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15 pages, 3869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Widely Targeted Metabolomics Profiling Reveals the Effect of Powdery Mildew on Wine Grape Varieties with Different Levels of Tolerance to the Disease

by Huan Yu, Hongyan Li, Rongfu Wei, Guo Cheng, Yongmei Zhou, Jinbiao Liu, Taili Xie, Rongrong Guo and Sihong Zhou

Foods 2022, 11(16), 2461; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162461 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1887

Abstract

Powdery mildew is an economic threat for viticulture because it not only affects grape yield, but also causes a series of impacts on the qualities of fruit and wine, especially the flavors and various metabolites. Different grape varieties may have different levels of [...] Read more.

Powdery mildew is an economic threat for viticulture because it not only affects grape yield, but also causes a series of impacts on the qualities of fruit and wine, especially the flavors and various metabolites. Different grape varieties may have different levels of powdery mildew resistance/tolerance and their components of their metabolome are also various. In this study, two wine grape varieties, Guipu No.6 (GP6) and Marselan (Mar) with different levels of powdery mildew tolerance, were used to compare the quality differences in metabolism level by using the widely targeted metabolomics method. The results show that GP6 has a better powdery mildew leaf tolerance than Mar. A total of 774 metabolites were detected by using a UPLC-QQQ-MS-based metabolomics approach, and 57 differential metabolites were identified as key metabolites that were accumulated after infection with powdery mildew in GP6 and Mar, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, stilbenes, lipids, nucleotides and derivatives, lignans and coumarins, and quinones. This finding indicates that the defense mechanisms of grape fruit are mainly associated with phenylpropane-flavonoid metabolism. Specifically, stilbenes had greater variations after powdery mildew infection in GP6; while in Mar, the variations of flavonoids, especially kaempferol-3-O-glucuronide and luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, were more remarkable. The above results demonstrate that stilbenes may play a more important role than flavonoids in resisting powdery mildew infection in GP6’s fruits, and the drastic variations of these phenolic compounds in different wine grapes after powdery mildew infection might also lead to quality difference in the flavors. This study can provide new insights into the understanding of the cause of powdery mildew tolerance in different grape varieties and the effects on the quality of wine grapes infected with the disease exerted by metabolism level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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16 pages, 8519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Characterization of Malolactic Bacteria Isolated from the Eastern Foothills of Helan Mountain in China

by Jingxian Sun, Yuzi Ge, Xiaobo Gu, Ruyi Li, Wen Ma and Gang Jin

Foods 2022, 11(16), 2455; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162455 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1625

Abstract

Malolactic fermentation (MLF) converts malic acid into lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). MLF may affect potential wine quality impact as global warming intensifies, and the alcohol in the wine increases, which threatens MLF. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum is considered a new generation of [...] Read more.

Malolactic fermentation (MLF) converts malic acid into lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria (LAB). MLF may affect potential wine quality impact as global warming intensifies, and the alcohol in the wine increases, which threatens MLF. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum is considered a new generation of MLF starter because of the ability of high ethanol tolerance and good enological characteristics. In this research, 132 LAB strains were isolated from the eastern foothills of Helan Mountain in Ningxia, China. Twenty-one higher ethanol tolerance isolates were obtained by 15% (v/v) ethanol preliminary screening. They were identified by 16S rRNA sequencing and differentiated by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Stress factors include ethanol, pH, and SO₂, and the combination of stresses was used to screen stress-tolerance strains. β-D-glucosidase activity, MLF performance, and biogenic amine content were tested to evaluate the enological characteristics. GC-MS detected the volatile components of the wine after MLF. The results showed that twenty strains were identified as L. plantarum, and one strain was Lentilactobacillus hilgardii. Especially, the strains of A7, A18, A23, A50, and B28 showed strong resistance to high ethanol, low pH, and high SO₂. A7, A50, and B28 showed better β-D-glucosidase activity and thus were inoculated into cabernet sauvignon wines whose ethanol content was 14.75% (v/v) to proceed MLF. A7 finished MLF in 36 d, while the control strains Oenococcus oeni 31-DH and L. plantarum BV-S2 finished MLF in 24 d and 28 d, respectively. Nevertheless, A50 and B28 did not finish MLF in 36 d. The data showed that A7 brought a more volatile aroma than control. Notably, the esters and terpenes in the wine increased. These results demonstrated the potential applicability of L. plantarum A7 as a new MLF starter culture, especially for high-ethanol wines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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14 pages, 1361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Characterization of High-Ethanol-Tolerance Lactic Acid Bacteria from Australian Wine

by Gang Jin, Vladimir Jiranek, Aaron Mark Hayes and Paul R. Grbin

Foods 2022, 11(9), 1231; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11091231 - 25 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2221

Abstract

Lactic acid bacteria are very important in winemaking. In this study, 108 lactic acid bacteria isolates were obtained from high-ethanol-content (~17% (v/v)) Grenache wines during uninoculated malolactic fermentation (MLF). The 16S rRNA and species-specific PCR showed that 104 of [...] Read more.

Lactic acid bacteria are very important in winemaking. In this study, 108 lactic acid bacteria isolates were obtained from high-ethanol-content (~17% (v/v)) Grenache wines during uninoculated malolactic fermentation (MLF). The 16S rRNA and species-specific PCR showed that 104 of these were Oenococcusoeni, three were Lactobacillus hilgardii, and one was Staphylococcus pasteuri. AFLP of HindIII and MseI digests of the genomic DNA of the O. oeni strains was developed for the first time to discriminate the strains. The results showed that the method was a suitable technique for discriminating the O. oeni strains. Based on the cluster analysis, nine O. oeni strains were chosen for inclusion in an ethanol tolerance assay involving monitoring of optical density (ABS_600nm) and viable plating. Several O. oeni strains (G63, G46, G71, G39) survived and grew well in MRS-AJ with 17% (v/v) ethanol, while the commercial O. oeni reference strain did not. Strain G63 could also survive and grow for 168 h after inoculation in MRS-AJ medium with 19% (v/v) ethanol. These results suggest that O. oeni G63, G46, G71, and G39 could potentially be used as MLF starters for high-ethanol-content wines. All three L. hilgardii strains could survive and grow in MRS-AJ with 19% (v/v) ethanol, perhaps also indicating their suitability as next-generation MLF starter cultures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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16 pages, 3900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cold Stabilization Duration on Organic Acids and Aroma Compounds during Vitis vinifera L. cv. Riesling Wine Bottle Storage

by Nongyu Xia, Haotian Cheng, Xuechen Yao, Qiuhong Pan, Nan Meng and Qingquan Yu

Foods 2022, 11(9), 1179; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11091179 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1890

Abstract

During the storage of wines in bottles, especially white wines, tartrate crystallization often occurs, which reduces the commercial value of the wines and therefore needs to be avoided by performing cold stabilization treatments before bottling. However, whether different cold treatment durations impact the [...] Read more.

During the storage of wines in bottles, especially white wines, tartrate crystallization often occurs, which reduces the commercial value of the wines and therefore needs to be avoided by performing cold stabilization treatments before bottling. However, whether different cold treatment durations impact the quality of a wine’s aroma has not yet been of special concern. This research was conducted at an industrial scale to explore how cold treatments at −5.3 °C for 10 to 15 days impact the organic acids, aroma compounds, and sensory quality of Riesling dry white wines, and the variation was documented at the end of treatment, and at 6 and 12 months of bottle storage. The results showed that cold treatments significantly reduced tartaric acid concentrations and significantly affected the concentrations of most aroma components in the wines only after 12 months of bottle storage, including the main components of esters, norisoprenoids, terpenoids, and furfural. Moreover, the concentrations of some components showed an increasing trend with the bottle storage, especially 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (TDN), the characteristic volatile of Riesling wine, suggesting that an acidic condition resulting from cold treatment might facilitate the conversion of some aroma precursors into volatiles. In conclusion, cold stabilization treatments, within limits, can improve tartaric acid stability and could promote the conservation of aroma compounds during bottle storage without adversely affecting the aroma profile of the wines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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21 pages, 1113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Different Oak Chips’ Aging on the Volatile Compounds and Sensory Characteristics of Vitis amurensis Wines

by Yanxia Yu, Lingxi Li, Ruowei Xue, Chen Wang, Mengying Chen, João Ramos, Shuting Zhang and Baoshan Sun

Foods 2022, 11(8), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11081126 - 14 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2133

Abstract

In this work, different oak chips were used to age Vitis amurensis wine, and the effects on sensory properties were observed. Twenty-one different oak chips were added to a one-year-old wine made by a traditional technique. The wine was aged for 6 months [...] Read more.

In this work, different oak chips were used to age Vitis amurensis wine, and the effects on sensory properties were observed. Twenty-one different oak chips were added to a one-year-old wine made by a traditional technique. The wine was aged for 6 months before analysis by CIELab for color parameters, GC–MS for volatile compounds, and electronic tongue and a tasting panel for sensory properties. The results showed that the addition of any tested oak chip could significantly strengthen the wine’s red color. Among 61 volatile compounds, alcohols presented the highest concentrations (873 to 1401 mg/L), followed by esters (568 to 1039 mg/L) and organic acids (157 to 435 mg/L), while aldehydes and volatile phenols occurred at low concentrations. Different oak species with different toasting levels could affect, to varying degrees, the concentrations of esters, alcohols, and volatile phenols, but to a lesser extent those of aldehydes. Sensory analysis by a tasting panel indicated that non- and moderately roasted oak chips gave the wines higher scores than those with heavy toasting levels. The major mouthfeel descriptors determined by electronic tongue were in good agreement with those from the tasting panel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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14 pages, 9662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving an Industrial Sherry Base Wine by Yeast Enhancement Strategies

by Marina Ruiz-Muñoz, Gustavo Cordero-Bueso, Pedro Miguel Izquierdo-Cañas, Adela Mena-Morales and Jesús M. Cantoral

Foods 2022, 11(8), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11081104 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1836

Abstract

There is growing interest in yeast selection for industrial fermentation applications since it is a factor that protects a wine’s identity. Although it is strenuous evaluating the oenological characteristics of yeasts in selection processes, in many cases the most riveting yeasts produce some [...] Read more.

There is growing interest in yeast selection for industrial fermentation applications since it is a factor that protects a wine’s identity. Although it is strenuous evaluating the oenological characteristics of yeasts in selection processes, in many cases the most riveting yeasts produce some undesirable organoleptic characteristics in wine. The aim of the present work is to improve an industrial yeast strain by reducing its hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) production. To accomplish this, two different improvement approaches were used on said yeast: hybridization by mass mating and adaptive laboratory evolution, both performed through spore generation and conjugation, thus increasing genetic variability. Three evolved variants with lower H₂S production were obtained and used as starters to carry out fermentation at an industrial level. Wine quality was analyzed by its principal oenological parameters and volatile aroma compounds, which were both corroborated by sensory evaluations. Significant differences between the produced wines have been obtained and a substantial improvement in aromatic quality has been achieved. Both hybrids were the most different to the control due to terpenes and esters production, while the evolved strain was very similar to the parental strain. Not only have organoleptic defects been reduced at an industrial level, more floral and fruitier wines have been produced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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14 pages, 861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enzymatic Characterization of Purified β-Glucosidase from Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts and Application on Chardonnay Aging

by Pingping Gao, Faisal Eudes Sam, Bo Zhang, Shuai Peng, Min Li and Jing Wang

Foods 2022, 11(6), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11060852 - 17 Mar 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2307

Abstract

The application of β-glucosidase from non-Saccharomyces yeasts to improve wine aroma has been widely explored. However, few enzymes are active under the severe conditions of wine aging (high ethanol concentration, low temperature, and low pH). Therefore, the application of β-glucosidase [...] Read more.

The application of β-glucosidase from non-Saccharomyces yeasts to improve wine aroma has been widely explored. However, few enzymes are active under the severe conditions of wine aging (high ethanol concentration, low temperature, and low pH). Therefore, the application of β-glucosidase in wine aging needs further research. In this study, the β-glucosidases Mg-βgl and Hu-βgl extracted from Meyerozyma guilliermondii NM218 and Hanseniaspora uvarum BF345 were purified and used in young Chardonnay wines aged for 50 days. The enzyme activity of the two enzymes was measured. The effects of the two enzymes and a commercial β-glucosidase (An-βgl) on the volatile composition and sensory quality of the wine were also determined. The results showed that Mg-βgl and Hu-βgl had high specific activity of 1.95 U/mg and 2.11 U/mg, respectively, maintaining the activity of 70–80% at 20 °C, pH of 3.0–4.0, and 15% ethanol, corresponding to wine aging conditions. Analysis of volatiles with GC-MS showed a 65–70% increase in total terpenoids and new detection of C₁₃-norisoprenoids when the wines were treated with the three β-glucosidases. In addition, wines treated with Mg-βgl and Hu-βgl had more hexanol, phenylethanol, ethyl octanoate, ethyl heptanoate, and ethyl caprate than wines treated without and with An-βgl. In sensory analysis, the judges showed a greater preference for Hu-βgl-treated wines, to which they attributed pleasant sweet, floral, honey, pomelo, and banana aromas. The results of this study not only offer a way to improve flavor complexity in wine but also provide a reference for the use of other edible sources of β-glucosidase in wine aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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17 pages, 1341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regional Variation of Chemical Characteristics in Young Marselan (Vitis vinifera L.) Red Wines from Five Regions of China

by Yibin Lan, Min Liu, Xinke Zhang, Siyu Li, Ying Shi and Changqing Duan

Foods 2022, 11(6), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11060787 - 09 Mar 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2375

Abstract

The environmental conditions of wine regions determine the flavor characteristics of wine. The characterization of the chemical composition and sensory profiles of young Marselan wines from five wine-producing regions in China was investigated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS), high-performance liquid chromatography–triple-quadrupole MS/MS and [...] Read more.

The environmental conditions of wine regions determine the flavor characteristics of wine. The characterization of the chemical composition and sensory profiles of young Marselan wines from five wine-producing regions in China was investigated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS), high-performance liquid chromatography–triple-quadrupole MS/MS and descriptive analysis. Young Marselan wines can be successful discriminated based on concentrations of volatile compounds, but not phenolic compounds, by orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis according to regions. Compared to Jiaodong Peninsula (JDP) and Bohai Bay (BHB) regions, there were relatively lower average concentrations of varietal volatiles (mainly including β-citronellol, geraniol, and (E)-β-damasenone) and several fermentation aroma compounds (including isoamyl acetate, octanoic acid, decanoic acid, ethyl decanoate, etc.) but higher levels of acetic acid in Xinjiang (XJ), Loess Plateau (LP), and Huaizhuo Basin (HZB) regions, which were related to their characteristic environmental conditions. Marselan wines from HZB, LP, and XJ regions were characterized by lower L values and higher a and C_ab values. Marselan wines from XJ were discriminated from the wines from other regions due to their higher concentrations of several flavonols. Sensory analysis indicated that Marselan wines from HZB region were characterized by relatively low intensities of floral and fruity aromas compared to other regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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21 pages, 2004 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Evolution of Volatile Compounds of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines from Two Different Clones during Oak Barrel Aging

by Xu Qian, Fangyuan Jia, Jian Cai, Ying Shi, Changqing Duan and Yibin Lan

Foods 2022, 11(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11010074 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1980

Abstract

Xinjiang is a major wine-making region in China, but its hot climate in summer and intense sun exposure negatively affect the aroma quality of Cabernet Sauvignon wine. The aim of this study was to characterize and differentiate the volatile composition of Cabernet Sauvignon [...] Read more.

Xinjiang is a major wine-making region in China, but its hot climate in summer and intense sun exposure negatively affect the aroma quality of Cabernet Sauvignon wine. The aim of this study was to characterize and differentiate the volatile composition of Cabernet Sauvignon wines from two clones (169 and 191) in Xinjiang, and to study their aromatic profile evolution during 12-month oak barrel aging period. Results showed that before aging, clone 169 wine contained higher concentrations of several alcohols and ethyl esters, while acetate esters and furanic compounds were higher in clone 191 wine. After aging, levels of many terpenes, norisoprenoids, volatile phenols and phenolic aldehydes were significantly higher in clone 169 wine than 191 wine. Aroma series analysis revealed that clone 169 wine exhibited higher floral and roasty aromas after aging, while clone 191 wine had stronger chemical aroma. Principal component analysis indicated that aging process played a primary role in the alteration of volatile profile in these wines. Clone played a secondary role and oak barrel had a tertiary contribution to the variation. The present work indicates that clone 169 is a better choice for producing high-quality aged Cabernet Sauvignon wine with intense and elegant aroma in Xinjiang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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14 pages, 2452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flavor Chemical Profiles of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines: Six Vintages from 2013 to 2018 from the Eastern Foothills of the Ningxia Helan Mountains in China

by Xue Zhang, Keqing Wang, Xiaobo Gu, Xiaohan Sun, Gang Jin, Junxiang Zhang and Wen Ma

Foods 2022, 11(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11010022 - 23 Dec 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2966

Abstract

The eastern foothills of the Helan Mountains in the Ningxia region (Ningxia), is a Chinese wine-producing region, where Cabernet Sauvignon is the main grape cultivar; however, little compositional or flavor information has been reported on Ningxia wines. Oenological parameters, volatile profiles, and phenolic [...] Read more.

The eastern foothills of the Helan Mountains in the Ningxia region (Ningxia), is a Chinese wine-producing region, where Cabernet Sauvignon is the main grape cultivar; however, little compositional or flavor information has been reported on Ningxia wines. Oenological parameters, volatile profiles, and phenolic profiles were determined for 98 Ningxia Cabernet Sauvignon wines from the 2013–2018 vintages, as well as 16 from Bordeaux and California, for comparison. Ningxia wines were characterized by high ethanol, low acidity, and high anthocyanin contents. Multivariate analysis revealed that citronellol and 12 characteristic phenolic compounds distinguish Ningxia wines from Bordeaux and California wines. The concentrations of most phenolic compounds were highest in the 2018 Ningxia vintage and decreased with the age of the vintage. To our knowledge, this is the first extensive regionality study on red wines from the Ningxia region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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20 pages, 6395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomics Integrated with Metabolomics Reveals the Effect of Cluster Thinning on Monoterpene Biosynthesis in ‘Muscat Hamburg’ Grape

by Xiaofeng Yue, Yanlun Ju, Yulin Fang and Zhenwen Zhang

Foods 2021, 10(11), 2718; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112718 - 06 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

Monoterpenes are crucial to floral and fruit aromas in grapes and wines. Cluster thinning is a common practice for improving grape quality. Using Vitis vinifera cv. Muscat Hamburg, the effects of three cluster-thinning regimes on the biosynthesis and accumulation of monoterpenes from véraison [...] Read more.

Monoterpenes are crucial to floral and fruit aromas in grapes and wines. Cluster thinning is a common practice for improving grape quality. Using Vitis vinifera cv. Muscat Hamburg, the effects of three cluster-thinning regimes on the biosynthesis and accumulation of monoterpenes from véraison to harvest were investigated at the transcriptomics and targeted metabolomics levels. It was observed that more intense thinning produced higher concentrations of total monoterpenes, particularly in their bound forms. The numbers of differentially expressed genes among the three treatments were 193, 200, and 238 at the three developmental stages. In total, 10 modules were identified from a weighted gene correlation network analysis, and one module including 492 unigenes was associated with monoterpene metabolism. These findings provide new insights into the molecular basis of the relationship between cluster thinning and monoterpene biosynthesis in Muscat Hamburg grape. Cluster thinning could be carefully considered for its application in production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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Review

Jump to: Research

38 pages, 1672 KiB

Open AccessReview

Techniques for Dealcoholization of Wines: Their Impact on Wine Phenolic Composition, Volatile Composition, and Sensory Characteristics

by Faisal Eudes Sam, Teng-Zhen Ma, Rafia Salifu, Jing Wang, Yu-Mei Jiang, Bo Zhang and Shun-Yu Han

Foods 2021, 10(10), 2498; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102498 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8958

Abstract

The attention of some winemakers and researchers over the past years has been drawn towards the partial or total dealcoholization of wines and alcoholic beverages due to trends in wine styles, and the effect of climate change on wine alcohol content. To achieve [...] Read more.

The attention of some winemakers and researchers over the past years has been drawn towards the partial or total dealcoholization of wines and alcoholic beverages due to trends in wine styles, and the effect of climate change on wine alcohol content. To achieve this, different techniques have been used at the various stages of winemaking, among which the physical dealcoholization techniques, particularly membrane separation (nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, evaporative perstraction, and pervaporation) and thermal distillation (vacuum distillation and spinning cone column), have shown promising results and hence are being used for commercial production. However, the removal of alcohol by these techniques can cause changes in color and losses of desirable volatile aroma compounds, which can subsequently affect the sensory quality and acceptability of the wine by consumers. Aside from the removal of ethanol, other factors such as the ethanol concentration, the kind of alcohol removal technique, the retention properties of the wine non-volatile matrix, and the chemical-physical properties of the aroma compounds can influence changes in the wine sensory quality during dealcoholization. This review highlights and summarizes some of the techniques for wine dealcoholization and their impact on wine quality to help winemakers in choosing the best technique to limit adverse effects in dealcoholized wines and to help meet the needs and acceptance among different targeted consumers such as younger people, pregnant women, drivers, and teetotalers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wine Flavor Chemistry and Its Metabolic Mechanism)

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