Research

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26 pages, 5664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Multi-Timescale Sea Level Variability near Jamaica in the Caribbean Using Satellite Altimetry Records

by Deron O. Maitland, Michael A. Taylor and Tannecia S. Stephenson

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(8), 1499; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11081499 - 27 Jul 2023

Viewed by 875

There is a dearth of studies characterizing historical sea level variability at the local scale for the islands in the Caribbean. This is due to the lack of reliable long term tide gauge data. There is, however, a significant need for such studies [...] Read more.

There is a dearth of studies characterizing historical sea level variability at the local scale for the islands in the Caribbean. This is due to the lack of reliable long term tide gauge data. There is, however, a significant need for such studies given that small islands are under increasing threat from rising sea levels, storm surges, and coastal flooding due to global warming. The growing length of satellite altimetry records provides a useful alternative to undertake sea level analyses. Altimetry data, spanning 1993–2019, are used herein to explore multi-timescale sea level variability near the south coast of Jamaica, in the northwest Caribbean. Caribbean basin dynamics and largescale forcing mechanisms, which could account for the variability, are also investigated. The results show that the average annual amplitude off the south coast of Jamaica is approximately 10 cm with a seasonal peak during the summer (July–August). The highest annual sea levels occur within the Caribbean storm season, adding to the annual risk. The annual trend over the 27 years is 3.3 ± 0.4 mm/yr when adjusted for Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA), instrumental drift, and accounting for uncertainties. This is comparable to mean global sea level rise, but almost twice the prior estimates for the Caribbean which used altimetry data up to 2010. This suggests an accelerated rate of rise in the Caribbean over the last decade. Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) and correlation analyses show the long-term trend to be a basin-wide characteristic and linked to warming Caribbean sea surface temperatures (SSTs) over the period. When the altimetry data are detrended and deseasoned, the leading EOF mode has maximum loadings over the northwest Caribbean, including Jamaica, and exhibits interannual variability which correlates significantly with a tropical Pacific-tropical Atlantic SST gradient index, local wind strength, and the Caribbean Low Level Jet (CLLJ). Correlations with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in summer, seen in this and other studies, likely arise through the contribution of the ENSO to the SST gradient index and the ENSO’s modulation of the CLLJ peak strength in July. The results demonstrate the usefulness of altimetry data for characterizing sea level risk on various timescales for small islands. They also suggest the potential for developing predictive models geared towards reducing those risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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15 pages, 2518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Southern South China Sea Dynamics: Sea Level Change from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) in the 21st Century

by Noah Irfan Azran, Hafeez Jeofry, Jing Xiang Chung, Liew Juneng, Syamir Alihan Showkat Ali, Alex Griffiths, Muhammad Zahir Ramli, Effi Helmy Ariffin, Mohd Fuad Miskon, Juliana Mohamed, Kamaruzzaman Yunus and Mohd Fadzil Akhir

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(2), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11020458 - 20 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1944

Abstract

Sea level rise will significantly impact coastal areas around the world. As a coastal country, Malaysia’s rising sea levels are a significant concern because they would affect 70% of its population. The study of sea level rise is important in order to implement [...] Read more.

Sea level rise will significantly impact coastal areas around the world. As a coastal country, Malaysia’s rising sea levels are a significant concern because they would affect 70% of its population. The study of sea level rise is important in order to implement effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study investigates the performance of CMIP6 Global Climate Models (GCMs) in simulating sea level rise in the Malaysian seas using various statistical methods. The models’ performances were evaluated by comparing historic CMIP6 GCM runs from 1993 to 2010 with sea level measurements from the satellite altimetry AVISO+ using the Taylor diagram. The SCS (SCSPM and SCSEM) had a higher sea level range and trend in both selected areas than the SM and SS. With 1.5 °C warmings, the multi-model ensemble means predicted that the SCS would rise by 16 mm near the Peninsular, with sea levels increasing by 0.908 m at a rate of 1.5 mm/year, and by 14.5 mm near East Malaysia, with sea levels increasing by 0.895 m at a rate of 1.1 mm/year. In contrast, 2.0 °C warmings project that SCSPM and SCSEM would cause sea levels to rise by 20.2 mm and 21.5 mm, respectively, at a rate of 0.6 mm/year and 0.7 mm/year. This information will provide an insight into Malaysian sea levels between now and the end of the twenty-first century, which will be beneficial for government agencies, academics, and relevant stakeholders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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30 pages, 12982 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics and Causes of Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Region of Southwest Bangladesh at Global, Regional, and Local Levels

by Md. Ashrafuzzaman, Filipe Duarte Santos, João Miguel Dias and Artemi Cerdà

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(6), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10060779 - 04 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3910

Abstract

Global greenhouse gas emissions have caused sea level rise (SLR) at a global and local level since the industrial revolution, mainly through thermal expansion and ice melting. Projections indicate that the acceleration of SLR will increase in the near future. This will affect [...] Read more.

Global greenhouse gas emissions have caused sea level rise (SLR) at a global and local level since the industrial revolution, mainly through thermal expansion and ice melting. Projections indicate that the acceleration of SLR will increase in the near future. This will affect coastal and deltaic populations worldwide, such as in Bangladesh, where almost half of the population resides in regions lower than 5 m above sea level. This study found three coastal tidal gauges and five deltaic gauge stations, which showed increases in SLR at greater rates than the regional and global averages. This research also used satellite altimetry data to analyze regional and global SLR averages in the recent past and the 21st century. There is a trend towards increasing sea level based on results from three tide gauge stations: Char Changa with 7.6 mm/yr, Hiron Point at 3.1 mm/yr from 1993 to 2019, and 14.5 mm/yr at Cox’s Bazar from 1993 to 2011. Based on the linear trend from these time frames, it is projected that SLR in Char Changa will increase by 228 mm from 2020 to 2050, and by 608 mm by 2100, at Hiron Point by 93 mm in 2050 and 248 mm by 2100, and at Cox’s Bazar by almost 435.7 mm by 2050, and more than 1162 mm by 2100. Based on an average from satellite altimeters, assuming a linear increase in SLR, the Bay of Bengal shows an increase of 0.4 mm compared to the global trend. Other river delta stations in the study area also show increasing SLR, specifically, at Kalaroa, Benarpota, Kaikhali, Tala Magura, and Elarchari. Kalaroa and Benarpota show the highest, with SLR of >40 mm/yr. It is also observed that increasing SLR trends are far higher than coastal tide gauges, indicating that physical processes in the delta region are affecting SLR, further contributing to either an increase in water volume/SLR or activating land subsidence. This is partly due to the subsidence of the delta as a result of natural and anthropomorphic effects, as well as an increase in Himalayan glacier melting due to global warming. This indicates that Bangladesh coastal areas will soon experience a far greater SLR than the rest of the Bay of Bengal or other global coastal areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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23 pages, 7419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Sea Level and Morphological Changes along the Eastern Coast of Bangladesh

by Md. Shibly Anwar, Kalimur Rahman, Md Abul Ehsan Bhuiyan and Rupayan Saha

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(4), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10040527 - 11 Apr 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3338

Abstract

Bangladesh is one of the climate risk-prone countries in South Asia facing tremendous challenges to combat sea-level rise and its associated coastal morphological changes. This study aimed to determine the interaction of the sea-level rise and morphological changes, particularly at Cox’s Bazar and [...] Read more.

Bangladesh is one of the climate risk-prone countries in South Asia facing tremendous challenges to combat sea-level rise and its associated coastal morphological changes. This study aimed to determine the interaction of the sea-level rise and morphological changes, particularly at Cox’s Bazar and Kutubdia Island along the eastern coast of Bangladesh. Available hourly tide gauge data, daily temperature, daily rainfall data, and 15 LANDSAT satellite images for the period of 1983–2016 were analyzed to examine the sea level shore morphological change and associated climate change phenomenon. First, we identified the historical nonlinear sea-level trend using Hilbert-Huang Transformation (HHT) based on the complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition (CEEMD) technique. We divided the study period into three distinct sea-level change periods of 1983–1993, 1993–2003, and 2003–2014 based on nonlinear sea-level trend analysis. The study revealed that the sea level on the east coast of Bangladesh had a moderate rising trend during 1983–1993, slight decrease during 1993–2003, and steep rising trend during 2003–2014. We also observed that a sea-level change within a particular period impacted the shore morphological change after approximately two years, such that the average sea-level change during the period of 1993–2003 might have affected the shore morphology for 1996–2005. Alarming shore erosion was found for the period of 2005–2016 compared to the previous periods of 1989–1996 and 1996–2005 for both Cox’s Bazar and Kutubdia Island. The shore morphology of some segments was also substantially affected due to the geometric shape of the land, significant waves, and shore protection works. This study encourages policymakers to minimize the threats of sea-level rise and ensure sustainable coastal management strategies are introduced to sustain the vital eastern coast of Bangladesh. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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12 pages, 2977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chronology of Four Climbing Dune Outcrops on the Atlantic Coast of Galicia (NW Spain) Linked to the Sea Level Fall during the MIS6 and MIS4 Isotopic Stages

by Carlos Arce-Chamorro, Juan Ramón Vidal-Romaní and Jorge Sanjurjo-Sánchez

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10(3), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse10030312 - 23 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2410

Abstract

Numerous sandy deposits, interpreted as the remains of old climbing dunes, are preserved on the cliffy coast of Galicia (northwest Spain). These deposits can be found both in open coastal areas and in the interior of the Galician Rias. In this paper, a [...] Read more.

Numerous sandy deposits, interpreted as the remains of old climbing dunes, are preserved on the cliffy coast of Galicia (northwest Spain). These deposits can be found both in open coastal areas and in the interior of the Galician Rias. In this paper, a formation age is established for four aeolianite outcrops dating back to 166 ± 9 ka, 131 ± 6 ka, 128 ± 18 ka and 62 ± 3 ka, using the IRSL₂₉₀ signal of feldspars. These sands were mobilised by coastal winds from a sea level lower than the current one during MIS6 and MIS4. The sea level fall during these regressive episodes shifted the coastline several kilometres away from its current position. This favoured the action of the wind blowing over the emerged coastal strip, which acted as a source area for aeolian sands. During warmer episodes, such as the Eemian and the Holocene, the advance of the sands onto the coast was progressively reduced as the sea level rose and the oceanic waters flooded the continental shelf. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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13 pages, 2074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sea Level Rise Drivers and Projections from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) under the Paris Climate Targets: Global and around the Korea Peninsula

by Hyun Min Sung, Jisun Kim, Sungbo Shim, Jong-Chul Ha, Young-Hwa Byun and Yeon-Hee Kim

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(10), 1094; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9101094 - 07 Oct 2021

Viewed by 1987

Abstract

Estimating future sea level rise (SLR) projections is important for assessing coastal risks and planning of climate-resilient infrastructure. Therefore, in this study, we estimated the future projections of SLR from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) models for three climate targets (1.5 [...] Read more.

Estimating future sea level rise (SLR) projections is important for assessing coastal risks and planning of climate-resilient infrastructure. Therefore, in this study, we estimated the future projections of SLR from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) models for three climate targets (1.5 °C (T15), 2.0 °C (T20), and 3.0 °C (T30)) described by the Paris Agreement. The global SLR projections are 60, 140, and 320 mm for T15, T20, and T30, respectively, relative to the present-day levels. Similarly, around the Korean Peninsula, SLR projections become more intense with continuous global warming (20 mm (T15), 110 mm (T20), and 270 mm (T30)). Ocean variables show a slow response to climate change. Therefore, we developed the Emergence of Climate Change (EoC) index for determining the time when the variable is not following the present climate trend. The EoC of SLR appears after the EoC of sea-ice melting near the time of T15 warming. Moreover, the EoC of thermal expansion appears around the 2040s, which is similar to the time of the maximum of the T15 warming period and the median of the T20 warming period. Overall, our analysis suggests that the T15 warming may act as a trigger and SLR will accelerate after the T15 warming. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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31 pages, 14184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrodynamic Climate of Port Phillip Bay

by Huy Quang Tran, David Provis and Alexander V. Babanin

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(8), 898; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080898 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4472

Abstract

This study is dedicated to the hydrodynamic climate of Port Phillip Bay (PPB)—a largest coastal lagoon system in Victoria, Australia. Novelty of the present study includes long-term hydrodynamic hindcast simulations integrated with a spectral wave model. Specifically, a coupled unstructured grid wave–current modelling [...] Read more.

This study is dedicated to the hydrodynamic climate of Port Phillip Bay (PPB)—a largest coastal lagoon system in Victoria, Australia. Novelty of the present study includes long-term hydrodynamic hindcast simulations integrated with a spectral wave model. Specifically, a coupled unstructured grid wave–current modelling system (SCHISM + WWM) was built upon a high resolution and advanced wave physics (ST6). This coupling system was thoroughly calibrated and validated against field observations prior to applying for 27-year hindcast and case scenarios. Data from these simulations were then used to investigate the hydrodynamic climate of PPB focusing on three main aspects: water levels, waves and currents. For sea levels, this study shows that tidal and extreme sea levels (storm tides) across a large part of PPB have a similar magnitude. The highest storm tide level is found along eastern coasts of the bay in line with the wind pattern. In the vicinity of the entrance, the extreme sea level slightly reduced, in line with wave decay due to coupling effects. This extreme level is lower than results reported by previous studies, which were not built on a wave–current coupled system. For the wave field, the mean wave direction inside PPB is strongly affected by seasonality, in line with wind patterns. The 100-year return significant wave height is above 2 m along the eastern coasts. At PPH, waves get refracted after passing the narrow entrance. For currents, this study shows that both mean variations and high percentile currents are not affected by seasonality. This highlights the fact that tidal currents dominate flow movements in PPB. However, in extreme conditions, the circulation in PPB is also driven by wind patterns, forming two gyre systems. Based on case scenarios simulations, the strongest magnitude of wind-driven currents is above 0.5 m/s and found in the confined shallow region in the southern portion of PPB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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27 pages, 15046 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Extreme Meteorological Events in a Coastal Lagoon Ecosystem: The Ria de Aveiro Lagoon (Portugal) Case Study

by José Fortes Lopes, Carina Lurdes Lopes and João Miguel Dias

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(7), 727; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9070727 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1865

Abstract

Extreme weather events (EWEs) represent meteorological hazards for coastal lagoon hydrodynamics, of which intensity and frequency are increasing over the last decades as a consequence of climate changes. The imbalances they generated should affect primarily vulnerable low-lying areas while potentially disturbing the physical [...] Read more.

Extreme weather events (EWEs) represent meteorological hazards for coastal lagoon hydrodynamics, of which intensity and frequency are increasing over the last decades as a consequence of climate changes. The imbalances they generated should affect primarily vulnerable low-lying areas while potentially disturbing the physical balances (salt and water temperature) and, therefore, the ecosystem equilibrium. This study arises from the need to assess the impact of EWEs on the Ria de Aveiro, a lagoon situated in the Portuguese coastal area. Furthermore, it was considered that those events occur under the frame of a future sea-level rise, as predicted by several climate change scenarios. Two EWEs scenarios, a dry and an extremely wet early summer reflecting past situations and likely to occur in the future, were considered to assess the departure from the system baseline functioning. It was used as a biogeochemistry model that simulates the hydrodynamics, as well as the baseline physical and biogeochemistry state variables. The dry summer scenario, corresponding to a significant reduction in the river’s inflow, evidences a shift of the system to a situation under oceanic dominance characterized by colder and saltier water (~18 °C; 34 PSU) than the baseline while lowering the concentration of the nutrients and reducing the phytoplankton population to a low-level limit. Under a wet summer scenario, the lagoon shifted to a brackish and warmer situation (~21 °C, <15 PSU) in a time scale of some tidal periods, driven by the combining effect of the tidal transport and the river’s inflow. Phytoplankton patterns respond to variability on local and short-term scales that reflect physical conditions within the lagoon, inducing nutrient-supported growth. Overall, the results indicate that EWEs generate local and transient changes in physical conditions (namely salinity and water temperature) in response to the characteristic variability of the lagoon’s hydrodynamics associated with a tidal-dominated system. Therefore, in addition to the potential impact of changing physical conditions on the ecosystem, saline intrusion along the lagoon or the transfer of brackish water to the mouth of the system are the main consequences of EWEs, while the main biogeochemistry changes tend to remain moderate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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11 pages, 4351 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Comparative Study of Adaptation Measure to Sea Level Rise in Thailand

by Sompratana Ritphring, Pattrakorn Nidhinarangkoon, Keiko Udo and Hiroaki Shirakawa

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(6), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9060588 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3720

Abstract

In the 21st century, global sea level rise associated with climate change will affect beach areas, which provide a number of benefits that include benefits to the recreational sector of the economy. In Thailand, the adoption of structural measures in order to slow [...] Read more.

In the 21st century, global sea level rise associated with climate change will affect beach areas, which provide a number of benefits that include benefits to the recreational sector of the economy. In Thailand, the adoption of structural measures in order to slow down beach erosion and handle the impact of sea level rise is commonly implemented. However, structural measures often bring about negative effects on nearby coastal areas. For this reason, suitable adaptation measures should be determined, in order to protect beach areas and to sustain the tourism carrying capacity of the beach. This study analyzed historical shoreline changes using satellite images, and assessed beach value with the hedonic pricing method. We used a benefit–cost ratio analysis to evaluate the economic valuation assessment of Pattaya beach and Chalatat beach. The results showed that the beach values of Pattaya beach and Chalatat beach were 1,072,250 and 92,092 USD, respectively. The benefit–cost ratio analysis proposed that it is worth implementing beach nourishment for the adaptation measure to address all climate change scenarios. In response to climate change, recommendations could be applied to support beach tourism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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17 pages, 1787 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Approaching Sea-Level Rise (SLR) Change: Strengthening Local Responses to Sea-Level Rise and Coping with Climate Change in Northern Mozambique

by Serafino Afonso Rui Mucova, Ulisses Miranda Azeiteiro, Walter Leal Filho, Carina Lurdes Lopes, João Miguel Dias and Mário Jorge Pereira

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9020205 - 16 Feb 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3931

Abstract

Mean sea-level is expected to rise significantly by 2100 in all scenarios, including those compatible with the objectives of the Paris Climate Agreement. Global sea level rise projections indicate devastating implications for populations, ecosystem services and biodiversity. The implications of the sea-level rise [...] Read more.

Mean sea-level is expected to rise significantly by 2100 in all scenarios, including those compatible with the objectives of the Paris Climate Agreement. Global sea level rise projections indicate devastating implications for populations, ecosystem services and biodiversity. The implications of the sea-level rise (SLR) on low-lying islands and coastal regions and communities are substantial and require deep-rooted coping measures. In the absence of adequate responses for coping, Mozambique is expected to record huge losses, with an impact on the economy and development in many sectors of its coastal regions mainly in northern Mozambique. This research aimed to perform projections on SLR in Mozambique, and to understand its role and implications on the north coast of the country. SLR was estimated through the analysis of model outputs that support the global estimates of the fifth IPCC report near the Mozambican coast, for each of the four representative concentration pathways (RCPs) scenarios. Regional coastline retreat and coastal erosion were estimated through the results of global sandy coastlines projections developed by Vousdoukas. Mean sea-level rise projections indicate that regional estimates for the Mozambican coast are relative higher than global estimates (~0.05 m) for all representative concentration pathways (RCPs). Yet, we highlight significant differences in sea-level rises of 0.5 m, 0.7 m or 1.0 m by 2100 compared to the global mean. It is expected that with the increase in the mean sea level in the northern part of the Mozambican coast, erosive effects will increase, as well as the retreat of the coastline until 2100. With this, the tourism sector, settlements, ecosystem services and local populations are expected to be significantly affected by 2050, with increased threats in 2100 (RCP4.5, RCP8.5). Local responses for coping are proposed and properly discussed for the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios through 2100. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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17 pages, 36724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Tropical Cyclone Nicholas (11–20 February 2008) on Sea Level Anomalies in Indonesian Waters

by Nining Sari Ningsih, Farrah Hanifah, Tika Sekar Tanjung, Laela Fitri Yani and Muchamad Al Azhar

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8(11), 948; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8110948 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2863

Abstract

As reported extensively in both electronic and print media in Indonesia, high wave and anomalously high sea level phenomena occurred in February 2008 in Indonesian waters, mainly along the western coast of Sumatra and the southern coasts of Java-Bali. Tropical Cyclone (TC) Nicholas, [...] Read more.

As reported extensively in both electronic and print media in Indonesia, high wave and anomalously high sea level phenomena occurred in February 2008 in Indonesian waters, mainly along the western coast of Sumatra and the southern coasts of Java-Bali. Tropical Cyclone (TC) Nicholas, occurring in northwestern coastal waters of Australia between 11 and 20 February 2008, might have contributed to the existence of these phenomena in the Indonesian region. This study focused on investigating the effect of TC Nicholas on the increases in sea levels in the Indonesian waters by analyzing residual water levels (non-astronomic tide). In this regard, a storm tide event (the sum of the astronomical tide and storm surge generated by the TC Nicholas) was simulated in this region using the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS). The residual water levels were obtained by removing the tidal part (astronomic tide) from the ROMS simulated total water levels. In addition, to confirm possible influences of TC Nicholas, a lagged correlation analysis was applied between atmospheric pressure at the center of TC Nicholas and residual water level oscillations in the Indonesian waters. It was found that the residual water levels showed a strong correlation with the atmospheric pressure at the center of TC Nicholas in some areas of the Indonesian seas, such as the western coast of Sumatra, the southern coast of Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, and the southern coast of Papua. The increased sea levels on the western coast of Sumatra are up to 16 cm, with TC Nicholas leading the residual water level by 4.18 days (TL: time lag). Meanwhile, they are up to 20 cm (TL = 5.75 days), 21 cm (TL = 1.12 days), and 38 cm (TL = 3.96 days) on the southern coast of Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the southern coast of Papua, respectively. The results of this study could be used as an initial assessment to investigate the most vulnerable Indonesian coastal areas to the impact of the TC and they might be significantly beneficial for designing both a proper disaster risk reduction program and investment policies in the region, particularly in the context of flood risk reduction and adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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Review

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28 pages, 871 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Measuring Resilience to Sea-Level Rise for Critical Infrastructure Systems: Leveraging Leading Indicators

by Lamis Amer, Murat Erkoc, Rusty A. Feagin, Sabarethinam Kameshwar, Katharine J. Mach and Diana Mitsova

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(7), 1421; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11071421 - 15 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1422

Abstract

There has been a growing interest in research on how to define and build indicators of resilience to address challenges associated with sea-level rise. Most of the proposed methods rely on lagging indicators constructed based on the historical performance of an infrastructure sub-system. [...] Read more.

There has been a growing interest in research on how to define and build indicators of resilience to address challenges associated with sea-level rise. Most of the proposed methods rely on lagging indicators constructed based on the historical performance of an infrastructure sub-system. These indicators are traditionally utilized to build curves that describe the past response of the sub-system to stressors; these curves are then used to predict the future resilience of the sub-system to hypothesized events. However, there is now a growing concern that this approach cannot provide the best insights for adaptive decision-making across the broader context of multiple sub-systems and stakeholders. As an alternative, leading indicators that are built on the structural characteristics that embody system resilience have been gaining in popularity. This structure-based approach can reveal problems and gaps in resilience planning and shed light on the effectiveness of potential adaptation activities. Here, we survey the relevant literature for these leading indicators within the context of sea-level rise and then synthesize the gained insights into a broader examination of the current research challenges. We propose research directions on leveraging leading indicators as effective instruments for incorporating resilience into integrated decision-making on the adaptation of infrastructure systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sea Level Rise: Drivers, Variability and Impacts)

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