Research

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22 pages, 2576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method of Reducing Energy Consumption during Forklift Operator Training in Cargo Terminals Utilizing Virtual Reality

by Artur Kierzkowski, Jacek Ryczyński and Tomasz Kisiel

Energies 2024, 17(5), 1153; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051153 - 28 Feb 2024

Viewed by 545

In the era of shrinking resources of traditional fossil fuels and the increasingly dominant sustainable development policy, actions are taken to reduce energy consumption as much as possible, assuming that we achieve identical operational goals. These activities are apparent in the industries with [...] Read more.

In the era of shrinking resources of traditional fossil fuels and the increasingly dominant sustainable development policy, actions are taken to reduce energy consumption as much as possible, assuming that we achieve identical operational goals. These activities are apparent in the industries with the most significant energy demand, i.e., the aviation industry. To achieve this, these industries implement modern technologies in all possible areas of operation. One of these areas is the area of operator training, especially the most energy-consuming devices and types of equipment. This article investigated the potential of virtual reality (VR) technology for energy optimization of forklift operating training in airport cargo terminals. The authors propose a method whose practical implementation in one of the cargo terminals reduced energy consumption by several times while training forklift operators. The added value is that the method is universal and, after appropriate modification, can be used to train operators of other devices. The study compared traditional training methods with a VR-based training approach, assessing their impact on energy consumption and overall efficiency of forklift operations in airport cargo terminals. The results prove that VR technology training can significantly reduce energy consumption while improving operational efficiency and can offer a sustainable and effective training solution for the entire logistics sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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22 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cost of Energy Consumption and Return of Excise Tax on Motor Fuels vs. the Durability of Operations and Financial Sustainability in Polish Agriculture

by Jacek Kulawik, Michał Soliwoda, Agnieszka Kurdyś-Kujawska, Justyna Herda-Kopańska and Cezary Klimkowski

Energies 2024, 17(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010124 - 25 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 709

Abstract

For the European Union, the course of the Community’s energy and climate policy as well as changes in the objectives and priorities of the Common Agricultural Policy, as reflected, among others, in rural development programs subject to ex ante, environmental and ex post [...] Read more.

For the European Union, the course of the Community’s energy and climate policy as well as changes in the objectives and priorities of the Common Agricultural Policy, as reflected, among others, in rural development programs subject to ex ante, environmental and ex post evaluation, should be considered. Individual EU countries are still implementing their own programs focused on improving energy efficiency, energy modernisation and supporting renewable energy, and they also intervene in the energy market on an ad hoc basis, as was the case after the outbreak of the war in Ukraine. This article fits into such a broadly understood research perspective, and its primary goal is to identify the impact of the costs of energy consumption and the reimbursement of excise tax on motor fuels on the operational durability and financial sustainability of 103 farms belonging to the Polish FADN network, which in 2017–2021 implemented modernisation projects under the rural development program. Logistic and linear multivariate regression were used to estimate the strength, direction and significance of correlation relationships. It was found that relative energy costs were significantly negatively correlated with financial sustainability only in the linear model, while the impact of excise tax return was positive but not significant. Thus, an empirical proof of the advisability of a possible public intervention aimed at making farmers’ access to energy cheaper was obtained. All public interventions in agricultural energy use should be subject to careful and systematic ex ante, mid-term and ex post assessments based on sound program theory. It is necessary to identify the cause-and-effect chains, in which the regression proposed in the article may be helpful. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

16 pages, 6155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Methodology to Estimate High-Resolution Gridded Datasets on Energy Consumption Drivers in Ecuador’s Residential Sector during the 2010–2020 Period

by Diego Moya, César Arroba, Christian Castro, Cristian Pérez, Sara Giarola, Prasad Kaparaju, Ángel Pérez-Navarro and Adam Hawkes

Energies 2023, 16(10), 3973; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16103973 - 09 May 2023

Viewed by 1212

Abstract

There are no methodologies in the literature for estimating the temporal and spatial distribution of consumption drivers for the residential sector of a region or country. Factors such as energy requirement, population density, outdoor temperature, and socioeconomic aspects are considered the major drivers [...] Read more.

There are no methodologies in the literature for estimating the temporal and spatial distribution of consumption drivers for the residential sector of a region or country. Factors such as energy requirement, population density, outdoor temperature, and socioeconomic aspects are considered the major drivers of consumption and have been found to directly influence residential energy consumption. In this study, a methodology is proposed to evaluate the impact of the above drivers in domestic energy consumption in Ecuador between 2010 and 2020 using publicly available data. This methodology aims to provide a spatiotemporal approach to estimate high-resolution gridded datasets for a 10-year period, 2010–2020, assessing seven energy drivers: (1) gridded population density, (2) gridded space heating requirements, (3) gridded space cooling requirements, (4) gridded water heating requirements, (5) gridded Gross Domestic Product (GDP), (6) gridded per capita GDP, and (7) the Human Development Index (HDI). Drivers 1 to 6 were analyzed at one square kilometer (1 km²), whereas HDI was analyzed at the city level. These results can be used to evaluate energy-planning strategies in a range of sustainable scenarios. This methodology can be used to evaluate a range of consumption drivers to evaluate long-term energy policies to reach the net-zero target by midcentury. The proposed methodology can be reproduced in other countries and regions. Future research could explore the spatiotemporal correlation of the consumption drivers provided in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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20 pages, 6791 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green Jobs in the Energy Sector

by Łukasz Jarosław Kozar and Adam Sulich

Energies 2023, 16(7), 3171; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073171 - 31 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1505

Abstract

This article analyzes Green Jobs (GJs) in the energy sector. GJs are naturally created in the processes related to the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); this is especially visible in the 7th and 8th SDGs. There is currently a green transition [...] Read more.

This article analyzes Green Jobs (GJs) in the energy sector. GJs are naturally created in the processes related to the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); this is especially visible in the 7th and 8th SDGs. There is currently a green transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources in the energy sector, and this mainly technological change also influences GJ creation. Despite this, there is a research gap related to green self-employment and GJ definitions. The goal of this paper is to explore the scientific literature collected from the Scopus database using a qualitative approach to present areas and keywords related to GJs in the energy sector. The adopted method is a Structured Literature Review (SLR), with the original query Q1. The retrieved data results of the SLR method were analyzed in the form of bibliometric maps of co-occurring keywords generated by the VOSviewer software, together with tables showing clusters of keyword features. As a result, the pivotal keywords and their clusters were identified. In this study, the most important scientific areas of GJ research in the energy sector were also indicated. This paper presents the current state of knowledge and the evolution of the subject of GJs in the energy sector, which can be useful for both researchers and practitioners. In the last section of this paper, possible new directions of future studies on the subject of GJ creation in the energy sector are identified. The limitations of this research and its practical implications are also addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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22 pages, 1101 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Relationship between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in the Baltic Countries’ Agriculture: A Non-Linear Framework

by Daiva Makutėnienė, Algirdas Justinas Staugaitis, Bernardas Vaznonis and Gunta Grīnberga-Zālīte

Energies 2023, 16(5), 2114; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052114 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1686

Abstract

The development of a country’s economy is directly related to the use of energy in that country’s economic sectors. Therefore, the energy–environmental Kuznets curve (EEKC) is often used when analysing a country’s potential and challenges in sustainable development, green economy, and green growth. [...] Read more.

The development of a country’s economy is directly related to the use of energy in that country’s economic sectors. Therefore, the energy–environmental Kuznets curve (EEKC) is often used when analysing a country’s potential and challenges in sustainable development, green economy, and green growth. This hypothesis tests whether there is an inverse “U”-shaped relationship between energy use and economic growth and is especially important when analysing developing countries to assess if, at a certain point, energy use begins to drop, resulting in fewer greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, and the consumption of fossil-based fuels. This study aims to examine the relationship between energy consumption and economic growth in the Baltic States from 1995 to 2019, with a focus on the agriculture sector. The study uses the non-linear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) model for individual and panel time series. Total energy use, as well as electricity use, is included in the study, whereas gross value added is employed as a measure of economic growth. Research data analysis reveals that energy use in all three Baltic countries stabilises as gross value added increases. However, there is insufficient evidence to show that after a certain point, energy use begins to drop; thus, the hypothesis for the inverse “U”-shaped energy–environmental Kuznets curve (EEKC) is rejected. Research results have important practical implications regarding countries’ policies toward energy, including the use of electricity and sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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21 pages, 4520 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency of Polish Energy Companies in the Context of EU Climate Policy

by Tomasz L. Nawrocki and Izabela Jonek-Kowalska

Energies 2023, 16(2), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020826 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1375

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to assess the impact of carbon allowances on the financial performance and strategic behavior of Polish energy companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange, with a particular focus on the period when the price of these allowances [...] Read more.

The purpose of this article is to assess the impact of carbon allowances on the financial performance and strategic behavior of Polish energy companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange, with a particular focus on the period when the price of these allowances increased. The eight largest Polish energy companies were surveyed, and the research period covered the period of 2010–2021. The research process used an analysis of financial condition and its determinants in the current and long-term perspective. In the current approach, the following were used: sales margin, operating margin, and cost and revenue structure. In the long-term approach, an assessment of the regularity of the capital structure and debt ratios was used. In both research perspectives, the results were confronted with the structure of power generation sources and the segmentation of the core business, including production, distribution, and trading. The results allow us to conclude that the increase in the price of emission allowances has adversely and most strongly affected companies focused on energy generation from high-carbon sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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22 pages, 2402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Environmental Impact of Changes in the Structure of Electricity Sources in Europe

by Marcin Bukowski, Janusz Majewski and Agnieszka Sobolewska

Energies 2023, 16(1), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010501 - 02 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1467

Abstract

The limited use of non-renewable energy sources facilitates a reduction in the negative environmental impact of electricity production. The policies of European countries aim to change the structure of electricity sources, focusing particularly on non-renewable sources. The aim of this study was to [...] Read more.

The limited use of non-renewable energy sources facilitates a reduction in the negative environmental impact of electricity production. The policies of European countries aim to change the structure of electricity sources, focusing particularly on non-renewable sources. The aim of this study was to assess changes in the structure of electricity generation depending on the energy sources used in 34 European countries in the years 1990–2020 in terms of their environmental impact. This study was conducted using cluster analysis: a method applied in multivariate comparative analyses. Such an approach provided a new, broader outlook on changes in the structure of electric energy production in Europe. A total of nine homogeneous groups of countries were distinguished in terms of energy transformation. The ecological scarcity method 2013 was applied to assess the environmental impact of electricity production in the analyzed countries. In the investigated period, the negative environmental impact of electricity production in European countries decreased. The median of the volume of this impact, determined based on the structure of production in 1990, for the analyzed countries was 464 UBP/1 kWh. In the following years, the value of the median dropped to 413 UBP/1 kWh (2000), 322 UBP/1 kWh (2010), and 204 UBP/1 kWh (2020), respectively. The diversification of the countries in this respect also decreased, which resulted in a reduction in the number of clusters from eight in 1990 to two in 2020. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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35 pages, 5749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Vehicle Energy Consumption at Intersections Using Microscopic Traffic Models

by Jacek Oskarbski and Konrad Biszko

Energies 2023, 16(1), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010233 - 25 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1624

Abstract

This paper addresses issues related to modeling energy consumption and emissions using microscopic traffic simulations. This paper develops a method in which a traffic model is used to calculate the energy needed to travel through selected types of intersections. This paper focuses on [...] Read more.

This paper addresses issues related to modeling energy consumption and emissions using microscopic traffic simulations. This paper develops a method in which a traffic model is used to calculate the energy needed to travel through selected types of intersections. This paper focuses on energy consumption and derived values of calculated energy, which can be, for example, carbon dioxide emissions. The authors present a review of the scientific literature on the study of factors affecting energy consumption and emissions and methods to estimate them in traffic. The authors implemented an energy consumption model into a microsimulation software module to estimate results as a function of varying traffic volumes at selected types of intersections and for selected traffic organization scenarios. The results of the study show the lowest energy consumption and the lowest emissions when road solutions are selected that contribute to reducing vehicle travel times on the urban street network at higher average vehicle speeds. In addition, the positive impact of the share of electric vehicles in the traffic flow on the reduction of energy consumption and emissivity was estimated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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18 pages, 4942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Dielectric Properties of Worker Bee Homogenate in a High Frequency Electric Field

by Leszek Szychta, Piotr Jankowski-Mihułowicz, Elżbieta Szychta, Krzysztof Olszewski, Grzegorz Putynkowski, Tadeusz Barczak and Piotr Wasilewski

Energies 2022, 15(24), 9342; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249342 - 09 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1097

Abstract

Biological tissues, including insect tissues, are among lossy dielectric materials. The permittivity properties of these materials are described by loss factor

ε^{″}

and loss tangent tgδ. The dielectric properties of the worker honeybee body homogenate are tested in the range [...] Read more.

Biological tissues, including insect tissues, are among lossy dielectric materials. The permittivity properties of these materials are described by loss factor

ε^{″}

and loss tangent tgδ. The dielectric properties of the worker honeybee body homogenate are tested in the range of high frequencies from 1 MHz to 6 GHz. The homogenate is produced by mixing whole worker honeybees and tested with an epsilometer from Compass Technology and a Copper Mountain Technologies vector circuit analyser VNA. Due to their consistency, the homogenate samples are placed inside polyurethane sachets. The measured permittivity relates to two components of a sample: homogenate and polyurethane. For five samples, two extremes were specified for the permittivity, loss factor

ε^{″}

, and the loss tangent tgδ, for the frequency range 20 ÷ 80 MHz and 3 GHz. Four techniques of testing permittivity in biological tissues were used to determine the dielectric properties of the homogenate. A calculation model was developed featuring a minimum measurement error of the loss factor

ε^{″}

and the loss tangent tgδ. The power absorbed per unit volume is described for the whole frequency range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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Review

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19 pages, 1340 KiB

Open AccessReview

Risk Factors for Poland to Achieve the European Commission’s Recycling and Landfill Targets and Their Effects on Waste-to-Energy Conversion: A Review

by Monika Zajemska, Anna Korombel and Olga Ławińska

Energies 2024, 17(5), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051171 - 01 Mar 2024

Viewed by 501

Abstract

Poland is highly likely, as per a European Commission report, to fall short of meeting the 2025 targets related to the preparation for re-use and recycling of municipal waste and packaging waste. The risk of not meeting the municipal waste recycling targets stands [...] Read more.

Poland is highly likely, as per a European Commission report, to fall short of meeting the 2025 targets related to the preparation for re-use and recycling of municipal waste and packaging waste. The risk of not meeting the municipal waste recycling targets stands at 27%, while for packaging waste, it is estimated at 30%. Recycling rates play a pivotal role in gauging the efficiency of waste management systems, as well as in monitoring progress toward a circular economy. Taking into account the considerable likelihood of Poland not achieving the recycling targets, the authors of the paper found it imperative to identify the risk factors associated with Poland’s failure to meet the European Commission’s recycling and landfill targets within the waste-to-energy context. Additionally, they sought to evaluate the potential for the development of the waste-to-energy concept in Poland. The research objectives were fulfilled through the literature review method. By employing the classification of factors outlined in a SWOT analysis, the authors highlighted which of the identified risk factors could or should be considered strengths or weaknesses, opportunities or threats to the Polish recycling process. Mapping out future courses of action will enable decision-makers in Poland to address the weaknesses in recycling, capitalize on opportunities arising from the socio-economic situation in Poland, and formulate plans to mitigate the identified threats. Undertaking such initiatives has the potential to enhance recycling rates in Poland and facilitate the broader application of waste-to-energy practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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23 pages, 2607 KiB

Open AccessReview

Selected Issues, Methods, and Trends in the Energy Consumption of Industrial Robots

by Agnieszka Sękala, Tomasz Blaszczyk, Krzysztof Foit and Gabriel Kost

Energies 2024, 17(3), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17030641 - 29 Jan 2024

Viewed by 966

Abstract

Industrial robots, like all machines, require energy to operate, which is why energy efficiency in industrial robotics has been a subject of consideration in recent years in many scientific and industrial centers. Interest in the topic is especially noticeable in Industry 4.0. Research [...] Read more.

Industrial robots, like all machines, require energy to operate, which is why energy efficiency in industrial robotics has been a subject of consideration in recent years in many scientific and industrial centers. Interest in the topic is especially noticeable in Industry 4.0. Research on energy efficiency stems from the emergence of new possibilities in terms of making strategic decisions related to manufacturing processes. As energy-efficient production is an essential part of sustainable development, the energy efficiency of industrial robots must be considered. The need to reduce costs while maintaining quality and increasing production efficiency has necessitated the implementation of modern solutions aimed at reducing electricity consumption. The rational use of electrical energy, especially in the industrial sector, significantly reduces production costs and, consequently, contributes to a company’s profits and competitiveness. This article aims to provide an overview of energy efficiency issues based on recently published articles. This article discusses the appropriate selection of robots, their programming, energy-efficient trajectory planning, and the monitoring of the operation of the robotic system to minimize energy consumption. Typical industrial applications of robots are also mentioned and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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27 pages, 5026 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bibliometric Evaluation of Energy Efficiency in Agriculture

by Andrea Benedek, Tomasz Rokicki and András Szeberényi

Energies 2023, 16(16), 5942; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16165942 - 11 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1402

Abstract

In recent years, the importance of energy efficiency in the agricultural sector has become increasingly apparent. As the world faces challenges such as climate change, resource scarcity, and population growth, the need for sustainable and efficient agricultural practices has intensified. Energy plays a [...] Read more.

In recent years, the importance of energy efficiency in the agricultural sector has become increasingly apparent. As the world faces challenges such as climate change, resource scarcity, and population growth, the need for sustainable and efficient agricultural practices has intensified. Energy plays a crucial role in agricultural production, from powering machinery and irrigation systems to processing and transportation. Therefore, understanding the scientific advancements and collaborative efforts in the field of energy efficiency in agriculture is essential for devising effective strategies, promoting innovation, and achieving global sustainability goals. The aim of this study is to provide insight into and a comprehensive overview of global publications on energy efficiency in agriculture and examine its scientific productivity. The paper explores the research areas and trending topics within the field, as well as the extent of collaboration among authors, institutions, and countries involved in this scientific domain. This investigation is crucial in order to address the current energy shocks and the numerous problems they generate, highlighting the importance of a holistic approach and the need for multiple regions to work together. Only by offering rapid and viable solutions can we effectively overcome this situation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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24 pages, 790 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Use of Waste to Produce Liquid Fertilizers in Terms of Sustainable Development and Energy Consumption in the Fertilizer Industry—A Case Study from Poland

by Rebeka Pajura, Adam Masłoń and Joanna Czarnota

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1747; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041747 - 09 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4700

Abstract

The topical challenge for the Polish, European, and global fertilizer industry is to produce sufficient nutrients for growing plants using more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly methods. The appropriate course of action, in terms of the challenges posed, could be the production of liquid [...] Read more.

The topical challenge for the Polish, European, and global fertilizer industry is to produce sufficient nutrients for growing plants using more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly methods. The appropriate course of action, in terms of the challenges posed, could be the production of liquid fertilizers, made from waste materials that exhibit fertilizer properties. This solution makes it possible not only to reduce the exploitation of natural resources but above all, to implement elements of a circular economy and reduce the energy intensity of the fertilizer industry. This study shows that both in Poland and the European Union, there are current regulations aimed at elements of a circular economy and indicating the need to obtain fertilizers containing valuable plant nutrients from organic waste or recycled materials. The recognition carried out for the Polish market clearly indicates that to produce liquid organic fertilizers and soil conditioners, the most used is the digestate from the fermentation process. The preparation of liquid organic–mineral fertilizers is mainly based on algae extracts. Mine minerals are used in the production of mineral–liquid fertilizers. An analysis of data has shown that the above-mentioned waste materials, used as substrates to produce fertilizers, contain chemical substances and elements important for, among other things, stimulation of proper plant development, growth of aboveground and underground parts of plants, increased resistance to diseases and pests, and regulation of plant water management. Referring to the above information, the production of liquid fertilizers from waste materials seems reasonable and is an alternative to mineral–solid fertilizers, whose production process is energy-intensive and produces air emissions. Detailed identification of the properties of the various components made it possible to demonstrate their usefulness in terms of fertilizing plants and soils, but also to emphasize the importance of this line of research and the need to look for other groups of waste for reuse within the framework of a circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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17 pages, 705 KiB

Open AccessReview

Changes in the Polish Coal Sector Economic Situation with the Background of the European Union Energy Security and Eco-Efficiency Policy

by Piotr Bórawski, Aneta Bełdycka-Bórawska and Lisa Holden

Energies 2023, 16(2), 726; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020726 - 08 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2684

Abstract

Poland is a big user of fossil fuels for electricity and heat production. The most important fossil fuel is hard, brown coal and the Polish energy system is based on this source. However, the world has begun to decarbonize the climate and reduce [...] Read more.

Poland is a big user of fossil fuels for electricity and heat production. The most important fossil fuel is hard, brown coal and the Polish energy system is based on this source. However, the world has begun to decarbonize the climate and reduce the carbon dioxide and methane which are the main gasses impacting climate change. The main aim of this paper was to recognize changes in Polish coal sector. We focused our attention to the economic situation and employment in coal sector in Poland. The time rage included 1989–2020 and the prognosis 2021–2025. The Polish coal sector faced dramatic changes. The number of hard coal mines decreased from 70 in 1990 to 21 in 2020. In the same timeframe, the prices for hard coal increased from 12.37 PLN/dt to 313.27 PLN/dt. The employment decreased from more than 350 thousand to less than 100 thousand people in hard coal mines. The decrease changes are the effect of strict policies of the European Union. The economic situation of Polish hard coal mines is rather poor. Polish mines achieved negative economic results due to the effect of poor management. We used advanced statistics, including the Augmented Dickey–Fuller test (ADF), to measure the stationarity of analyzed time series. We also used Generalized AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (GARCH) models and conducted a prognosis. Our research proved that the time series describing the hard coal economic situation were not stationary. The Generalized AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (GARCH) models confirmed big changes in Polish coal sector economic results. The elaborated prognosis of variables proved that the price of hard coal will increase in 2021–2025. Moreover, the economic situation will be worse. Our analysis confirmed that global trends of the hard coal sector were influenced by the European Union (EU) energy policy and closing down the mines. The economic situation of Polish hard coal sector worsened. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II)

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