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Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior

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A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Clinical Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2020) | Viewed by 58200

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Dr. Paul Brunault

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Psychiatry and Addiction, University Hospital of Tours, Tours, France
2. INSERM UMR 1253, iBrain, University of Tours, Tours, France
3. Qualipsy, EE 1901, University of Tours, Tours, France
Interests: adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; addictive disorders; binge eating disorder; food addiction; addiction psychology; psychopathology; psychiatry; psychological assessment; clinical psychology; behavioral addictions

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There is growing evidence that among persons with disordered eating behavior, the identification of an “addictive-like eating” phenotype for some persons could be relevant and improve our ability to design better tailored interventions. This “addictive-like eating behavior” phenotype encompasses different terms or concepts, including “food addiction”, “eating addiction”, “compulsive eating behavior”, and “food craving”, but also applies to some persons with binge eating disorder, bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, or binge eating symptoms. Although these terms may theoretically refer to different underlying causes or conceptualizations of addictive-like eating, all agree on the complex and multifaceted public health problem it represents and on the similarities it shares with other addictive disorders in terms of etiology, epidemiology, and treatment.

Addictive-like eating behavior can deleteriously impact the patient’s outcome and may lead to poorer weight loss evolution, increased prevalence of co-occurring medical and/or psychiatric disorders, and/or lower quality of life. One of the key challenges for the present and future research is to better identify this subpopulation of patients exhibiting this addictive-like eating phenotype, and to identify the psychological/psychiatric factors and biological mechanisms underlying this increased vulnerability to addictive-like eating. Such preliminary knowledge is crucial for enabling the development of interventions targeting these vulnerability risk factors and, ultimately, improving patient outcomes.

The goal of this Special Issue of Nutrients is to give an update on the biological, psychological, psychiatric, and social factors underlying the increased vulnerability to addictive-like eating behavior (including, but not limited to, food addiction, eating addiction, and binge eating), and to contribute to a better identification of this phenotype among persons with disordered eating. This Special Issue also aims to contribute to the debate on which interventions should be proposed to whom, and how they should be integrated into the multidisciplinary care proposed for patients with addictive-like eating behavior.

We are very excited about this upcoming Special Issue, and are looking forward to reading your interesting proposals. We welcome all types of contributions that improve the scientific knowledge in this important field and fill the current gaps in the existing literature.

Potential topics include, but are by no means limited to, the following:

All forms of addictive-like eating behavior, including food addiction/eating addiction/compulsive eating behavior, and food cravings, as well as binge eating symptoms or binge eating disorder and other eating disorders;
Addictive-like eating among persons with eating disorders (i.e., anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder) or disordered eating symptoms (i.e., binge eating, cognitive restraint, emotional eating);
Addictive-like eating among persons with obesity, including bariatric surgery;
Addiction transfer/addiction switch before or after addictive-like eating management;
Addictive-like eating behavior and weight;
Co-occurring psychiatric and medical disorders associated with addictive-like eating behavior;
Psychopathological factors or psychiatric disorders that may underlie the increased vulnerability to addictive-like eating behavior;
Relationship between addictive-like eating and other addictive disorders, including substance-related disorders and behavioral addictions;
Clinical, epidemiological, genetic, neuroimaging, or preclinical studies;
Treatment strategies;
Discussion about the terms used to describe the addictive-like eating phenotype (e.g., food addiction versus eating addiction).

Dr. Paul Brunault
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Food addiction
Eating addiction
Addictive-like eating behaviour
Compulsive eating behaviour
Impulsive compulsive spectrum disorders
Co-occurring psychiatric disorders
Obesity
Addictive disorders
Eating disorders
Binge eating disorder
Psychiatry
Psychology
Psychopathology
Neurobiology

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

6 pages, 213 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Inter-Individual Differences in Food Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior

by Paul Brunault and Nicolas Ballon

Nutrients 2021, 13(2), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020325 - 23 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2531

Abstract

The “addictive-like eating behavior” phenotype encompasses different terms or concepts, including “food addiction” (FA), “eating addiction” or “compulsive eating behavior” [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

15 pages, 300 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Food Addiction and Cognitive Functioning: What Happens in Adolescents?

by Christopher Rodrigue, Sylvain Iceta and Catherine Bégin

Nutrients 2020, 12(12), 3633; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123633 - 26 Nov 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2763

Abstract

This study aimed to examine cognitive factors associated to food addiction (FA) symptoms in a non-clinical sample of adolescents. A group of 25 adolescents (12–18 years; Mean age = 15.2 years) with a high level of FA symptoms (two and more) were compared to a control group without FA symptoms (n = 25), matched on sex and age, on four Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) neuropsychological tasks (MT: Multitasking Test; OTS: One Touch Stockings of Cambridge; SST: Stop Signal Task; RVP: Rapid Visual Information Processing). They were also compared on self-reported questionnaires assessing binge eating, depressive and anxiety symptoms, impulsivity levels, as well as executive functioning difficulties. Group comparisons did not show significant differences on neuropsychological tasks’ performances. However, effect sizes’ estimates showed small to medium effect sizes on three scores: adolescents with a high level of FA symptoms showed a higher probability of an error following an incorrect answer (OTS), a higher probability of false alarm, and a poorer target sensitivity (RVP). When referring to self-reported measurements, they reported significantly more executive functioning difficulties, more binge eating, depressive symptoms and higher impulsivity levels. Overall, results suggested that cognitive difficulties related to FA symptoms seem to manifest themselves more clearly when assessing daily activities with a self-reported questionnaire, which in turn are strongly related to overeating behaviors and psychological symptoms. Future longitudinal research is needed to examine the evolution of those variables, their relationships, and contribution in obesity onset. More precisely, the present findings highlighted the importance of affective difficulties related to this condition, as well as the need to take them into account in its assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

14 pages, 1330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Response Inhibition Training on Food Consumption and Implicit Attitudes toward Food among Female Restrained Eaters

by Noam Weinbach, Eldad Keha, Hila Leib and Eyal Kalanthroff

Nutrients 2020, 12(12), 3609; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123609 - 24 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2457

Abstract

Restrained eaters display difficulties engaging in self-control in the presence of food. Undergoing cognitive training to form associations between palatable food and response inhibition was found to improve self-control and influence eating behaviors. The present study assessed the impact of two such response inhibition trainings on food consumption, food-related anxiety, and implicit attitudes toward food among female restrained eaters (Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire-restrained eating subscale ≥ 2.5). In Experiment 1, 64 restrained eaters completed either one of two training procedures in which they were asked to classify food vs. non-food images: a food-response training, in which stop cues were always associated with non-food images, or a balanced food-response/inhibition training, in which participants inhibited motor actions to food and non-food stimuli equally. The results revealed reduced snack consumption following the food-response/inhibition training compared to the food-response training. The food-response training was associated with increased levels of food-related anxiety. In Experiment 2, the same training procedures were administered to 47 restrained eaters, and implicit attitudes toward palatable foods were assessed. The results revealed an increase in positive implicit attitudes toward palatable foods in the food-response/inhibition group but not in the food-response training group. The results suggest that balancing response inhibition and execution across food and non-food stimuli may reduce overeating while retaining positive attitudes toward food among female restrained eaters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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22 pages, 2618 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prisoners of Addictive Cues: Biobehavioral Markers of Overweight and Obese Adults with Food Addiction

by Roni Aviram-Friedman, Lior Kafri, Guy Baz, Uri Alyagon and Abraham Zangen

Nutrients 2020, 12(11), 3563; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113563 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3369

Abstract

Obesity is associated with food and eating addiction (FA), but the biobehavioral markers of this condition are poorly understood. To characterize FA, we recruited 18 healthy controls and overweight/obese adults with (n = 31) and without (n = 17) FA (H-C, FAOB, NFAOB, respectively) to assess alpha brain asymmetry at rest using electroencephalogram; event-related potentials following exposure to high-calorie food (HCF), low-calorie food (LCF), and nonfood (NF) images in a Stroop paradigm; reaction time reflective of the Stroop bias; and symptoms of depression and disordered eating behavior. The FAOB group had the greatest emotional and uncontrollable eating, depressive, and binge-eating symptoms. The FAOB group displayed lower resting left alpha brain asymmetry than that of the NFAOB group. Differently from the other groups, the FAOB group presented attenuated Stroop bias following exposure to HCF relative to NF images, as well as a lower late positive potential component (LPPb; 450–495 ms) in both frontal and occipital regions. In the total cohort, a correlation was found between the Stroop bias and the LPPb amplitude. These results point to biobehavioral hypervigilance in response to addictive food triggers in overweight/obese adults with FA. This resembles other addictive disorders but is absent in overweight/obesity without FA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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15 pages, 322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contributions of Emotional Overload, Emotion Dysregulation, and Impulsivity to Eating Patterns in Obese Patients with Binge Eating Disorder and Seeking Bariatric Surgery

by Farid Benzerouk, Zoubir Djerada, Eric Bertin, Sarah Barrière, Fabien Gierski and Arthur Kaladjian

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 3099; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12103099 - 12 Oct 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4939

Abstract

Background: Binge eating disorder (BED) is very frequently observed in patients considered for weight loss surgery and seems to influence their outcome critically. Literature highlights a global emotional overload in individuals with BED, but little is known on the mechanisms involved. The present study aimed to focus on emotion regulation, impulsivity, depression, and anxiety in people with and without BED and fulfilling inclusion criteria for bariatric surgery. Doing so, we sought to individualize factors related to BED. Then, we examined the contribution of depression, anxiety, emotion regulation difficulties, and impulsivity to inappropriate eating behaviors observed in patients with BED. Methods: A sample of 121 individuals (79.3% female, mean age: 40.82 ± 9.26, mean current body mass index (BMI): 44.92 kg/m² ± 7.55) seeking bariatric surgery were recruited at the Champagne Ardenne Specialized Center in Obesity in Reims, France from November 2017 to October 2018. They were stratified as with or without BED according to the binge eating scale. Characteristics identified in univariate analyses as differentiating the two groups were then included in multivariable analyses. Results: Multivariable analyses showed that limited access to emotional regulation strategies was significantly associated with BED. Furthermore, inappropriate eating behaviors were independently associated with age, depression severity, anxiety, emotional dysregulation, and impulsivity in BED group. Conclusions: The present findings are indicative of an association between emotion deficit and BED in obese patients seeking bariatric surgery. Patients with BED could benefit from the addition of an emotion regulation intervention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

13 pages, 673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Retrospective Childhood Maltreatment on Eating Disorders as Mediated by Food Addiction: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Rami Bou Khalil, Ghassan Sleilaty, Sami Richa, Maude Seneque, Sylvain Iceta, Rachel Rodgers, Adrian Alacreu-Crespo, Laurent Maimoun, Patrick Lefebvre, Eric Renard, Philippe Courtet and Sebastien Guillaume

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 2969; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102969 - 28 Sep 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4617

Abstract

Background: The current study aimed to test whether food addiction (FA) might mediate the relationship between the presence of a history of childhood maltreatment and eating disorder (ED) symptom severity. Methods: Participants were 231 patients with ED presenting between May 2017 and January 2020 to a daycare treatment facility for assessment and management with mainly the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2), the Child Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), and the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS 2.0). Results: Participants had a median age of 24 (interquartile range (IQR) 20–33) years and manifested anorexia nervosa (61.47%), bulimia nervosa (16.88%), binge-eating disorders (9.09%), and other types of ED (12.55%). They were grouped into those likely presenting FA (N = 154) and those without FA (N = 77). The group with FA reported higher scores on all five CTQ subscales, as well as the total score of the EDI-2 (p < 0.001). Using mediation analysis; significant indirect pathways between all CTQ subscales and the EDI-2 total score emerged via FA, with the largest indirect effect emerging for physical neglect (standardized effect = 0.208; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.127–0.29) followed by emotional abuse (standardized effect = 0.183; 95% CI 0.109–0.262). Conclusion: These results are compatible with a model in which certain types of childhood maltreatment, especially physical neglect, may induce, maintain, and/or exacerbate ED symptoms via FA which may guide future treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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18 pages, 653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Psycho-Affective Roots of Obesity: Results from a French Study in the General Population

by Lena Bourdier, Melina Fatseas, Anne-Solène Maria, Arnaud Carre and Sylvie Berthoz

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 2962; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102962 - 28 Sep 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4161

Abstract

The aim of the study was to examine the extent to which obese people differ in their emotionally driven and addictive-like eating behaviors from normal-weight and overweight people. A total of 1142 participants were recruited from a general population, by a web-based cross-sectional survey assessing anxiety/depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), emotional eating (Emotional Appetite Questionnaire), food addiction (modified Yale Food Addiction Scale), and intuitive eating (Intuitive Eating Scale-2). The statistical design was based on analyses of (co)variance, correlograms, and mediations. A set of Body Mass Index (BMI) group comparisons showed that obese people reported higher levels of depression and emotional eating and that they experienced more severe and frequent food addiction symptoms than overweight and normal-weight people. Associations between anxiety, depression, food addiction symptoms’ count, and the difficulties to rely on hunger and satiety cues were found across all weight classes, suggesting that addictive-like eating may represent a unique phenotype of problematic eating behavior that is not synonymous with high BMI or obesity. Conversely, the interrelation between anxiety/depression, emotional eating, and the difficulties to rely on hunger and satiety cues was found only among obese participants, and negative emotional eating mediated the association between depression and anxiety and the difficulties to rely on hunger and satiety cues. This study emphasizes the necessity to develop more comprehensive approaches integrating emotional dysregulation and addictive-like eating behaviors to improve weight management and quality of life of obese people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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19 pages, 505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Food Addiction among Female Patients Seeking Treatment for an Eating Disorder: Prevalence and Associated Factors

by Marie Fauconnier, Morgane Rousselet, Paul Brunault, Elsa Thiabaud, Sylvain Lambert, Bruno Rocher, Gaëlle Challet-Bouju and Marie Grall-Bronnec

Nutrients 2020, 12(6), 1897; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061897 - 26 Jun 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5914

Abstract

The concept of “food addiction” (FA) has aroused much focus because of evidence for similarities between overeating and substance use disorders (SUDs). However, few studies have explored this concept among the broad spectrum of eating disorders (ED), especially in anorexia nervosa (AN). This study aimed to assess FA prevalence in ED female patients and to determine its associated factors. We recruited a total of 195 adult women with EDs from an ED treatment center. The prevalence of FA diagnosis (Yale Food Addiction Scale) in the whole ED sample was 83.6%; AN restrictive type (AN-R), 61.5%; AN binge-eating/purging type (AN-BP), 87.9%; bulimia nervosa (BN), 97.6%; and binge-eating disorder (BED), 93.3%. The most frequently met criteria of FA were “clinically significant impairment or distress in relation to food”, “craving” and “persistent desire or repeated unsuccessful attempts to cut down”. An FA diagnosis was independently associated with three variables: presence of recurrent episodes of binge eating, ED severity, and lower interoceptive awareness. In showing an overlap between ED and FA, this study allows for considering EDs, and AN-R in particular, from an “addictive point of view”, and thus for designing therapeutic management that draws from those proposed for addictive disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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Review

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24 pages, 1307 KiB

Open AccessReview

Meeting of Minds around Food Addiction: Insights from Addiction Medicine, Nutrition, Psychology, and Neurosciences

by Aymery Constant, Romain Moirand, Ronan Thibault and David Val-Laillet

Nutrients 2020, 12(11), 3564; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113564 - 20 Nov 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9011

Abstract

This review, focused on food addiction (FA), considers opinions from specialists with different expertise in addiction medicine, nutrition, health psychology, and behavioral neurosciences. The concept of FA is a recurring issue in the clinical description of abnormal eating. Even though some tools have been developed to diagnose FA, such as the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) questionnaire, the FA concept is not recognized as an eating disorder (ED) so far and is even not mentioned in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders version 5 (DSM-5) or the International Classification of Disease (ICD-11). Its triggering mechanisms and relationships with other substance use disorders (SUD) need to be further explored. Food addiction (FA) is frequent in the overweight or obese population, but it remains unclear whether it could articulate with obesity-related comorbidities. As there is currently no validated therapy against FA in obese patients, FA is often underdiagnosed and untreated, so that FA may partly explain failure of obesity treatment, addiction transfer, and weight regain after obesity surgery. Future studies should assess whether a dedicated management of FA is associated with better outcomes, especially after obesity surgery. For prevention and treatment purposes, it is necessary to promote a comprehensive psychological approach to FA. Understanding the developmental process of FA and identifying precociously some high-risk profiles can be achieved via the exploration of the environmental, emotional, and cognitive components of eating, as well as their relationships with emotion management, some personality traits, and internalized weight stigma. Under the light of behavioral neurosciences and neuroimaging, FA reveals a specific brain phenotype that is characterized by anomalies in the reward and inhibitory control processes. These anomalies are likely to disrupt the emotional, cognitive, and attentional spheres, but further research is needed to disentangle their complex relationship and overlap with obesity and other forms of SUD. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment must rely on a multidisciplinary coherence to adapt existing strategies to FA management and to provide social and emotional support to these patients suffering from highly stigmatized medical conditions, namely overweight and addiction. Multi-level interventions could combine motivational interviews, cognitive behavioral therapies, and self-help groups, while benefiting from modern exploratory and interventional tools to target specific neurocognitive processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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26 pages, 1118 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Melanocortin System behind the Dysfunctional Eating Behaviors

by Emanuela Micioni Di Bonaventura, Luca Botticelli, Daniele Tomassoni, Seyed Khosrow Tayebati, Maria Vittoria Micioni Di Bonaventura and Carlo Cifani

Nutrients 2020, 12(11), 3502; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113502 - 14 Nov 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4337

Abstract

The dysfunction of melanocortin signaling has been associated with obesity, given the important role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, food intake, satiety and body weight. In the hypothalamus, the melanocortin-3 receptor (MC3R) and melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) contribute to the stability of these processes, but MC3R and MC4R are also localized in the mesolimbic dopamine system, the region that responds to the reinforcing properties of highly palatable food (HPF) and where these two receptors seem to affect food reward and motivation. Loss of function of the MC4R, resulting from genetic mutations, leads to overeating in humans, but to date, a clear understanding of the underlying mechanisms and behaviors that promote overconsumption of caloric foods remains unknown. Moreover, the MC4R demonstrated to be a crucial modulator of the stress response, factor that is known to be strictly related to binge eating behavior. In this review, we will explore the preclinical and clinical studies, and the controversies regarding the involvement of melanocortin system in altered eating patterns, especially binge eating behavior, food reward and motivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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30 pages, 1500 KiB

Open AccessReview

Negative Affectivity and Emotion Dysregulation as Mediators between ADHD and Disordered Eating: A Systematic Review

by Sarah El Archi, Samuele Cortese, Nicolas Ballon, Christian Réveillère, Arnaud De Luca, Servane Barrault and Paul Brunault

Nutrients 2020, 12(11), 3292; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113292 - 27 Oct 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7787

Abstract

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with disordered eating, especially addictive-like eating behavior (i.e., binge eating, food addiction, loss of control overeating). The exact mechanisms underlying this association are unclear. ADHD and addictive-like eating behavior are both associated with negative affectivity and emotion dysregulation, which we hypothesized are mediators of this relationship. The purpose of this systematic review was to review the evidence related to this hypothesis from studies assessing the relationship between childhood or adulthood ADHD symptomatology, negative affectivity, emotion dysregulation and addictive-like eating behavior. The systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) recommendations. The literature search was conducted in PubMed and PsycINFO (publication date: January 2015 to August 2020; date of search: 2 September 2020). Out of 403 potentially relevant articles, 41 were retained; 38 publications reported that ADHD and disordered eating or addictive-like eating behavior were significantly associated, including 8 articles that suggested a mediator role of negative affectivity or emotion dysregulation. Sixteen publications reported that the association between ADHD symptomatology and disordered eating or addictive-like eating behavior differed according to gender, eating behavior and ADHD symptoms (hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention). We discuss the practical implications of these findings and directions future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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21 pages, 1224 KiB

Open AccessReview

Neuroimaging of Sex/Gender Differences in Obesity: A Review of Structure, Function, and Neurotransmission

by Danielle S. Kroll, Dana E. Feldman, Catherine L. Biesecker, Katherine L. McPherson, Peter Manza, Paule Valery Joseph, Nora D. Volkow and Gene-Jack Wang

Nutrients 2020, 12(7), 1942; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071942 - 30 Jun 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5111

Abstract

While the global prevalence of obesity has risen among both men and women over the past 40 years, obesity has consistently been more prevalent among women relative to men. Neuroimaging studies have highlighted several potential mechanisms underlying an individual’s propensity to become obese, including sex/gender differences. Obesity has been associated with structural, functional, and chemical alterations throughout the brain. Whereas changes in somatosensory regions appear to be associated with obesity in men, reward regions appear to have greater involvement in obesity among women than men. Sex/gender differences have also been observed in the neural response to taste among people with obesity. A more thorough understanding of these neural and behavioral differences will allow for more tailored interventions, including diet suggestions, for the prevention and treatment of obesity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Addiction, Eating Addiction and Other Forms of Addictive-Like Eating Behavior)

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