viewed by 666
Abstract
Chemical and biological detection is now an indispensable task in many fields. On-chip refractive index (RI) optical sensing is a good candidate for mass-scale, low-cost sensors with high performance. While most literature works focus on enhancing the sensors’ sensitivity and detection limit, other [...] Read more.
Chemical and biological detection is now an indispensable task in many fields. On-chip refractive index (RI) optical sensing is a good candidate for mass-scale, low-cost sensors with high performance. While most literature works focus on enhancing the sensors’ sensitivity and detection limit, other important parameters that determine the sensor’s yield, reliability, and cost-effectiveness are usually overlooked. In this work, we present a comprehensive study of the different integrated photonic platforms, namely silica, silicon nitride, and silicon. Our study aims to determine the best platform for on-chip RI sensing, taking into consideration the different aspects affecting not only the sensing performance of the sensor, but also the sensor’s reliability and effectiveness. The study indicates the advantages and drawbacks of each platform, serving as a guideline for RI sensing design. Modal analysis is used to determine the sensitivity of the waveguide to medium (analyte) index change, temperature fluctuations, and process variations. The study shows that a silicon platform is the best choice for high medium sensitivity and a small footprint. On the other hand, silica is the best choice for a low-loss, low-noise, and fabrication-tolerant design. The silicon nitride platform is a compromise of both. We then define a figure of merit (FOM) that includes the waveguide sensitivity to the different variations, losses, and footprint to compare the different platforms. The defined FOM shows that silicon is the best candidate for RI sensing. Finally, we compare the optical devices used for RI sensing, interferometers, and resonators. Our analysis shows that resonator-based devices can achieve much better sensing performance and detection range, due to their fine Lorentzian spectrum, with a small footprint. Interferometer based-sensors allow engineering of the sensors’ performance and can also be designed to minimize phase errors, such as temperature and fabrication variations, by careful design of the interferometer waveguides. Our analysis and conclusions are also verified by experimental data from other published work. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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18 pages, 22318 KiB  
Article
Near-Infrared Laser Methane Remote Monitoring Based on Template Matching Algorithm of Harmonic Signals
by Yushuang Li, Di Wang, Mingji Wang, Yan Lv and Yu Pu
Photonics 2023, 10(10), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10101075 - 25 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 904
Abstract
Trustworthy technology for the monitoring of fugitive methane emissions is an indispensable component for low−carbon emission reduction and safe production in oil and gas infrastructure. A miniaturization and low-cost methane remote monitoring prototype based on near-infrared laser absorption spectroscopy is developed to retrieve [...] Read more.
Trustworthy technology for the monitoring of fugitive methane emissions is an indispensable component for low−carbon emission reduction and safe production in oil and gas infrastructure. A miniaturization and low-cost methane remote monitoring prototype based on near-infrared laser absorption spectroscopy is developed to retrieve the path−integral concentration by employing the harmonic conjoint analysis method for the backscattered echo signals from a distant non-cooperative target. A distorted harmonic template matching (DHTM) algorithm is proposed based on wavelength modulation spectroscopy with second harmonic normalized via the first harmonic (WMS−2f/1f) method, which suppresses the output concentration fluctuation caused by open path monitoring with non-cooperative target and avoids the issue of false alarms during the detection process without target gas. The reliability of the WMS−2f/1f−DHTM algorithm is verified by calibration and dynamic experiments. The results showed that this algorithm avoids the dilemma of false alarms in the absence of gas compared to the conventional WMS−2f/1f algorithm, while the root mean square error (RMSE) of the concentration inversion with a detection distance of 20 m is reduced by 57.6% compared to direct absorption spectroscopy (DAS) algorithm. And the minimum detection limit of system is 3.79 ppm·m. The methane telemetry sensor with the WMS−2f/1f−DHTM algorithm exhibits substantial application potential in carbon monitoring of oil and gas industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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15 pages, 3982 KiB  
Article
A Silica Capillary-Based Sensor with Access Channels for the Simultaneous Measurement of Pressure and Temperature
by João P. Santos, Jörg Bierlich, Jens Kobelke and Marta S. Ferreira
Photonics 2023, 10(9), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10091029 - 08 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 748
Abstract
A hybrid fiber sensor for the simultaneous measurement of pressure and temperature is proposed. The sensor is constituted of a section of silica capillary tube (SCT) whereat access channels are created with two different methods: instilling a bubble on the fiber by employing [...] Read more.
A hybrid fiber sensor for the simultaneous measurement of pressure and temperature is proposed. The sensor is constituted of a section of silica capillary tube (SCT) whereat access channels are created with two different methods: instilling a bubble on the fiber by employing successive arc discharges on the SCT whilst under pressure and splicing the SCT with another section of SCT with a smaller inner diameter. The reflection-based sensor enhances Fabry–Perot interference (FPI) and antiresonant (AR) guidance, simultaneously, in a single sensing element of a few millimeters. A comparison study between the access channel methods reveals higher spectral visibility for the bubble method and similar pressure and temperature resolutions. For a 2.58 mm long sensor with a bubble, the sensitivity to pressure is 4.09 ± 0.01 nm/MPa and −3.7 ± 0.1 nm/MPa for the FPI and AR, respectively, while its sensitivity to temperature is −0.20 ± 0.02 pm/°C and 24.0 ± 0.5 pm/°C, respectively, for the FPI and AR, which are within the numerically calculated sensitivities. The sensor is robust and has a convenient reflective probe with easy and low-cost fabrication, granting high competitiveness in actual applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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10 pages, 2922 KiB  
Communication
Laser Self-Mixing Interference: Optical Fiber Coil Sensors for Acoustic Emission Detection
by Lian Yu, Yu Yang, Bin Liu, Pinghua Tang, Haining Ji, Jingting Wang and Tianqi Tan
Photonics 2023, 10(9), 958; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10090958 - 22 Aug 2023
Viewed by 917
Abstract
Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a widely used nondestructive testing method for the early detection of failures in materials and structures. In this paper, an AE detection sensor combining optical fiber sensing with laser self-mixing interference (SMI) technology is proposed. A multi-coil optical [...] Read more.
Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a widely used nondestructive testing method for the early detection of failures in materials and structures. In this paper, an AE detection sensor combining optical fiber sensing with laser self-mixing interference (SMI) technology is proposed. A multi-coil optical fiber ring wound round a cylindrical acrylic skeleton was designed in order to sense the deformation caused by AE elastic waves, which was then demodulated using self-mixing interference technology. Finite element analyses were conducted in order to investigate the deformation of fiber under acoustic sources. AE signals induced via ball-dropping impact experiments were successfully detected by the proposed experimental system. The proposed SMI optical fiber AE sensing system has the advantages of being free from electromagnetic interference and having a simple structure, low implementation cost and high measurement resolution and sensitivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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11 pages, 4779 KiB  
Communication
Denoising of Laser Self-Mixing Interference by Improved Wavelet Threshold for High Performance of Displacement Reconstruction
by Hui Liu, Yaqiang You, Sijia Li, Dan He, Jian Sun, Jingwei Wang and Dong Hou
Photonics 2023, 10(8), 943; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10080943 - 18 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 888
Abstract
This article proposes an improved wavelet threshold denoising for laser self-mixing interference signals. The improved wavelet threshold function exhibits smoothness and continuity near the threshold. By replacing hard or soft wavelet threshold with the improved wavelet threshold, it can eliminate the generation of [...] Read more.
This article proposes an improved wavelet threshold denoising for laser self-mixing interference signals. The improved wavelet threshold function exhibits smoothness and continuity near the threshold. By replacing hard or soft wavelet threshold with the improved wavelet threshold, it can eliminate the generation of fake self-mixing interference peaks due to local oscillation induced by hard wavelet threshold, as well as the loss of self-mixing interference peaks due to over-smoothness induced by the soft wavelet threshold. Compared with hard and soft wavelet threshold denoising, theoretical simulations and experimental results demonstrate that the displacement of vibrations are well reconstructed based on the improved wavelet threshold denoising. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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14 pages, 17196 KiB  
Article
A Novel PMDI Fiber Optic Hydrophone Incorporating IOC-Based Phase Modulator
by Chunxi Zhang, Sufan Yang and Xiaxiao Wang
Photonics 2023, 10(8), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10080911 - 07 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 887
Abstract
Fiber-optic hydrophone (FOH) has significant potential in many applications of hydroacoustic sensing and underwater communication. A novel path-matched differential interferometer fiber optic hydrophone (PMDI-FOH) approach incorporating an integrated-optic component (IOC) is presented in this paper. It is presented to meet the demands for [...] Read more.
Fiber-optic hydrophone (FOH) has significant potential in many applications of hydroacoustic sensing and underwater communication. A novel path-matched differential interferometer fiber optic hydrophone (PMDI-FOH) approach incorporating an integrated-optic component (IOC) is presented in this paper. It is presented to meet the demands for high-quality dynamic measurements, which solves the problems with the conventional homodyne detection system’s low modulation frequency. The IOC functions as a phase-generated carrier (PGC) component. The scheme is investigated both in theory and experiments. The theoretical and experimental results verify the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. It achieves a high SNR of up to 20.29 dB demodulations. The proposed system is cost-effective and has excellent potential in building next-generation underwater sensing and communication networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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17 pages, 12053 KiB  
Article
A Fast Star-Detection Algorithm under Stray-Light Interference
by Kaili Lu, Huakang Li, Ling Lin, Renjie Zhao, Enhai Liu and Rujin Zhao
Photonics 2023, 10(8), 889; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10080889 - 01 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 734
Abstract
The interference caused by stray light leads to the invalid attitude of star sensors in orbit, thus affecting the attitude control of satellites. In order to overcome this problem, this paper proposes a fast star-detection algorithm with strong stray-light suppression ability. The first [...] Read more.
The interference caused by stray light leads to the invalid attitude of star sensors in orbit, thus affecting the attitude control of satellites. In order to overcome this problem, this paper proposes a fast star-detection algorithm with strong stray-light suppression ability. The first step in the proposed method is stray-light suppression. The highlighted pixels are unified and then erosion and dilation operations based on a large template are performed. Using the background image only, which is filled with stray light, the cleaner star image is obtained by subtracting the background from the unified image. The second step in the proposed method is binarization. The binary star image is obtained by using a line-segment strategy combined with a local threshold. The third step in the proposed method is star labeling. It comprises connected-domain labeling based on the preordering of pixels and the calculation of centroid coordinates of stars in each connected domain. The experimental results show that the proposed algorithm extracts the stars stably under the interference of different stray lights. The proposed method consumes less resources, and the output delay is only 18.256 us. Moreover, the successful identification rate is 98% and the attitude accuracy of the X and Y axes is better than 5″(3σ) when the star sensor works at the speed of zero. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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20 pages, 6284 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Hybrid Remote Fiber Optic Sensing Solutions for Railway Applications
by Serhat Boynukalin, Selçuk Paker and Ahmad Atieh
Photonics 2023, 10(8), 864; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10080864 - 25 Jul 2023
Viewed by 828
Abstract
Fiber optic sensing (FOS) has become a well-known technology in response to the rising demands of the railway transportation field despite the abundance of electronic sensing systems in the market. FOS application boasts an all-in-one solution that is both efficient and versatile. In [...] Read more.
Fiber optic sensing (FOS) has become a well-known technology in response to the rising demands of the railway transportation field despite the abundance of electronic sensing systems in the market. FOS application boasts an all-in-one solution that is both efficient and versatile. In order to enhance the understanding of the capabilities of FOS, this paper presents a hybrid fiber optic sensing system with an improved sensing ability to facilitate transportation applications for primary or secondary security interfaces. The hybrid sensing scheme incorporates two different sensing systems designed for long-distance applications. The first system employs a coding technique for the transmitted pulses, which provide information on train location through cross-correlation with the reflected pulses from fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors located along the railway. The proposed system can accurately predict the train’s location up to a precision of one cm. The second system examines the wavelength drift of the reflected signal from the FBG sensor affected by the train using a tunable optical filter and photodetector. It determines essential parameters such as the train’s location, speed, and direction by measuring the Bragg wavelength shift and its direction. The effect of the train movement and speed on the applied strain on the FBG sensor is calculated in this work and applied to the simulation to determine the train’s location, speed, and direction. A calibration table facilitates the correlation between the train speed and the shift in the FBG center wavelength, which helps ensure accurate results. The hybrid fiber optic sensing system is designed to facilitate railway transportation applications’ sustainability and security. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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13 pages, 3132 KiB  
Article
A Compact Fabry–Pérot Acoustic Sensor Based on Silicon Optical Waveguide Bragg Gratings
by Xiaoyu Gao, Shengjie Cao, Yongqiu Zheng and Jiandong Bai
Photonics 2023, 10(8), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10080861 - 25 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 751
Abstract
No membranous optical sensors have excellent development prospects in aerospace and other industrial fields due to their small size and anti-electromagnetic interference. Here, we proposed a novel Fabry–Pérot (FP) cavity acoustic sensor based on silicon optical waveguide Bragg gratings. The FP cavity consists [...] Read more.
No membranous optical sensors have excellent development prospects in aerospace and other industrial fields due to their small size and anti-electromagnetic interference. Here, we proposed a novel Fabry–Pérot (FP) cavity acoustic sensor based on silicon optical waveguide Bragg gratings. The FP cavity consists of two Bragg gratings written on the silicon-based optical waveguide and a miniature air groove. When the sound signal acts on the miniature air groove, the sound pressure changes the density of air molecules near the waveguide grating’s evanescent field, causing variation in the air’s refractive index. This results in a shift in the reflection spectrum of the FP cavity to detect the sound signal. The effects of the grating period, grating pitch quantity, and groove depth of the FP cavity on acoustic sensing were studied. The modelling predicts that the sensing sensitivity could be 0.4 nm/Pa. Theoretically, the compact self-designed acoustic sensor can withstand temperatures above 800 °C. Therefore, it has significant potential applications in precision measurement in high-temperature and high-pressure environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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16 pages, 4855 KiB  
Article
The Design of a Multilayer and Planar Metamaterial with the Multi-Functions of a High-Absorptivity and Ultra-Broadband Absorber and a Narrowband Sensor
by Guoxiang Peng, Pei-Xiu Ke, Ling-Chieh Tseng, Cheng-Fu Yang and Hung-Cheng Chen
Photonics 2023, 10(7), 804; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10070804 - 11 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 992
Abstract
The aim of this study is to enhance the design of a multilayer and planar metamaterial that serves multiple functions, including high efficiency and ultra-broadband absorption, as well as acting as a narrowband sensor. The primary feature of this absorber is its fully [...] Read more.
The aim of this study is to enhance the design of a multilayer and planar metamaterial that serves multiple functions, including high efficiency and ultra-broadband absorption, as well as acting as a narrowband sensor. The primary feature of this absorber is its fully planar structure, which enables the flexible utilization of two distinct absorption functionalities: ultra-broadband absorption, achieved through the application of the MgF2 layer, and narrowband absorption, achieved through the implementation of the Cu layer. To conduct the simulation analyses, COMSOL Multiphysics® simulation software (version 6.0) was employed. The initial innovation lies in the fact that upon irradiation of normal incident light on MgF2 side, the material exhibited an exceptional average absorptivity of 97.0% across an ultra-broadband range spanning from 410 to approximately 2300 nm. Moreover, when the same normal incident light was radiated on the Cu side, the material demonstrated a distinct peak at a precise wavelength of 480 nm, accompanied by an absorptivity of 95.66%. Notably, these results were obtained with the added benefit of angle insensitivity. Such characteristics arise due to the multiple excitation of diverse resonant modes facilitated by the localized surface plasmon resonance and metal–insulator–metal Fabry–Perot cavity. The second innovation focuses on demonstrating that MgF2 can serve as an effective anti-reflection layer, enhancing the absorptivity of the ultra-broadband absorber. The third innovation aims to establish that Cu is the optimal metal choice. Even substituting Cu with other metals did not diminish the absorptivity of the ultra-broadband absorber; it should be noted that alternative metals might negatively impact the absorptivity of the narrowband absorber. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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11 pages, 4543 KiB  
Communication
Sensitivity Modal Analysis of Long Reflective Multimode Interferometer for Small Angle Detection and Temperature
by Tania Lozano-Hernandez, Julian M. Estudillo-Ayala, Daniel Jauregui-Vazquez, Juan M. Sierra-Hernandez and Roberto Rojas-Laguna
Photonics 2023, 10(7), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10070706 - 21 Jun 2023
Viewed by 843
Abstract
This work presents the sensitive modal analysis of a long reflective multimode optical fiber device for angle and temperature. The reflective multimode interference optical fiber device was fabricated by splicing ~40 cm of multimode optical fiber (50/125). This structure provides a random interference [...] Read more.
This work presents the sensitive modal analysis of a long reflective multimode optical fiber device for angle and temperature. The reflective multimode interference optical fiber device was fabricated by splicing ~40 cm of multimode optical fiber (50/125). This structure provides a random interference reflection spectrum; the wavelength sensitivity analysis indicates that estimating the angle detection is impossible due to the several modes involved. However, by the phase analysis of the Fourier components, it was possible to detect slight angle deflection. Here, three spectral Fourier components were analyzed, and the maximal sensitivity achieved was 1.52 rad/°; the maximal angle variation of the multimode fiber was 3.4°. In addition, the thermal analysis indicates minimal temperature affectation (0.0065 rad/°C). Moreover, it was demonstrated that there is a strong dependence between the sensitivity and the m-order of the modes involved. Considering the fiber optic sensor dimensions and signal analysis, this device is attractive for numerous applications where slight angle detection is needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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13 pages, 4985 KiB  
Communication
Adaptive Fiber Ring Laser Based on Tapered Polarization Maintaining Fiber in Sagnac Loop for Temperature and Salinity Sensing
by Yuhui Liu, Weihao Lin, Fang Zhao, Jie Hu, Jinna Chen, Huanhuan Liu, Perry Ping Shum, Xuming Zhang and Li-Yang Shao
Photonics 2023, 10(5), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10050599 - 22 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1354
Abstract
An optical fiber ring laser (FRL) cavity-based sensitive temperature and salinity sensor is proposed and experimentally demonstrated. The sensor consists of a Sagnac loop with a waist of 15 µm and a total length of 30 cm made of tapered polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF). [...] Read more.
An optical fiber ring laser (FRL) cavity-based sensitive temperature and salinity sensor is proposed and experimentally demonstrated. The sensor consists of a Sagnac loop with a waist of 15 µm and a total length of 30 cm made of tapered polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF). Sagnac loop dual parameter sensing was theoretically modeled and presented. The salinity sensitivity of 0.173 nm/‰ was made possible by the efficient interaction between the tapered PMF cladding mode and the external refractive index. In addition, temperature sensitivity of 0.306 nm/°C was achieved through ultrahigh birefringence of PMF. Apart from that, the previous sensing system used a broadband light source (BBS) as the input light, resulting in a wide bandwidth and a poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The Sagnac loop integrated into the FRL system can achieve a high SNR of approximately 50 dB and a narrow bandwidth of 0.15 nm while serving as the filter and sensor head. Additionally, the developed sensor has the advantages of simple design, low cost, and easy fabrication. It can also extend sensing distance indefinitely within a given range, which is anticipated to have positive effects on the testing of marine environments in laboratories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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9 pages, 1501 KiB  
Communication
Photoresponse of Graphene Channel in Graphene-Oxide–Silicon Photodetectors
by Kuo-Chih Lee, Yu-Hsien Chuang, Chen-Kai Huang, Hui Li, Guo-En Chang, Kuan-Ming Hung and Hung Hsiang Cheng
Photonics 2023, 10(5), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10050568 - 12 May 2023
Viewed by 1301
Abstract
Graphene-on-silicon photodetectors exhibit broadband detection capabilities with high responsivities, surpassing those of their counterpart semiconductors fabricated purely using graphene or Si. In these studies, graphene channels were considered electrically neutral, and signal amplification was typically attributed to the photogating effect. By contrast, herein, [...] Read more.
Graphene-on-silicon photodetectors exhibit broadband detection capabilities with high responsivities, surpassing those of their counterpart semiconductors fabricated purely using graphene or Si. In these studies, graphene channels were considered electrically neutral, and signal amplification was typically attributed to the photogating effect. By contrast, herein, we show graphene channels to exhibit p-type characteristics using a structure wherein a thin oxide layer insulated the graphene from Si. The p-type carrier concentration is higher (six-times) than the photoaging-induced carrier concentration and dominates the photocurrent. Additionally, we demonstrate photocurrent tunability in the channel. By operating this device under a back-gated bias, photocurrent tuning is realized with not only amplification but also attenuation. Gate amplification produces a current equal to the photogating current at a low bias (0.2 V), and it is approximately two orders of magnitude larger at a bias of 2 V, indicating the operation effectiveness. Meanwhile, photocurrent attenuation enables adjustments in the detector output for compatibility with read-out circuits. A quantification model of gate-dependent currents is further established based on the simulation model used for metal–oxide–semiconductor devices. Thus, this study addresses fundamental issues concerning graphene channels and highlights the potential of such devices as gate-tunable photodetectors in high-performance optoelectronics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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10 pages, 15418 KiB  
Communication
An Erbium-Doped Fiber Source with Near-Gaussian-Shaped Spectrum Based on Double-Stage Energy Matching and LPFGs
by Shiyong Wan, Tiankui Zhan, Die Hu, Haitao Yan and Daofu Han
Photonics 2023, 10(5), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10050533 - 05 May 2023
Viewed by 918
Abstract
An Erbium-doped fiber source with a near-Gaussian-shaped spectrum consisting of only a single peak, based on the double-stage energy matching and LPFGs, is proposed and demonstrated. A double-stage Erbium-doped fiber source system is built. The first-stage structure adopts the single-pass forward pumping method [...] Read more.
An Erbium-doped fiber source with a near-Gaussian-shaped spectrum consisting of only a single peak, based on the double-stage energy matching and LPFGs, is proposed and demonstrated. A double-stage Erbium-doped fiber source system is built. The first-stage structure adopts the single-pass forward pumping method with a 15 m Erbium-doped fiber, while the second-stage structure adopts the backward-pumping method with a 26.5 m Erbium-doped fiber. The energy of the output spectrum is concentrated near the long wavelength (1560 nm) through the double-pump energy matching of the two stages. Long period fiber gratings (LPFGs) are used to filter the excess light near the short wavelength (1530 nm) in order to obtain a near-Gaussian-shaped spectrum consisting of only a single peak. The output power, pump conversion efficiency, line width, 3 dB bandwidth and mean wavelength of this near-Gaussian-shaped spectrum are tested and analyzed. When the pump powers of the first and second stages are 50 mW and 360 mW, respectively, the results show that a near-Gaussian-shaped spectrum with a power of 10.17 mW, spectral line width of 19.767 nm, and mean wavelength stability of −0.978 ppm/mW can be obtained. This research provides a method for the generation of a near-Gaussian-shaped spectrum with high output power and excellent mean wavelength stability, and it can produce multiple forms and energies of near-Gaussian-shaped spectra via this Erbium-doped fiber source. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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19 pages, 10239 KiB  
Article
Infrared Gas Detection and Concentration Inversion Based on Dual-Temperature Background Points
by Sipeng Wu, Xing Zhong, Zheng Qu, Yuanhang Wang, Lei Li and Chaoli Zeng
Photonics 2023, 10(5), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10050490 - 24 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1211
Abstract
Gas detection based on infrared thermal imaging is applied in many areas, but it is generally applied as a qualitative detection method to observe the target area; on the other hand, quantitative research on gas concentration is less common, the measurement accuracy is [...] Read more.
Gas detection based on infrared thermal imaging is applied in many areas, but it is generally applied as a qualitative detection method to observe the target area; on the other hand, quantitative research on gas concentration is less common, the measurement accuracy is poor, and the calculation method of concentration in the commonly adopted transmission model is also complicated. In this paper, based on the radiance transfer model of gas infrared imaging technology, the influence of gas concentration, gas temperature, and background temperature on gas imaging detection is investigated, a gas detection and concentration inversion method based on dual-temperature background points is proposed, and the effects of the choice of reference band on background temperature correction are analyzed in relation to the changing trend of dual-band radiance difference. To verify the effectiveness of this method, a gas detection system with dual-temperature background spots was constructed in this paper utilizing a cooled mid-wave infrared focal plane detector plus a reference filter and a measurement filter, which achieved a promising concentration accuracy of less than 10% for carbon dioxide at a detectable range. Meanwhile, an infrared imaging system with a noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) of 40 mK was employed to simulate the detection of methane, which enables the detection and concentration inversion of methane gas at a minimum concentration of 500 ppm·m at a distance of 1 km, which proves the capability of long-range detection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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11 pages, 1987 KiB  
Communication
All-Fiber Laser Feedback Interferometry for Sequential Sensing of In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Displacements
by Zhanwu Xie, Meng Zhang, Jie Li, Wei Xia and Dongmei Guo
Photonics 2023, 10(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10040480 - 21 Apr 2023
Viewed by 1130
Abstract
In this paper, an all-fiber laser feedback interferometer (LFI) with a diffraction grating was developed for sequential measurement of in-plane and out-of-plane displacements without changing the optical arrangement. When the light emitted from an erbium-doped fiber ring laser is incident on a reflection [...] Read more.
In this paper, an all-fiber laser feedback interferometer (LFI) with a diffraction grating was developed for sequential measurement of in-plane and out-of-plane displacements without changing the optical arrangement. When the light emitted from an erbium-doped fiber ring laser is incident on a reflection grating at the Littrow angle, the diffracted light will return into the laser cavity along the original path, thus generating laser feedback interference. Experimental results reveal that the all-fiber system could achieve a precision of 40 nm in both in-plane and out-of-plane displacements sensing. Compared with the traditional all-fiber LFI, the proposed sensing system transfers the measuring scale from laser wavelength to grating period, and it has the advantages of good anti-interference performance and reliability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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12 pages, 2985 KiB  
Article
Time Coding-Based Single-Photon-Counting Lidar for Obtaining Spatial Location
by Hanfu Zhang, Jie Liu, Qichang An and Jianli Wang
Photonics 2023, 10(4), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10040457 - 15 Apr 2023
Viewed by 1274
Abstract
This paper proposes a single-photon-counting lidar based on time coding that can obtain the target’s spatial location and measure the distance and azimuth angle in real time without needing a scanning device. Multiple optical fibers were used to introduce laser echo photons into [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a single-photon-counting lidar based on time coding that can obtain the target’s spatial location and measure the distance and azimuth angle in real time without needing a scanning device. Multiple optical fibers were used to introduce laser echo photons into a single-pixel single-photon detector. According to the deviation in the detection time of the echo photons passing through different optical fibers, multiple distances can be obtained simultaneously. Combining the measured distances with the fiber spacing allows the calculation of the distance, azimuth angle, and spatial coordinates of the target. This lidar has the advantages of high photon detection efficiency, short signal acquisition time, and low cost compared to array detectors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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12 pages, 9394 KiB  
Article
Phase-Derived Ranging Based Fiber Transfer Delay Measurement Using a Composite Signal for Distributed Radars with Fiber Networks
by Qiang Sun, Chenyu Liu, Jiyao Yang, Jianwei Liu, Jingwen Dong and Wangzhe Li
Photonics 2023, 10(4), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10040421 - 07 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1154
Abstract
Fiber transfer delay (FTD) variations influence the coherence of distributed radars with fiber networks, resulting in a performance degradation in target detecting and imaging. To measure and compensate for the variation, a phase-derived ranging based FTD measurement using a composite signal is proposed. [...] Read more.
Fiber transfer delay (FTD) variations influence the coherence of distributed radars with fiber networks, resulting in a performance degradation in target detecting and imaging. To measure and compensate for the variation, a phase-derived ranging based FTD measurement using a composite signal is proposed. The composite signal comprises a sinusoidal component and a linear frequency modulation (LFM) component. As the composite signal passes through a fiber under test (FUT), the sinusoidal component generates a phase shift that corresponds to the FTD. The phase shift can be represented by two parameters: the number of complete periods of 2π that can be estimated by using the LFM component, and a phase shift less than 2π that be measured employing the sinusoidal component. When using the proposed measurement system to measure FTD variations in a distributed radar, only an additional sinusoidal component is needed, which minimizes interference with radar signals. Moreover, the proposed measurement system can share core function modules such as signal generation and process modules with distributed radars, which enhances the compatibility and reduces the overall complexity. Experiments are carried out to measure a variable optical delay line and a long optical fiber. The experiment results verify the feasibility of the measurement system and show that a measurement range of more than 15 km, an accuracy of ±0.1 ps and a measurement time of 105 ms can be achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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13 pages, 3752 KiB  
Article
Coarse Phasing Detection Using Multiwavelength Wavefront
by Rongjie Qin, Zihao Yin and Yinnian Liu
Photonics 2023, 10(4), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10040388 - 01 Apr 2023
Viewed by 941
Abstract
Presently, the segmented mirror is the mainstream development direction of large-aperture telescopes. The key problem affecting the performance of segmented mirror telescopes concerns the co-phase of the segments. The segments’ co-phase includes the fine phasing stage with high detection accuracy requirements and a [...] Read more.
Presently, the segmented mirror is the mainstream development direction of large-aperture telescopes. The key problem affecting the performance of segmented mirror telescopes concerns the co-phase of the segments. The segments’ co-phase includes the fine phasing stage with high detection accuracy requirements and a small measurable range, and the coarse phasing stage with relatively high detection accuracy requirements and a large measurable range. For interferometry, the required accuracy of the transition from the coarse phasing stage to the fine phasing stage is half of the measured wavelength (~300 nm). In this study, a piston measure method based on the wavefront data of the interference measurement results of multiple different wavelengths is proposed. The simulation results show that the method can achieve a measurement accuracy of more than 300 nm in a large range of 1 mm. The experimental results show that the method can achieve a more-than-300-μm measurable range and approximately 1.5 μm detection accuracy under laboratory conditions; this method has advantages in terms of the measured range and speed and is suitable for the coarse phasing stage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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17 pages, 8174 KiB  
Communication
Sensing Performance Analysis of Spiral Metasurface Utilizing Phase Spectra Measurement Technique
by Oleg Kameshkov, Vasily Gerasimov and Sergei Kuznetsov
Photonics 2023, 10(3), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10030243 - 23 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1352
Abstract
We have demonstrated both numerically and experimentally a 2D plasmonic metamaterial the unit cell of which comprised an Archimedean spiral with a C-shaped resonator. Such metasurface enables the excitation of spoof localized plasmon resonances (LPRs) in the terahertz frequency range, similar in properties [...] Read more.
We have demonstrated both numerically and experimentally a 2D plasmonic metamaterial the unit cell of which comprised an Archimedean spiral with a C-shaped resonator. Such metasurface enables the excitation of spoof localized plasmon resonances (LPRs) in the terahertz frequency range, similar in properties to the familiar LPRs in the visible range. We have compared the thin-film sensing potentials of the fundamental and dark resonant modes supported by the metasurface in the range of 0.2–0.5 THz. Both the amplitude and phase transmission spectra have been studied. A sensitivity of 21.1%/RIU (78.7 GHz/RIU) and a figure of merit (FOM) of 14.4 RIU−1 have been achieved. The FOM and Q factor obtained from the phase transmission spectra were shown to be about twice higher than those obtained from the amplitude spectra. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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13 pages, 4030 KiB  
Article
High-Sensitivity Temperature Sensor Based on the Perfect Metamaterial Absorber in the Terahertz Band
by Yan Wang, Yanqing Qiu, Yingping Zhang, Tingting Lang and Fengjie Zhu
Photonics 2023, 10(1), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10010092 - 13 Jan 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1792
Abstract
In this study, a perfect metamaterial absorber (PMMA) based on an indium antimonide temperature-sensitive material is designed and investigated in the terahertz region. We demonstrate that it is an ideal perfect narrow-band absorber with polarization-insensitive and wide-angle absorption properties. Numerical simulation results show [...] Read more.
In this study, a perfect metamaterial absorber (PMMA) based on an indium antimonide temperature-sensitive material is designed and investigated in the terahertz region. We demonstrate that it is an ideal perfect narrow-band absorber with polarization-insensitive and wide-angle absorption properties. Numerical simulation results show that the proposed PMMA can be operated as a temperature sensor with a sensitivity of 21.9 GHz/K. A graphene layer was added to the PMMA structure to improve the sensitivity, and the temperature sensitivity was increased to 24.4 GHz/K. Owing to its excellent performance, the proposed PMMA can be applied in thermal sensing, detection, and switching. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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8 pages, 4252 KiB  
Communication
Resolving Intrinsic Modulation Spectral Lines from Electro-Optic Modulation Spectra Based on Boosted Iterative Deconvolution
by Jian Li, Ying Xu, Xinhai Zou, Junfeng Zhu, Zhongtao Ruan, Yali Zhang, Zhiyao Zhang, Shangjian Zhang and Yong Liu
Photonics 2022, 9(11), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9110878 - 20 Nov 2022
Viewed by 1289
Abstract
Optical spectrum analysis is the most direct and effective method for characterizing electro-optic modulation spectra. According to the Rayleigh criterion, the best resolution of an optical spectrum analysis is limited by the point spread function of an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) and the [...] Read more.
Optical spectrum analysis is the most direct and effective method for characterizing electro-optic modulation spectra. According to the Rayleigh criterion, the best resolution of an optical spectrum analysis is limited by the point spread function of an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) and the relative intensity of closely spaced spectral lines. In this paper, we propose a boosted iterative deconvolution (BID) method to resolve the intrinsic modulation of spectral lines from the measured optical carrier and modulation spectra. In our scheme, the electro-optic modulation spectrum is considered the convolution of the optical carrier spectrum and the intrinsic δ-function modulation spectrum, and the BID method enables fast and accurate extraction of the δ-function spectral lines from the measured modulation spectrum. The proof-of-concept experiment demonstrates that our method can improve the resolution of OSA by 10–30 p.m. at different relative intensities, with a best resolution of 10 p.m. in the iso-intensity case and wavelength errors of less than 2 p.m., which largely improves the measurement resolution and accuracy of the modulation spectrum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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11 pages, 6485 KiB  
Article
Novel Nanoscale Refractive Index Sensor Based on Fano Resonance
by Shubin Yan, Qiang Wang, Lifang Shen, Feng Liu, Yiru Su, Yi Zhang, Yang Cui, Guoquan Zhou, Jilai Liu and Yifeng Ren
Photonics 2022, 9(11), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9110795 - 25 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1175
Abstract
This paper proposes a novel nano-sized refractive index sensor based on the Fano resonance phenomenon. The main structure consists of two short tubes of the metal-insulation-metal waveguide and an internal Z-ring resonator. The authors used a finite element approach to analyze the nanoscale [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a novel nano-sized refractive index sensor based on the Fano resonance phenomenon. The main structure consists of two short tubes of the metal-insulation-metal waveguide and an internal Z-ring resonator. The authors used a finite element approach to analyze the nanoscale sensing performance of the system. Simulation results show that asymmetries in the geometry will lead to Fano resonance splitting. This paper explicitly explores whether the structure’s top and bottom asymmetry is a significant factor in the Fano resonance of the internal Z-ring resonator structure. After Fano resonance splitting, the obtained transmission curve was sharper, the bandwidth was significantly reduced, and the system’s figure of merit was significantly improved. This paper further extends the internal Z-ring resonator structure to the sensor field. The resulting refractive index sensor has a sensitivity of 2234 nm/RIU and a figure of merit of 49.65. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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Review

Jump to: Research

27 pages, 4048 KiB  
Review
A Concise Review of the Progress in Photonic Sensing Devices
by Muhammad Shahbaz, Muhammad A. Butt and Ryszard Piramidowicz
Photonics 2023, 10(6), 698; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10060698 - 20 Jun 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3153
Abstract
Photonic sensing devices have become increasingly important in various fields such as agriculture, medicine, biochemical sensing, and manufacturing. They are highly sensitive and can classify minor changes in the physical and chemical properties of the ambient medium with high precision. This makes them [...] Read more.
Photonic sensing devices have become increasingly important in various fields such as agriculture, medicine, biochemical sensing, and manufacturing. They are highly sensitive and can classify minor changes in the physical and chemical properties of the ambient medium with high precision. This makes them practical in applications where accurate measurements are critical, such as medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring. In this review paper, recent advances in different types of photonic sensors are discussed, which include photonic crystal-based sensors, surface plasmon resonance-based sensors, optical fiber-based sensors, optical waveguide-based sensors, and wearable sensors. These highly fascinating sensing devices play a crucial role in countless applications and have several advantages over traditional sensors. As technology continues to advance, we can expect photonic sensors to become even more precise, versatile, and reliable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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16 pages, 3608 KiB  
Review
Fiber-Based Techniques to Suppress Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
by Bin Huang, Jiaqi Wang and Xiaopeng Shao
Photonics 2023, 10(3), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10030282 - 07 Mar 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2560
Abstract
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is the major factor that limits the maximum optical fiber output power in narrow linewidth applications, which include important fields such as passive optical networks (PONs), high-power fiber amplifiers, and lasers. Great efforts have been dedicated to suppressing the [...] Read more.
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is the major factor that limits the maximum optical fiber output power in narrow linewidth applications, which include important fields such as passive optical networks (PONs), high-power fiber amplifiers, and lasers. Great efforts have been dedicated to suppressing the SBS effect and increasing the maximum optical fiber output power. This paper focuses on key fiber-based techniques to suppress SBS. These techniques take advantages of the properties of optical fibers. We present how these properties (electric modes, acoustic modes, and material properties) could be utilized to suppress SBS. The fiber-based techniques are divided into transverse optical fiber design, longitudinal variant fiber design, and external perturbations (strain and temperature) on optical fibers. Transverse optical fiber design focuses on the mechanism electro-acoustic interaction. Large effective area fiber design and acoustic tailoring techniques have been discussed. Longitudinal variant fiber design considers the nonlinear SBS interaction along propagation distance, and various techniques related have been presented. External perturbations (strain and temperature) on optical fibers emphasize on how external static perturbations could modify the SBS effect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Photonic Sensing and Measurement)
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