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Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety

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A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Quality and Safety".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 28579

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Prof. Dr. Hongtao Lei

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Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety/National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Machining and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
Interests: food authenticity; biosensor; chemometrics; food safety; food analysis; immunoassay; antibody engineering; hapten design
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Zhanhui Wang

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Beijing Key Laboratory of Detection Technology for Animal-Derived Food, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
Interests: hapten design for chemical compound in food; production of recognition materials; immunoassay for food safety; food science and quality; antibiotic resistance; environmental drugs and toxins; veterinary medicine; zoonosis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Sergei A. Eremin

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Department of Chemical Enzymology, Faculty of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119998 Moscow, Russia
Interests: immunoassay; Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay; hapten design; environmental chemistry; food analysis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Immunoassays are a class of analytical techniques wherein the reaction is based on highly specific molecular recognition between antibodies and antigens. Immunoassay has played a prominent role in the rapid detection of various analytes in food, including pesticides, veterinary drugs, heavy metals, hormones, allergens, food adulterants, natural components, biomarkers in food materials, etc.

Immunoreagents for food analysis are continuously developing during the last three decades, with hapten design leading to the possibility of using antibodies against non-common low molecular weight antigens and quantitative structure–activity relationship investigations, and structure biology approaches assisting toward a better understanding of the molecular recognition of epitope and antibody. In addition, novel antibodies such as various recombinant or fragment antibodies have contributed to the identification of various novel characteristics of antibodies in food safety.

A wide range of immunoassays have emerged in endlessly, ranging from conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and point-of-care tests typically represented by lateral flow immunochromatography assay (LFIA) to biosensors with various principles, full integration of lab-on-a-chip platforms, microfluidics, sensibilization employing novel nanomaterials, miniaturization and interfacing of portable devices, especially emerging smart system technologies equipped with intelligent smart phones, etc. New technologies are promoting the development of immunoassays and their application in food safety.

Thus, in order to promote the use of immunoassay for future developments in food analysis, the main goal of this Special Issue is to collect manuscripts that enable increasing the recent progress and broadening the novel knowledge about antibody and immunoassay for the detection of chemical and biological analytes such as pathogen, food contaminant, food fraud, and so on in the food safety area.

Prof. Dr. Hongtao Lei
Prof. Dr. Zhanhui Wang
Prof. Dr. Sergei A. Eremin
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Foods is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

antigen
hapten
antibody
immunoassay
biosensor
food analysis
contaminant
food fraud
residue
QSAR
molecular recognition

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 178 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety

by Hongtao Lei, Zhanhui Wang, Sergei A. Eremin and Zhiwei Liu

Foods 2022, 11(6), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11060826 - 14 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1955

Abstract

This Special Issue of Foods, Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety, contains ten papers that were refereed and selected in accordance with the usual editorial standards of the journal [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

Research

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16 pages, 5350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of an Immunoaffinity Column Based on Bispecific Monoclonal Antibody for Aflatoxin B₁ and Ochratoxin A Detection Combined with ic-ELISA

by Disha Lu, Xu Wang, Ruijue Su, Yongjian Cheng, Hong Wang, Lin Luo and Zhili Xiao

Foods 2022, 11(3), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030335 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2848

Abstract

A novel and efficient immunoaffinity column (IAC) based on bispecific monoclonal antibody (BsMAb) recognizing aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and ochratoxin A (OTA) was prepared and applied in simultaneous extraction of AFB₁ and OTA from food samples and detection of AFB₁/OTA combined with ic-ELISA (indirect competitive ELISA). Two deficient cell lines, hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl-transferase (HGPRT) deficient anti-AFB₁ hybridoma cell line and thymidine kinase (TK) deficient anti-OTA hybridoma cell line, were fused to generate a hybrid-hybridoma producing BsMAb against AFB₁ and OTA. The subtype of the BsMAb was IgG₁ via mouse antibody isotyping kit test. The purity and molecular weight of BsMAb were confirmed by SDS-PAGE method. The cross-reaction rate with AFB₂ was 37%, with AFG₁ 15%, with AFM₁ 48%, with AFM₂ 10%, and with OTB 36%. Negligible cross-reaction was observed with other tested compounds. The affinity constant (Ka) was determined by ELISA. The Ka (AFB₁) and Ka (OTA) was 2.43 × 10⁸ L/mol and 1.57 × 10⁸ L/mol, respectively. Then the anti-AFB₁/OTA BsMAb was coupled with CNBr-Sepharose, and an AFB₁/OTA IAC was prepared. The coupling time and elution conditions of IAC were optimized. The coupling time was 1 h with 90% coupling rate, the eluent was methanol–water (60:40, v:v, pH 2.3) containing 1 mol/L NaCl, and the eluent volume was 4 mL. The column capacities of AFB₁ and OTA were 165.0 ng and 171.3 ng, respectively. After seven times of repeated use, the preservation rates of column capacity for AFB₁ and OTA were 69.3% and 68.0%, respectively. The ic-ELISA for AFB₁ and OTA were applied combined with IAC. The IC₅₀ (50% inhibiting concentration) of AFB₁ was 0.027 ng/mL, the limit of detection (LOD) was 0.004 ng/mL (0.032 µg/kg), and the linear range was 0.006 ng/mL~0.119 ng/mL. The IC₅₀ of OTA was 0.878 ng/mL, the LOD was 0.126 ng/mL (1.008 µg/kg), and the linear range was 0.259 ng/mL~6.178 ng/mL. Under optimum conditions, corn and wheat samples were pretreated with AFB₁-OTA IAC. The recovery rates of AFB₁ and OTA were 95.4%~105.0% with ic-ELISA, and the correlations between the detection results and LC-MS were above 0.9. The developed IAC combined with ic-ELISA is reliable and could be applied to the detection of AFB₁ and OTA in grains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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15 pages, 4724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibody Generation and Rapid Immunochromatography Using Time-Resolved Fluorescence Microspheres for Propiconazole: Fungicide Abused as Growth Regulator in Vegetable

by Bo Chen, Xing Shen, Zhaodong Li, Jin Wang, Xiangmei Li, Zhenlin Xu, Yudong Shen, Yi Lei, Xinan Huang, Xu Wang and Hongtao Lei

Foods 2022, 11(3), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030324 - 24 Jan 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2859

Abstract

Propiconazole (PCZ) is a fungicide popularly used to prevent and control wheat and rice bakanae disease, etc. However, it was recently found to be illegally employed as a plant regulator to induce thick stems and dark green leaves of Brassica campestris, a famous vegetable in Guangdong, South China. Due to a lack of available recognition molecules to the target analyte, it is still a big challenge to establish a rapid surveillance screening method. In this study, a novel chiral hapten was rationally designed, and an artificial immunogen was then prepared for the generation of a specific antibody against propiconazole for the first time. Using the obtained antibody, a highly sensitive time-resolved fluorescence microspheres lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (TRFMs-LFIA) was established with a visual limit of detection of 100 ng/mL and a quantitative limit of detection of 1.92 ng/mL for propiconazole. TRFMs-LFIA also exhibited good recoveries ranging from 78.6% to 110.7% with coefficients of variation below 16%. The analysis of blind real-life samples showed a good agreement with results obtained using HPLC-MS/MS. Therefore, the proposed method could be used as an ideal screening surveillance tool for the detection of propiconazole in vegetables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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12 pages, 3025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Endogenous Factors of Food Matrices on Avidin—Biotin Immunoassays for the Detection of Bacitracin and Colistin in Food

by Maksim A. Burkin, Inna A. Galvidis and Sergei A. Eremin

Foods 2022, 11(2), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11020219 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1824

Abstract

(Strept)avidin–biotin technology is frequently used in immunoassay systems to improve their analytical properties. It is known from clinical practice that many (strept)avidin–biotin-based tests provide false results when analyzing patient samples with a high content of endogenous biotin. No specific investigation has been carried out regarding possible interferences from avidin (AVI) and biotin (B₇) contained in food matrices in (strept)avidin–biotin-based immunoanalytical systems for food safety. Two kinds of competitive ELISAs for bacitracin (BT) and colistin (COL) determination in food matrices were developed based on conventional hapten–protein coating conjugates and biotinylated BT and COL bound to immobilized streptavidin (SAV). Coating SAV–B₇–BT and SAV–B₇–COL complexes-based ELISAs provided 2- and 15-times better sensitivity in BT and COL determination, corresponding to 0.6 and 0.3 ng/mL, respectively. Simultaneously with the determination of the main analytes, these kinds of tests were used as competitive assays for the assessment of AVI or B₇ content up to 10 and 1 ng/mL, respectively, in food matrices (egg, infant milk formulas enriched with B₇, chicken and beef liver). Matrix-free experiments with AVI/B₇-enriched solutions showed distortion of the standard curves, indicating that these ingredients interfere with the adequate quantification of analytes. Summarizing the experience of the present study, it is recommended to avoid immunoassays based on avidin–biotin interactions when analyzing biosamples containing these endogenous factors or enriched with B₇. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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14 pages, 4992 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hapten Synthesis and Monoclonal Antibody Preparation for Simultaneous Detection of Albendazole and Its Metabolites in Animal-Origin Food

by Shibei Shao, Xuping Zhou, Leina Dou, Yuchen Bai, Jiafei Mi, Wenbo Yu, Suxia Zhang, Zhanhui Wang and Kai Wen

Foods 2021, 10(12), 3106; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10123106 - 14 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2596

Abstract

Albendazole (ABZ) is one of the benzimidazole anthelmintics, and the overuse of ABZ in breeding industry can lead to drug resistance and a variety of toxic effects in humans. Since the residue markers of ABZ are the sum of ABZ and three metabolites (collectively referred to as ABZs), albendazole-sulfone (ABZSO₂), albendazole-sulfoxide (ABZSO), and albendazole-2-amino-sulfone (ABZNH₂SO₂), an antibody able to simultaneously recognize ABZs with high affinity is in urgent need to develop immunoassay for screening purpose. In this work, an unreported hapten, 5-(propylthio)-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-amine, was designed and synthesized, which maximally exposed the characteristic sulfanyl group of ABZ to the animal immune system to induce expected antibody. One monoclonal antibody (Mab) that can simultaneously detect ABZs was obtained with IC₅₀ values of 0.20, 0.26, 0.77, and 10.5 μg/L for ABZ, ABZSO₂, ABZSO, and ABZNH₂SO₂ in ic-ELISA under optimized conditions respectively, which has been never achieved in previous reports. For insight into the recognition profiles of the Mab, we used computational chemistry method to parameterize cross-reactive molecules in aspects of conformation, electrostatic fields, and hydrophobicity, revealing that the hydrophobicity and conformation of characteristic group of molecules might be the key factors that together influence antibody recognition with analytes. Furthermore, the practicability of the developed ic-ELISA was verified by detecting ABZs in spiked milk, beef, and liver samples with recoveries of 60% to 108.8% and coefficient of variation (CV) of 1.0% to 15.9%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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11 pages, 5140 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Preparation of Anti-Aristolochic Acid I Monoclonal Antibody and Development of Chemiluminescent Immunoassay and Carbon Dot-Based Fluoroimmunoassay for Sensitive Detection of Aristolochic Acid I

by Ai-Fen Ou, Zi-Jian Chen, Yi-Feng Zhang, Qi-Yi He, Zhen-Lin Xu and Su-Qing Zhao

Foods 2021, 10(11), 2647; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112647 - 01 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2073

Abstract

Aristolochic acid (AA) toxicity has been shown in humans regarding carcinogenesis, nephrotoxicity, and mutagenicity. Monitoring the AA content in drug homologous and healthy foods is necessary for the health of humans. In this study, a monoclonal antibody (mAb) with high sensitivity for aristolochic acid I (AA-I) was prepared. Based on the obtained mAb, a chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLEIA) against AA-I was developed, which showed the 50% decrease in the RLU_max (IC₅₀) value of 1.8 ng/mL and the limit of detection (LOD) of 0.4 ng/mL. Carbon dots with red emission at 620 nm, namely rCDs, were synthesized and employed in conventional indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA) to improve the assay sensitivity of a fluoroimmunoassay (FIA). Oxidized 3,3′′,5,5′′-tetramethylbenzidine dihydrochloride (oxTMB) can quench the emission of the rCDs through the inner-filter effect; therefore, the fluorescence intensity of rCDs can be regulated by the concentration of mAb. As a result, the assay sensitivity of FIA was improved by five-fold compared to CLEIA. A good relationship between the results of the proposed assays and the standard ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (UPLC-QQQ-MS/MS) of real samples indicated good accuracy and practicability of CLEIA and FIA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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11 pages, 1662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a New Monoclonal Antibody against Brevetoxins in Oyster Samples Based on the Indirect Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

by Xiya Zhang, Mingyue Ding, Chensi Zhang, Yexuan Mao, Youyi Wang, Peipei Li, Haiyang Jiang, Zhanhui Wang and Xuezhi Yu

Foods 2021, 10(10), 2398; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10102398 - 09 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1804

Abstract

The consumption of shellfish contaminated with brevetoxins, a family of ladder-frame polyether toxins formed during blooms of the marine dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, can cause neurotoxic poisoning, leading to gastroenteritis and neurotoxic effects. To rapidly monitor brevetoxin levels in oysters, we generated a broad-spectrum antibody against brevetoxin 2 (PbTx-2), 1 (PbTx-1), and 3 (PbTx-3) and developed a rapid indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA). PbTx-2 was reacted with carboxymethoxylamine hemihydrochloride (CMO) to generate a PbTx-2-CMO hapten and reacted with succinic anhydride (HS) to generate the PbTx-2-HS hapten. These haptens were conjugated to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) to prepare immunogen and coating antigen reagents, respectively, using the active ester method. After immunization and cell fusion, a broad-spectrum monoclonal antibody (mAb) termed mAb 1D3 was prepared. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values of the icELISA for PbTx-2, PbTx-1, and PbTx-3 were 60.71, 52.61, and 51.83 μg/kg, respectively. Based on the broad-spectrum mAb 1D3, an icELISA was developed to determine brevetoxin levels. Using this approach, the limit of detection (LOD) for brevetoxin was 124.22 μg/kg and recoveries ranged between 89.08% and 115.00%, with a coefficient of variation below 4.25% in oyster samples. These results suggest that our icELISA is a useful tool for the rapid monitoring of brevetoxins in oyster samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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12 pages, 2586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lateral Flow Immunochromatography Assay for Detection of Furosemide in Slimming Health Foods

by Yingying Li, Haihuan Xie, Jin Wang, Xiangmei Li, Zhili Xiao, Zhenlin Xu, Hongtao Lei and Xing Shen

Foods 2021, 10(9), 2041; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10092041 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4413

Abstract

In recent years, furosemide has been found to be abused in slimming health foods. There is an urgent need for a simpler, faster method for detecting furosemide in slimming health foods. In this study, a rapid, convenient and sensitive lateral flow immunochromatography (LFIA) based on Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) was established for the first time. Under optimal conditions, the qualitative limit of detection (LOD) of the AuNPs-based LFIA was 1.0~1.2 μg/g in slimming health foods with different substrates. AuNPs-LFIA could specifically detect furosemide within 12 min (including sample pretreatment) and be read by the naked eye. The developed AuNPs-LFIA showed high consistency with liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and no false positive or false negative results were found in spiked slimming health foods, proving that the AuNPs-LFIA should be accurate and reliable. The AuNPs-LFIA reported here provides a serviceable analytical tool for the on-site detection and rapid initial screening of furosemide for the first time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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13 pages, 2155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Directed Evolution of Anti-Ciprofloxacin ScFv for Immunoassay in Animal-Derived Food

by Fangyu Wang, Ning Li, Yunshang Zhang, Xuefeng Sun, Man Hu, Yali Zhao and Jianming Fan

Foods 2021, 10(8), 1933; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081933 - 20 Aug 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2044

Abstract

An immunized mouse phage display scFv library with a capacity of 3.34 × 10⁹ CFU/mL was constructed and used for screening of recombinant anti-ciprofloxacin single-chain antibody for the detection of ciprofloxacin (CIP) in animal-derived food. After four rounds of bio-panning, 25 positives were isolated and identified successfully. The highest positive scFv-22 was expressed in E. coli BL21. Then, its recognition mechanisms were studied using the molecular docking method. The result showed the amino acid residue Val160 was the key residue for the binding of scFv to CIP. Based on the results of virtual mutation, the scFv antibody was evolved by directional mutagenesis of contact amino acid residue Val160 to Ser. After the expression and purification, an indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (IC-ELISA) based on the parental and mutant scFv was established for CIP, respectively. The IC50 value of the assay established with the ScFv mutant was 1.58 ng/mL, while the parental scFv was 26.23 ng/mL; this result showed highly increased affinity, with up to 16.6-fold improved sensitivity. The mean recovery for CIP ranged from 73.80% to 123.35%, with 10.46% relative standard deviation between the intra-assay and the inter-assay. The RSD values ranged between 1.49% and 9.81%. The results indicate that we obtained a highly sensitive anti-CIP scFv by the phage library construction and directional evolution, and the scFv-based IC-ELISA is suitable for the detection of CIP residue in animal-derived edible tissues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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14 pages, 5621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of Tracers and Development of a Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay for Rapid Screening of 4,4′-Dinitrocarbanilide in Chicken Muscle

by Qidi Zhang, Ming Zou, Wanyu Wang, Jinyan Li and Xiao Liang

Foods 2021, 10(8), 1822; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10081822 - 06 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1876

Abstract

The compound, 4,4′-dinitrocarbanilide (DNC), is the marker residue of concern in edible tissues of broilers fed with diets containing anticoccidial nicarbazin (NIC). In this study, 25 fluorescein-labeled DNC derivatives (tracers) are synthesized and characterized to develop a rapid fluorescence polarization immunoassay (FPIA) for the detection of DNC in chickens using DNC monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). The effect of the tracer structure on the sensitivity of the FPIA is investigated. Our results show that after optimization, the half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) and limit of detection (LOD) of the FPIA in the buffer are 28.3 and 5.7 ng mL⁻¹, respectively. No significant cross-reactivity (CR < 0.89%) with 15 DNC analogues is observed. The developed FPIA is validated for DNC detection in spiked chicken homogenates, and recoveries ranged from 74.2 to 85.8%, with coefficients of variation <8.6%. Moreover, the total time needed for the detection procedure of the FPIA, including sample pretreatment, is <40 min, which has not been achieved in any other immunoassays for DNC from literature. Our results demonstrate that the FPIA developed here is a simple, sensitive, specific, and reproducible screening method for DNC residues in chickens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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11 pages, 1989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Determination of Nitrofurazone Metabolites in Animal-Derived Foods Based on a Background Fluorescence Quenching Immunochromatographic Assay

by Yuping Wu, Jia Wang, Yong Zhou, Yonghua Qi, Licai Ma, Xuannian Wang and Xiaoqi Tao

Foods 2021, 10(7), 1668; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10071668 - 20 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2362

Abstract

Due to their facile synthesis and friendly functionalization, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been applied in all kinds of biosensors. More importantly, these biosensors, with the combination of AuNPs and immunoassay, are expected to be used for the detection of different compounds with low concentrations in complex samples. In this study, a AuNPs-labeled antibody immunoprobe was prepared and combined with a fluorescence-quenching principle and a background fluorescence-quenching immunochromatographic assay (bFQICA), achieving rapid on-site detection. By using a portable fluorescence immunoquantitative analyzer and a QR code with a built-in standard curve, the rapid quantitative determination for nitrofurazone metabolite of semicarbazide (SEM) in animal-derived foods was realized. The limits of detection (LODs) for bFQICA in egg, chicken, fish, and shrimp were 0.09, 0.10, 0.12, and 0.15 μg kg⁻¹ for SEM, respectively, with the linear range of 0.08–0.41 μg L⁻¹, the recoveries ranging from 73.5% to 109.2%, and the coefficient of variation <15%, only taking 13 min for the SEM detection. The analysis of animal-derived foods by bFQICA complied with that of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Antibody and Immunoassay for Food Safety)

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