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Aerospace, Volume 8, Issue 8 (August 2021) – 36 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The flexibility of additive manufacturing (AM) offers the opportunity to produce complex and intricate structures, such as lattice structures. These structures are being used in highly regulated industries, including the biomedical and the aerospace industry, owing to their improved strength to weight ratio and mechanical performance. The present study addresses the current state of AM lattice structures, identifying the gaps and opportunities in AM lattice fabrication. View this paper.
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26 pages, 7369 KiB  
Article
Aircraft Engine Gas-Path Monitoring and Diagnostics Framework Based on a Hybrid Fault Recognition Approach
by Juan Luis Pérez-Ruiz, Yu Tang and Igor Loboda
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080232 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2912
Abstract
Considering the importance of continually improving the algorithms in aircraft engine diagnostic systems, the present paper proposes and benchmarks a gas-path monitoring and diagnostics framework through the Propulsion Diagnostic Methodology Evaluation Strategy (ProDiMES) software developed by NASA. The algorithm uses fleet-average and individual [...] Read more.
Considering the importance of continually improving the algorithms in aircraft engine diagnostic systems, the present paper proposes and benchmarks a gas-path monitoring and diagnostics framework through the Propulsion Diagnostic Methodology Evaluation Strategy (ProDiMES) software developed by NASA. The algorithm uses fleet-average and individual engine baseline models to compute feature vectors that form a fault classification with healthy and faulty engine classes. Using this classification, a hybrid fault-recognition technique based on regularized extreme learning machines and sparse representation classification was trained and validated to perform both fault detection and fault identification as a common process. The performance of the system was analyzed along with the results of other diagnostic frameworks through four stages of comparison based on different conditions, such as operating regimes, testing data, and metrics (detection, classification, and detection latency). The first three stages were devoted to the independent algorithm development and self-evaluation, while the final stage was related to a blind test case evaluated by NASA. The comparative analysis at all stages shows that the proposed algorithm outperforms all other diagnostic solutions published so far. Considering the advantages and the results obtained, the framework is a promising tool for aircraft engine monitoring and diagnostic systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Fault Detection)
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22 pages, 1830 KiB  
Article
Impact Time Control Cooperative Guidance Law Design Based on Modified Proportional Navigation
by Zhanyuan Jiang, Jianquan Ge, Qiangqiang Xu and Tao Yang
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080231 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2649
Abstract
The paper proposes a two-dimensional impact time control cooperative guidance law under constant velocity and a three-dimensional impact time control cooperative guidance law under time-varying velocity, which can both improve the penetration ability and combat effectiveness of multi-missile systems and adapt to the [...] Read more.
The paper proposes a two-dimensional impact time control cooperative guidance law under constant velocity and a three-dimensional impact time control cooperative guidance law under time-varying velocity, which can both improve the penetration ability and combat effectiveness of multi-missile systems and adapt to the complex and variable future warfare. First, a more accurate time-to-go estimation method is proposed, and based on which a modified proportional navigational guidance (MPNG) law with impact time constraint is designed in this paper, which is also effective when the initial leading angle is zero. Second, adopting cooperative guidance architecture with centralized coordination, using the MPNG law as the local guidance, and the desired impact time as the coordination variables, a two-dimensional impact time control cooperative guidance law under constant velocity is designed. Finally, a method of solving the expression of velocity is derived, and the analytic function of velocity with respect to time is given, a three-dimensional impact time control cooperative guidance law under time-varying velocity based on desired impact time is designed. Numerical simulation results verify the feasibility and applicability of the methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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21 pages, 7851 KiB  
Article
Stereo Vision-Based Relative Position and Attitude Estimation of Non-Cooperative Spacecraft
by Liang Chang, Jixiu Liu, Zui Chen, Jie Bai and Leizheng Shu
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080230 - 20 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3189
Abstract
In on-orbit services, the relative position and attitude estimation of non-cooperative spacecraft has become the key issues to be solved in many space missions. Because of the lack of prior knowledge about manual marks and the inability to communicate between non-cooperative space targets, [...] Read more.
In on-orbit services, the relative position and attitude estimation of non-cooperative spacecraft has become the key issues to be solved in many space missions. Because of the lack of prior knowledge about manual marks and the inability to communicate between non-cooperative space targets, the relative position and attitude estimation system poses great challenges in terms of accuracy, intelligence, and power consumptions. To address these issues, this study uses a stereo camera to extract the feature points of a non-cooperative spacecraft. Then, the 3D position of the feature points is calculated according to the camera model to estimate the relationship. The optical flow method is also used to obtain the geometric constraint information between frames. In addition, an extended Kalman filter is used to update the measurement results and obtain more accurate pose optimization results. Moreover, we present a closed-loop simulation system, in which the Unity simulation engine is employed to simulate the relative motion of the spacecraft and binocular vision images, and a JetsonTX2 supercomputer is involved to conduct the proposed autonomous relative navigation algorithm. The simulation results show that our approach can estimate the non-cooperative target’s relative pose accurately. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spacecraft Dynamics and Control)
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26 pages, 6385 KiB  
Article
Performance Enhancement by Wing Sweep for High-Speed Dynamic Soaring
by Gottfried Sachs, Benedikt Grüter and Haichao Hong
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080229 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2733
Abstract
Dynamic soaring is a flight mode that uniquely enables high speeds without an engine. This is possible in a horizontal shear wind that comprises a thin layer and a large wind speed. It is shown that the speeds reachable by modern gliders approach [...] Read more.
Dynamic soaring is a flight mode that uniquely enables high speeds without an engine. This is possible in a horizontal shear wind that comprises a thin layer and a large wind speed. It is shown that the speeds reachable by modern gliders approach the upper subsonic Mach number region where compressibility effects become significant, with the result that the compressibility-related drag rise yields a limitation for the achievable maximum speed. To overcome this limitation, wing sweep is considered an appropriate means. The effect of wing sweep on the relevant aerodynamic characteristics for glider type wings is addressed. A 3-degrees-of-freedom dynamics model and an energy-based model of the vehicle are developed in order to solve the maximum-speed problem with regard to the effect of the compressibility-related drag rise. Analytic solutions are derived so that generally valid results are achieved concerning the effects of wing sweep on the speed performance. Thus, it is shown that the maximum speed achievable with swept wing configurations can be increased. The improvement is small for sweep angles up to around 15 deg and shows a progressive increase thereafter. As a result, wing sweep has potential for enhancing the maximum-speed performance in high-speed dynamic soaring. Full article
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24 pages, 6946 KiB  
Article
Design of Low Altitude Long Endurance Solar-Powered UAV Using Genetic Algorithm
by Abu Bakar, Li Ke, Haobo Liu, Ziqi Xu and Dongsheng Wen
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080228 - 16 Aug 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5194
Abstract
This paper presents a novel framework for the design of a low altitude long endurance solar-powered UAV for multiple-day flight. The genetic algorithm is used to optimize wing airfoil using CST parameterization, along with wing, horizontal and vertical tail geometry. The mass estimation [...] Read more.
This paper presents a novel framework for the design of a low altitude long endurance solar-powered UAV for multiple-day flight. The genetic algorithm is used to optimize wing airfoil using CST parameterization, along with wing, horizontal and vertical tail geometry. The mass estimation model presented in this paper is based on structural layout, design and available materials used in the fabrication of similar UAVs. This model also caters for additional weight due to the change in wing airfoil. The configuration is optimized for a user-defined static margin, thereby incorporating static stability in the optimization. Longitudinal and lateral control systems are developed for the optimized configuration using the inner–outer loop strategy with an LQR and PID controller, respectively. A six degree-of-freedom nonlinear simulation is performed for the validation of the proposed control scheme. The results of nonlinear simulations are in good agreement with static analysis, validating the complete design process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Unmanned Aerial Systems)
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14 pages, 4253 KiB  
Article
Small Hall Effect Thruster with 3D Printed Discharge Channel: Design and Thrust Measurements
by Ethan P. Hopping, Wensheng Huang and Kunning G. Xu
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080227 - 15 Aug 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3427
Abstract
This paper presents the design and performance of the UAH-78AM, a low-power small Hall effect thruster. The goal of this work is to assess the feasibility of using low-cost 3D printing to create functioning Hall thrusters, and study how 3D printing can expand [...] Read more.
This paper presents the design and performance of the UAH-78AM, a low-power small Hall effect thruster. The goal of this work is to assess the feasibility of using low-cost 3D printing to create functioning Hall thrusters, and study how 3D printing can expand the design space. The thruster features a 3D printed discharge channel with embedded propellant distributor. Multiple materials were tested including ABS, ULTEM, and glazed ceramic. Thrust measurements were obtained at the NASA Glenn Research Center. Measured thrust ranged from 17.2–30.4 mN over a discharge power of 280 W to 520 W with an anode ISP range of 870–1450 s. The thruster has a similar performance range to conventional thrusters at the same power levels. However, the polymer ABS and ULTEM materials have low temperature limits which made sustained operation difficult. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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41 pages, 1612 KiB  
Review
Hybrid Rocket Engine Design Optimization at Politecnico di Torino: A Review
by Lorenzo Casalino, Filippo Masseni and Dario Pastrone
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080226 - 13 Aug 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4390
Abstract
Optimization of Hybrid Rocket Engines at Politecnico di Torino began in the 1990s. A comprehensive review of the related research activities carried out in the last three decades is here presented. After a brief introduction that retraces driving motivations and the most significant [...] Read more.
Optimization of Hybrid Rocket Engines at Politecnico di Torino began in the 1990s. A comprehensive review of the related research activities carried out in the last three decades is here presented. After a brief introduction that retraces driving motivations and the most significant steps of the research path, the more relevant aspects of analysis, modeling and achieved results are illustrated. First, criteria for the propulsion system preliminary design choices (namely the propellant combination, the feed system and the grain design) are summarized and the engine modeling is presented. Then, the authors describe the in-house tools that have been developed and used for coupled trajectory and propulsion system design optimization. Both deterministic and robust-based approaches are presented. The applications that the authors analyzed over the years, starting from simpler hybrid powered sounding rocket to more complex multi-stage launchers, are then presented. Finally, authors’ conclusive remarks on the work done and their future perspective in the context of the optimization of hybrid rocket propulsion systems are reported. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Rocket(Volume II))
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11 pages, 5593 KiB  
Article
Experimental Research on the Influence of Roughness on Water Film Flow
by Huanyu Zhao, Chunling Zhu, Ning Zhao, Chengxiang Zhu and Zhengzhi Wang
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080225 - 13 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2454
Abstract
Icing phenomena are one of the hot issues in the aviation field, which has attracted the attention of many manufacturers. The physical process of water film flow determines the position and amount of icing. In this paper, the flow process of water film [...] Read more.
Icing phenomena are one of the hot issues in the aviation field, which has attracted the attention of many manufacturers. The physical process of water film flow determines the position and amount of icing. In this paper, the flow process of water film on a rough surface is studied. An experimental platform was built in a wind tunnel, and the digital image processing (DIP) technology was used to measure the water film flow. The water film flow under different roughness conditions of the plate was obtained in the experiments. The correction model of interfacial shear coefficient is established, and the influence of roughness on water film flow is deduced. The relationship obtained in this paper can provide data support for the study of gas-water coupled flows on rough surfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Dynamic Measurement Technologies: Optical and Nanophotonic Methods)
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25 pages, 10249 KiB  
Article
Explanation of Machine-Learning Solutions in Air-Traffic Management
by Yibing Xie, Nichakorn Pongsakornsathien, Alessandro Gardi and Roberto Sabatini
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080224 - 12 Aug 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6658
Abstract
Advances in the trusted autonomy of air-traffic management (ATM) systems are currently being pursued to cope with the predicted growth in air-traffic densities in all classes of airspace. Highly automated ATM systems relying on artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms for anomaly detection, pattern identification, [...] Read more.
Advances in the trusted autonomy of air-traffic management (ATM) systems are currently being pursued to cope with the predicted growth in air-traffic densities in all classes of airspace. Highly automated ATM systems relying on artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms for anomaly detection, pattern identification, accurate inference, and optimal conflict resolution are technically feasible and demonstrably able to take on a wide variety of tasks currently accomplished by humans. However, the opaqueness and inexplicability of most intelligent algorithms restrict the usability of such technology. Consequently, AI-based ATM decision-support systems (DSS) are foreseen to integrate eXplainable AI (XAI) in order to increase interpretability and transparency of the system reasoning and, consequently, build the human operators’ trust in these systems. This research presents a viable solution to implement XAI in ATM DSS, providing explanations that can be appraised and analysed by the human air-traffic control operator (ATCO). The maturity of XAI approaches and their application in ATM operational risk prediction is investigated in this paper, which can support both existing ATM advisory services in uncontrolled airspace (Classes E and F) and also drive the inflation of avoidance volumes in emerging performance-driven autonomy concepts. In particular, aviation occurrences and meteorological databases are exploited to train a machine learning (ML)-based risk-prediction tool capable of real-time situation analysis and operational risk monitoring. The proposed approach is based on the XGBoost library, which is a gradient-boost decision tree algorithm for which post-hoc explanations are produced by SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) and Local Interpretable Model-Agnostic Explanations (LIME). Results are presented and discussed, and considerations are made on the most promising strategies for evolving the human–machine interactions (HMI) to strengthen the mutual trust between ATCO and systems. The presented approach is not limited only to conventional applications but also suitable for UAS-traffic management (UTM) and other emerging applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)
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26 pages, 1753 KiB  
Review
Multidisciplinary Optimisation of Aircraft Structures with Critical Non-Regular Areas: Current Practice and Challenges
by Massimo Sferza, Jelena Ninić, Dimitrios Chronopoulos, Florian Glock and Fernass Daoud
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080223 - 12 Aug 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2611
Abstract
The design optimisation of aerostructures is largely based on Multidisciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO), which is a set of tools used by the aircraft industry to size primary structures: wings, large portions of the fuselage or even an entire aircraft. The procedure is computationally [...] Read more.
The design optimisation of aerostructures is largely based on Multidisciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO), which is a set of tools used by the aircraft industry to size primary structures: wings, large portions of the fuselage or even an entire aircraft. The procedure is computationally expensive, as it must account for several thousands of loadcases, multiple analyses with hundreds of thousands of degrees of freedom, thousands of design variables and millions of constraints. Because of this, the coarse Global Finite Element Model (GFEM), on which the procedure is based, cannot be further refined. The structures represented in the GFEM contain many components and non-regular areas, which require a detailed modelling to capture their complex mechanical behaviour. Instead, in the GFEM, these components are represented by simplified models with approximated stiffness, whose main role is to contribute to the identification of the load paths over the whole structure. Therefore, these parts are kept fixed and are not constrained during the optimisation, as the description of their internal deformation is not sufficiently accurate. In this paper, we show that it would nevertheless be desirable to size the non-regular areas and the overall structures at once. Firstly, we introduce the concept of non-regular areas in the context of a structural airframe MDO. Secondly, we present a literature survey on MDO with a critical review of several architectures and their current applications to aircraft design optimisation. Then, we analyse and demonstrate with examples the possible consequences of neglecting non-regular areas when MDO is applied. In the conclusion, we analyse the requirements for alternative approaches and why the current ones are not viable solutions. Lastly, we discuss which characteristics of the problem could be exploited to contain the computational cost. Full article
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26 pages, 37684 KiB  
Technical Note
Overview of the Flight Dynamics Subsystem for Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter Mission
by Young-Joo Song, Young-Rok Kim, Jonghee Bae, Jae-ik Park, Seungbum Hong, Donghun Lee and Dae-Kwan Kim
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080222 - 10 Aug 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4467
Abstract
Korea’s first lunar mission, the Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO), aims to launch in mid-2022 via the Space-X Falcon-9 launch vehicle. For the successful flight operation of KPLO, the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) has designed and developed the Flight Dynamics Subsystem (FDS). [...] Read more.
Korea’s first lunar mission, the Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO), aims to launch in mid-2022 via the Space-X Falcon-9 launch vehicle. For the successful flight operation of KPLO, the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) has designed and developed the Flight Dynamics Subsystem (FDS). FDS is one of the subsystems in the KPLO Deep-Space Ground System (KDGS), which is responsible for the overall flight dynamics-related operation. FDS is currently successfully implemented and meets all of the requirements derived from the critical design phases. The current work addresses the design and implementation results for the KPLO FDS. Starting from overviews on KPLO payloads, bus systems, and mission trajectory characteristics, a review on KDGS is also treated briefly. Details on the design philosophy, unique characteristics, and functionalities of all six different modules nested inside the FDS with its Graphical User Interface (GUI) design are discussed. Moreover, efforts currently devoted to the flight operation preparation of the KPLO are summarized, including many collaborative works between KARI and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) teams. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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23 pages, 8338 KiB  
Article
A Parametric Study on the Aeroelasticity of Flared Hinge Folding Wingtips
by Rafic M. Ajaj, Erick I. Saavedra Flores, Mohammadreza Amoozgar and Jonathan E. Cooper
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080221 - 10 Aug 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2878
Abstract
This paper presents a parametric study on the aeroelasticity of cantilever wings equipped with Flared Hinge Folding Wingtips (FHFWTs). The finite element method is utilized to develop a computational, low-fidelity aeroelastic model. The wing structure is modelled using Euler–Bernoulli beam elements, and unsteady [...] Read more.
This paper presents a parametric study on the aeroelasticity of cantilever wings equipped with Flared Hinge Folding Wingtips (FHFWTs). The finite element method is utilized to develop a computational, low-fidelity aeroelastic model. The wing structure is modelled using Euler–Bernoulli beam elements, and unsteady Theodorsen’s aerodynamic strip Theory is used for aerodynamic load predictions. The PK method is used to estimate the aeroelastic boundaries. The model is validated using three rectangular, cantilever wings whose properties are available in literature. Then, a rectangular, cantilever wing is used to study the effect of folding wingtips on the aeroelastic response and stability boundaries. Two scenarios are considered for the aeroelastic analysis. In the first scenario, the baseline, rectangular wing is split into inboard and outboard segments connected by a flared hinge that allows the outboard segment to fold. In the second scenario, a folding wingtip is added to the baseline wing. For both scenarios, the influence of fold angle, hinge-line angle (flare angle), hinge stiffness, tip mass and geometry are assessed. In addition, the load alleviation capability of FHFWT is evaluated when the wing encounters discrete (1-cosine) gusts. Finally, the hinge is assumed to exhibit cubic nonlinear behavior in torsion, and the effect of nonlinearity on the aeroelastic response is assessed and analyzed for three different cases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroelasticity, Volume III)
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16 pages, 8727 KiB  
Technical Note
Design, Production and Evaluation of 3D-Printed Mold Geometries for a Hybrid Rocket Engine
by Benedict Grefen, Johannes Becker, Stefan Linke and Enrico Stoll
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080220 - 08 Aug 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3846
Abstract
The feasibility of 3D-printed molds for complex solid fuel block geometries of hybrid rocket engines is investigated. Additively produced molds offer more degrees of freedom in designing an optimized but easy to manufacture mold. The solid fuel used for this demonstration was hydroxyl-terminated [...] Read more.
The feasibility of 3D-printed molds for complex solid fuel block geometries of hybrid rocket engines is investigated. Additively produced molds offer more degrees of freedom in designing an optimized but easy to manufacture mold. The solid fuel used for this demonstration was hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB). Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was chosen as the mold material due to its good dissolving characteristics. It is shown that conventional and complex geometries can be produced reliably with the presented methods. In addition to the manufacturing process, this article presents several engine tests with different fuel grain geometries, including a short overview of the test bed, the engine and first tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Rocket(Volume II))
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7 pages, 1122 KiB  
Article
Behavior of Sliding Angle as Function of Temperature Difference between Droplet and Superhydrophobic Coating for Aircraft Ice Protection Systems
by Mitsugu Hasegawa, Haruka Endo, Katsuaki Morita, Hirotaka Sakaue and Shigeo Kimura
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080219 - 08 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2486
Abstract
A hybrid anti-/de-icing system combining a superhydrophobic coating and an electrothermal heater is an area of active research for aircraft icing prevention. The heater increases the temperature of the interaction surface between impinging droplets and an aircraft surface. One scientific question that has [...] Read more.
A hybrid anti-/de-icing system combining a superhydrophobic coating and an electrothermal heater is an area of active research for aircraft icing prevention. The heater increases the temperature of the interaction surface between impinging droplets and an aircraft surface. One scientific question that has not been studied in great detail is whether the temperatures of the droplet and the surface or the temperature difference between the two dominate the anti-/de-icing performance. Herein, this scientific question is experimentally studied based on the mobility of a water droplet over a superhydrophobic coating. The mobility is characterized by the sliding angle between the droplet and the coating surface. It was found that the temperature difference between the droplet and the coating surface has a higher impact on the sliding angle than their individual temperatures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume II))
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20 pages, 11838 KiB  
Article
Wrapping Deployment Simulation Analysis of Leaf-Inspired Membrane Structures
by Qiuhong Lin, Wenwen Jia, Huiying Wu, Ahmad B. H. Kueh, Yutao Wang, Kexin Wang and Jianguo Cai
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080218 - 08 Aug 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2784
Abstract
Deployable membrane structures have received wide attention in many engineering applications, such as the military, aerospace, and aviation. Their properties of light weight and high storage ratio meet the requirements for aerospace exactly. In this paper, the wrapping deployment of membrane structures inspired [...] Read more.
Deployable membrane structures have received wide attention in many engineering applications, such as the military, aerospace, and aviation. Their properties of light weight and high storage ratio meet the requirements for aerospace exactly. In this paper, the wrapping deployment of membrane structures inspired by leaves are simulation-analyzed for prospective improvement. Three leaf-inspired patterns are investigated and discussed from the corresponding paper-craft design principles and deployment process perspectives. The deployment performance evaluation system according to the factors effecting working performance including maximum stress, driving force, maximum strain energy, smoothness index, and maximum folding height is established based on the results of the simulation analysis. Then, a comparison between the three patterns is carried out based on the deployment performance evaluation system. Moreover, it is found that adding creases reduces the folded height but the development performance gets worse. There is a balance between the folding ratio and development performance when the additional creases are added. The results can provide useful suggestions for designing wrapping deployment structures. Full article
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13 pages, 9371 KiB  
Technical Note
Acquisition of Swept Aerodynamic Data by the Consecutive Changing of Wing Model Configuration in a Wind Tunnel Test Using Remote Feedback Control
by Ken Wakimoto, Kazuhisa Chiba, Hiroyuki Kato and Kazuyuki Nakakita
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080217 - 07 Aug 2021
Viewed by 1930
Abstract
This study conducted wind tunnel tests with consecutive deflection angle changes on a three-dimensional (3D) wing with a control surface to procure aerodynamic data by sweeping the deflection angle. Configuration changes of a wind tunnel test model, such as changing the deflection angle [...] Read more.
This study conducted wind tunnel tests with consecutive deflection angle changes on a three-dimensional (3D) wing with a control surface to procure aerodynamic data by sweeping the deflection angle. Configuration changes of a wind tunnel test model, such as changing the deflection angle of control surfaces, are usually performed manually with the ventilation suspended. Hence, the number of configurations that can be implemented within a confined test period is restricted; the aerodynamic data gained are discrete values. To accomplish continuous angular modulation would dramatically improve the ability by sweeping through the aerodynamic data in wind tunnel tests, enhancing the test system as a tool for discussing complex physical phenomena. Thus, this study created a compact remote feedback control system using optical measurement to continuously obtain high-precision aerodynamic data without stopping the wind tunnel, eliminating human operation. In particular, this study targets a 3D wing wind tunnel model with a control surface, which is more challenging to fabricate, miniaturizing the system in a model. The system consequently attained consecutive aerodynamic data multiple times under numerous configurations, which had been impracticable to reach in the past, within a wind tunnel test period of several days, thereby dramatically increasing the testing capability. The reproducibility was quantitatively verified by comparing the multiple data for the identical configurations. Furthermore, the reliability was demonstrated using discrete data obtained by conventional stepwise deflection angle adjustments. Eventually, the system was able to grasp physical phenomena involving hysteresis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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18 pages, 2351 KiB  
Article
Plunging Airfoil: Reynolds Number and Angle of Attack Effects
by Emanuel A. R. Camacho, Fernando M. S. P. Neves, André R. R. Silva and Jorge M. M. Barata
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080216 - 06 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2643
Abstract
Natural flight has consistently been the wellspring of many creative minds, yet recreating the propulsive systems of natural flyers is quite hard and challenging. Regarding propulsive systems design, biomimetics offers a wide variety of solutions that can be applied at low Reynolds numbers, [...] Read more.
Natural flight has consistently been the wellspring of many creative minds, yet recreating the propulsive systems of natural flyers is quite hard and challenging. Regarding propulsive systems design, biomimetics offers a wide variety of solutions that can be applied at low Reynolds numbers, achieving high performance and maneuverability systems. The main goal of the current work is to computationally investigate the thrust-power intricacies while operating at different Reynolds numbers, reduced frequencies, nondimensional amplitudes, and mean angles of attack of the oscillatory motion of a NACA0012 airfoil. Simulations are performed utilizing a RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes) approach for a Reynolds number between 8.5×103 and 3.4×104, reduced frequencies within 1 and 5, and Strouhal numbers from 0.1 to 0.4. The influence of the mean angle-of-attack is also studied in the range of 0∘ to 10∘. The outcomes show ideal operational conditions for the diverse Reynolds numbers, and results regarding thrust-power correlations and the influence of the mean angle-of-attack on the aerodynamic coefficients and the propulsive efficiency are widely explored. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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13 pages, 1565 KiB  
Article
Thermal Analysis and Testing of Different Designs of LaB6 Hollow Cathodes to Be Used in Electric Propulsion Applications
by Ugur Kokal, Nazli Turan and Murat Celik
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080215 - 05 Aug 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3029
Abstract
LaB6 emitters are commonly used in hollow cathodes that are utilized in electric space propulsion systems. In order to obtain necessary surface current emission densities of 1–10 A/cm2 for cathode operations, LaB6 emitters require temperatures above [...] Read more.
LaB6 emitters are commonly used in hollow cathodes that are utilized in electric space propulsion systems. In order to obtain necessary surface current emission densities of 1–10 A/cm2 for cathode operations, LaB6 emitters require temperatures above 1500 °C. Hence, the design for LaB6 cathodes presents thermal and mechanical challenges. In this paper, several design iterations for LaB6 hollow cathodes are presented and thermal analyses are conducted for each design. Temperature and heat flux distributions that are obtained from thermal analyses are investigated. The designs are evaluated according to the required heat input to the emitter, and the radiative and conductive heat loss mechanisms. In addition to the thermal analyses, experimental tests are conducted for different cathode designs and, based on these tests, various modes of failure are determined. Revising the cathode design and the material selection iteratively to eliminate the encountered failure mechanisms, a novel cathode design is achieved. Experimental tests of this novel cathode are conducted and current-voltage characteristics are presented for different mass flow rates and for discharge currents between 0.5 and 12 A. Tests and analysis results show that the selection of materials and design are crucial for a sturdy and long lifetime cathode. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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15 pages, 39135 KiB  
Article
Design and Structural Analyses of a Reciprocating S1223 High-Lift Wing for an RA-Driven VTOL UAV
by Johnson O. Imumbhon, Mohammad D. Alam and Yiding Cao
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080214 - 05 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6800
Abstract
In the design stage of an aircraft, structural analyses are commonly employed to test the integrity of the aircraft components to demonstrate the capability of the structural elements to withstand what they are designed for, as well as predict potential failure of the [...] Read more.
In the design stage of an aircraft, structural analyses are commonly employed to test the integrity of the aircraft components to demonstrate the capability of the structural elements to withstand what they are designed for, as well as predict potential failure of the components. This research focused on the structural design and analysis of a high-lift, low Reynolds number airfoil profile, the Selig S1223, under reciprocating inertial force loading, to determine the feasibility of its use in a new reciprocating airfoil (RA) driven VTOL UAV. The material selected for the wing structures including ribs, spars, and skin, was high-strength carbon fiber. The wing was designed in SolidWorks, while finite element analysis was performed with ANSYS mechanical in conjunction with the inertia forces due to the reciprocating motion of the wing and the lift and drag forces that were derived from the aerodynamic wing analyses. The structural stress and strain determined under the loading conditions were satisfactory and the designed wing could sustain the high reciprocating inertia forces in the RA-driven VTOL UAV module. The results of this study indicate that the Selig S1223 airfoil profile, due to its superior performance at low Reynolds numbers, high-lift, and reduced noise characteristics at low angles of attack, combined with the use of the high strength carbon fiber, proves to be an excellent choice for this RA-driven aircraft application. Full article
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15 pages, 900 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulations of the Internal Ballistics of Paraffin–Oxygen Hybrid Rockets at Different Scales
by Mario Tindaro Migliorino, Daniele Bianchi and Francesco Nasuti
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080213 - 05 Aug 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2098
Abstract
Hybrid rockets are considered a promising future propulsion alternative for specific applications to solid or liquid rockets. In order to raise their technology readiness level, it is important to perform predictive numerical simulations of their internal ballistics. The objective of this work is [...] Read more.
Hybrid rockets are considered a promising future propulsion alternative for specific applications to solid or liquid rockets. In order to raise their technology readiness level, it is important to perform predictive numerical simulations of their internal ballistics. The objective of this work is to describe and validate a numerical approach based on Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes simulations with sub-models for fluid–surface interaction, radiation, chemistry, and turbulence. Particular attention is given to scale effects by considering two different paraffin–oxygen hybrid rocket engines and a simplified grain evolution approach from the initial to the final port diameter. Moreover, a mild sensitivity of the computed regression rate to paraffin’s melting temperature, surface radiation emissivity, and Schmidt numbers is observed. Results highlight the increasing importance of radiation effects at larger scales and pressures. A numerical rebuilding of regression rate and pressure is obtained with simulations at the time-space-averaged port diameter, producing a reasonable agreement with the available experimental data, but a noticeable improvement is obtained by considering the grain evolution in time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Rocket(Volume II))
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19 pages, 10604 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Analysis of Delay Propagation on Departure and Arrival Flights for a Chinese Case Study
by Zhe Zheng, Wenbin Wei and Minghua Hu
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080212 - 04 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2370
Abstract
In recent years, flight delay costs the air transportation industry millions of dollars and has become a systematic problem. Understanding the behavior of flight delay is thus critical. This paper focuses on how flight delay is affected by operation-, time-, and weather-related factors. [...] Read more.
In recent years, flight delay costs the air transportation industry millions of dollars and has become a systematic problem. Understanding the behavior of flight delay is thus critical. This paper focuses on how flight delay is affected by operation-, time-, and weather-related factors. Different econometric models are developed to analyze departure and arrival delay. The results show that compared to departure delay, arrival delay is more likely to be affected by previous delays and the buffer effect. Block buffer presents a reduction effect seven times greater than turnaround buffer in terms of flight delays. Departure flights suffer more delays from convective weather than arrival flights. Convective weather at the destination airport for flight delay has a greater impact than at the original airport. In addition, sensitivity analysis of flight delays from an aircraft utilization perspective is conducted. We find that the effect of delay propagation on flight delay differs by aircraft utilization. This impact on departure delay is greater than the impact on arrival delay. In general, specific to the order of flights, the previous delay increases the impact on flight on-time performance as a flight flies a later leg. Buffer time has opposite effects on departure and arrival delay, with the order increasing. A decrease in buffer time with the order increasing, however, still has a greater reduction effect on departure delay than arrival delay. Specific to the number of flights operated by an aircraft, the more flights an aircraft flies in a day, the more the on-time performance of those flights will suffer from the previous delay and buffer time generally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)
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17 pages, 4286 KiB  
Article
Incomplete Information Pursuit-Evasion Game Control for a Space Non-Cooperative Target
by Ziwen Wang, Baichun Gong, Yanhua Yuan and Xin Ding
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080211 - 03 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2521
Abstract
Aiming to solve the optimal control problem for the pursuit-evasion game with a space non-cooperative target under the condition of incomplete information, a new method degenerating the game into a strong tracking problem is proposed, where the unknown target maneuver is processed as [...] Read more.
Aiming to solve the optimal control problem for the pursuit-evasion game with a space non-cooperative target under the condition of incomplete information, a new method degenerating the game into a strong tracking problem is proposed, where the unknown target maneuver is processed as colored noise. First, the relative motion is modeled in the rotating local vertical local horizontal (LVLH) frame originated at a virtual Chief based on the Hill-Clohessy-Wiltshire relative dynamics, while the measurement models for three different sensor schemes (i.e., single LOS (line-of-sight) sensor, LOS range sensor and double LOS sensor) are established and an extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is used to obtain the relative state of target. Next, under the assumption that the unknown maneuver of the target is colored noise, the game control law of chaser is derived based on the linear quadratic differential game theory. Furthermore, the optimal control law considering the thrust limitation is obtained. After that, the observability of the relative orbit state is analyzed, where the relative orbit is weakly observable in a short period of time in the case of only LOS angle measurements, fully observable in the cases of LOS range and double LOS measurement schemes. Finally, numerical simulations are conducted to verify the proposed method. The results show that by using the single LOS scheme, the chaser would firstly approach the target but then would lose the game because of the existence of the target’s unknown maneuver. Conversely, the chaser can successfully win the game in the cases of LOS range and double LOS sensor schemes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spacecraft Trajectory Design and Optimization)
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23 pages, 951 KiB  
Article
Application of Noise Certification Regulations within Conceptual Aircraft Design
by Michel Nöding and Lothar Bertsch
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080210 - 03 Aug 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3045
Abstract
ICAO Annex 16 regulations are used to certify the acoustic performance of subsonic transport aircraft. Each aircraft is classified according to the measured EPNL levels at specific certification locations along the approach and departure. By simulating this certification process, it becomes possible to [...] Read more.
ICAO Annex 16 regulations are used to certify the acoustic performance of subsonic transport aircraft. Each aircraft is classified according to the measured EPNL levels at specific certification locations along the approach and departure. By simulating this certification process, it becomes possible to identify all relevant parameters and assess promising measures to reduce the noise certification levels in compliance with the underlying ICAO regulations, i.e., allowable operating conditions of the aircraft. Furthermore, simulation is the only way to enable an assessment of novel technology and non-existing vehicle concepts, which is the main motivation behind the presented research activities. Consequently, the ICAO Annex 16 regulations are integrated into an existing noise simulation framework at DLR, and the virtual noise certification of novel aircraft concepts is realized at the conceptual design phase. The predicted certification levels can be directly selected as design objectives in order to realize an advantageous ICAO noise category for a new aircraft design, i.e., simultaneously accounting for the design and the resulting flight performance. A detailed assessment and identification of operational limits and allowable flight procedures for each conceptual aircraft design under consideration is enabled. Sensitivity studies can be performed for the relevant input parameters that influence the predicted noise certification levels. Specific noise sources with a dominating impact on the certification noise levels can be identified, and promising additional low-noise measures can be applied within the conceptual design phase. The overall simulation process is applied to existing vehicles in order to assess the validity of the simulation resultsfcompared to published data. Thereafter, the process is applied to some DLR low-noise aircraft concepts to evaluate their noise certification levels. These results can then be compared to other standard noise metrics that are typically applied in order to describe aircraft noise, e.g., SEL isocontour areas. It can be demonstrated that certain technologies can significantly reduce the noise impact along most of an approach or departure flight track but have only a limited influence on the noise certification levels and vice versa. Finally, an outlook of the ongoing developments is provided, in order to apply the new simulation process to supersonic aircraft. Newly proposed regulations for such concepts are implemented into the process in order to evaluate these new regulations and enable direct comparison with existing regulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Noise)
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12 pages, 9625 KiB  
Article
Modeling of Processes in Plasma of Radio-Frequency Ion Injector with an Antenna Placed inside the Volume of Discharge Chamber
by Svyatoslav Gordeev, Stepan Kanev, Andrey Melnikov, Igor Nazarenko and Sergey Khartov
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080209 - 02 Aug 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1614
Abstract
The work is devoted to the theoretical assessment of the efficiency increase possibility for the radio-frequency ion injector, which is designed for the contactless removal of space debris from near-earth orbit by using an antenna located inside the discharge chamber. Four internal antenna [...] Read more.
The work is devoted to the theoretical assessment of the efficiency increase possibility for the radio-frequency ion injector, which is designed for the contactless removal of space debris from near-earth orbit by using an antenna located inside the discharge chamber. Four internal antenna configurations and two external ones—end and side—are considered. Expected characteristics were estimated using an engineering mathematical model built in COMSOL Multiphysics using an approximate magnetohydrodynamic description of the charged particle behavior. According to the simulation results, the best characteristics can be obtained with an internal antenna with a conical arrangement of turns. Calculations showed that in some operating modes, such an antenna configuration makes it possible to halve the radio-frequency power consumption compared to the classical antenna located on the discharge chamber side surface. The performed theoretical study showed that the internal antenna can significantly increase the ion injector efficiency. In the future, verification of the obtained results by test is planned. Full article
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18 pages, 6712 KiB  
Article
Modeling and Simulation of Heavy-Lift Tethered Multicopter Considering Mechanical Properties of Electric Power Cable
by Hyeok-Min Kwon and Dong-Kyu Lee
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080208 - 01 Aug 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2536
Abstract
In case of a fire at a high-rise building which is densely populated, an extension ladder is used to rescue people who have yet to evacuate to a safe place away from the fire, whereas those who are stranded at a height that [...] Read more.
In case of a fire at a high-rise building which is densely populated, an extension ladder is used to rescue people who have yet to evacuate to a safe place away from the fire, whereas those who are stranded at a height that is unreachable with the ladder should be promptly saved with different rescue methods. In this case, an application of the tethered flight system capable of receiving power over a power cable from the ground to a multicopter may guarantee effective execution of the rescue plan at the scene where fire is raging without any restrictions of the flight time. This article identified restrictions that should be considered in the design of a multicopter capable of tethered flight aimed to rescue stranded people at an inaccessible location with an extension ladder at a fire-ravaged high-rise building and assessed its feasibility. A power cable capable of providing dozens of kilowatts of electricity should be installed to enable the implementation of the rescue mission using the tethered multicopter. A flexible multi-body dynamics modeling and simulation with viscoelastic characteristics and heavy weight of power cable were carried out to evaluate the effects of such cable of the tethered flight system on the dynamic characteristics of the multicopter. The results indicate that as for a heavy-lift tethered multicopter designed to be utilized for rescue operations, the properties of the power cable, such as weight, rigidity and length, have a major impact on the position and attitude control performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vibration Control for Space Application)
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22 pages, 1061 KiB  
Review
Compressive Behaviour of Additively Manufactured Lattice Structures: A Review
by Solomon O. Obadimu and Kyriakos I. Kourousis
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080207 - 30 Jul 2021
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8999
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) technology has undergone an evolutionary process from fabricating test products and prototypes to fabricating end-user products—a major contributing factor to this is the continuing research and development in this area. AM offers the unique opportunity to fabricate complex structures with [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing (AM) technology has undergone an evolutionary process from fabricating test products and prototypes to fabricating end-user products—a major contributing factor to this is the continuing research and development in this area. AM offers the unique opportunity to fabricate complex structures with intricate geometry such as the lattice structures. These structures are made up of struts, unit cells, and nodes, and are being used not only in the aerospace industry, but also in the sports technology industry, owing to their superior mechanical properties and performance. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the mechanical properties and performance of both metallic and non-metallic lattice structures, focusing on compressive behaviour. In particular, optimisation techniques utilised to optimise their mechanical performance are examined, as well the primary factors influencing mechanical properties of lattices, and their failure mechanisms/modes. Important AM limitations regarding lattice structure fabrication are identified from this review, while the paucity of literature regarding material extruded metal-based lattice structures is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Additive Manufacturing for Aerospace Applications)
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19 pages, 10503 KiB  
Article
Neural Nonlinear Autoregressive Model with Exogenous Input (NARX) for Turboshaft Aeroengine Fuel Control Unit Model
by Maria Grazia De Giorgi, Luciano Strafella and Antonio Ficarella
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080206 - 29 Jul 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3046
Abstract
One of the most important parts of a turboshaft engine, which has a direct impact on the performance of the engine and, as a result, on the performance of the propulsion system, is the engine fuel control system. The traditional engine control system [...] Read more.
One of the most important parts of a turboshaft engine, which has a direct impact on the performance of the engine and, as a result, on the performance of the propulsion system, is the engine fuel control system. The traditional engine control system is a sensor-based control method, which uses measurable parameters to control engine performance. In this context, engine component degradation leads to a change in the relationship between the measurable parameters and the engine performance parameters, and thus an increase of control errors. In this work, a nonlinear model predictive control method for turboshaft direct fuel control is implemented to improve engine response ability also in presence of degraded conditions. The control objective of the proposed model is the prediction of the specific fuel consumption directly instead of the measurable parameters. In this way is possible decentralize controller functions and realize an intelligent engine with the development of a distributed control system. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are widely used as data-driven models for modelling of complex systems such as aeroengine performance. In this paper, two Nonlinear Autoregressive Neural Networks have been trained to predict the specific fuel consumption for several transient flight maneuvers. The data used for the ANN predictions have been estimated through the Gas Turbine Simulation Program. In particular the first ANN predicts the state variables based on flight conditions and the second one predicts the performance parameter based on the previous predicted variables. The results show a good approximation of the studied variables also in degraded conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies for Future Distributed Engine Control Systems)
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19 pages, 4680 KiB  
Article
Wind Tunnel Studies on Hover and Forward Flight Performances of a Coaxial Rigid Rotor
by Chang Wang, Minqi Huang, Xianmin Peng, Guichuan Zhang, Min Tang and Haowen Wang
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080205 - 28 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2707
Abstract
The aerodynamic performance of a reduced-scale coaxial rigid rotor system in hover and steady forward flights was experimentally investigated to gain insights into the effect of interference between upper and lower rotors and the influences of the advance ratio, shaft tilt angle and [...] Read more.
The aerodynamic performance of a reduced-scale coaxial rigid rotor system in hover and steady forward flights was experimentally investigated to gain insights into the effect of interference between upper and lower rotors and the influences of the advance ratio, shaft tilt angle and lift offset. The rotor system featured by 2 m-diameter, four-bladed upper and lower hingeless rotors and was installed in a coaxial rotor test rig. Experiments were conducted in the Φ3.2 m wind tunnel at China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center (CARDC). The rotor system was tested in hover states at collective pitches ranging from 0° to 13° and it was also tested in forward flights at advance ratios up to 0.6, with specific focus on the shaft tilt angle and lift offset sweeps. To ensure that the coaxial rotor was operating in a similar manner to that of the real flight, the torque difference was trimmed to zero in hover flight, whilst the constant lift coefficient was maintained in forward flight. An isolated single-rotor configuration test was also conducted with the same pitch angle setting in the coaxial rotor. The hover test results demonstrate that the figure of merit (FM) value of the lower rotor is lower than that of the upper rotor, and both are lower than that of the isolated single rotor. Moreover, the coaxial rotor configuration can contribute to better hover efficiency under the same blade loading coefficient (CT/σ). In forward flight, the effective lift-to-drag (L/De) ratio of the coaxial rigid rotor does not monotonously change as the advance ratio increases. Increases in the required power and drag in the case with a high advance ratio of 0.6 leads to the decreasing L/De ratio of the rotor. Meanwhile, the L/De ratio of the rotor is relatively high when the rotor shaft is tilted backward. The increasing lift offset tends to result in reduced required rotor power and an increase in the rotor drag. When the effect of the reduced rotor power is greater than that of the increased rotor drag, the L/De ratio increases as the lift offset increases. The L/De ratio can benefit significantly from lift offset at a high advance ratio, but it is much less influenced by lift offset at a low advance ratio. The forward performance efficiency of the upper rotor is poorer than that of the lower rotor, which is significantly different from the case in the hover flight. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Helicopter Aerodynamics)
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14 pages, 3254 KiB  
Article
Passive Control of Low-Frequency Instability in Hybrid Rocket Combustion
by Wonjeong Hyun, Jina Kim, Heesang Chae and Changjin Lee
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080204 - 28 Jul 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2006
Abstract
The occurrence of low-frequency instability (LFI) appears to be related to multiple interactions among many complex physical processes, such as vortex shedding, boundary-layer oscillation, and additional combustion in the post-combustion chamber. In this study, two combustion tests were conducted to suppress LFI and [...] Read more.
The occurrence of low-frequency instability (LFI) appears to be related to multiple interactions among many complex physical processes, such as vortex shedding, boundary-layer oscillation, and additional combustion in the post-combustion chamber. In this study, two combustion tests were conducted to suppress LFI and to examine which physical processes its occurrence was most sensitive. In the first test, two fuel inserts were used to modify the formation of a boundary layer, vortex shedding at the end of the fuel, and vortex impingement. In the second test, the fuel insert located at the front end was replaced with swirl injection. The first test was aimed at controlling and suppressing the initiation of LFI using fuel inserts, through which a small step appeared gradually due to differences in the regression rates of the two materials, i.e., polymethyl methacrylate and high-density polyethylene. The test results confirmed that (i) there are physical connections among several processes, such as the thermoacoustic coupling between p′and q′ and the oscillations of the upstream boundary flow, and (ii) LFI suppression is possible by disrupting or eliminating the connections among these physical processes. The second test was also aimed to control LFI while minimizing the deviation in combustion performance using proper swirl injection along with a fuel insert. Even when replaced by swirl injection, LFI suppression was still possible and showed reasonable combustion performance without causing too much deviation from the baseline in terms of the oxygen-to-fuel ratio and the fuel regression rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hybrid Rocket(Volume II))
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18 pages, 8240 KiB  
Article
Unsteady Simulation of Transonic Buffet of a Supercritical Airfoil with Shock Control Bump
by Yufei Zhang, Pu Yang, Runze Li and Haixin Chen
Aerospace 2021, 8(8), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace8080203 - 26 Jul 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3241
Abstract
The unsteady flow characteristics of a supercritical OAT15A airfoil with a shock control bump were numerically studied by a wall-modeled large eddy simulation. The numerical method was first validated by the buffet and nonbuffet cases of the baseline OAT15A airfoil. Both the pressure [...] Read more.
The unsteady flow characteristics of a supercritical OAT15A airfoil with a shock control bump were numerically studied by a wall-modeled large eddy simulation. The numerical method was first validated by the buffet and nonbuffet cases of the baseline OAT15A airfoil. Both the pressure coefficient and velocity fluctuation coincided well with the experimental data. Then, four different shock control bumps were numerically tested. A bump of height h/c = 0.008 and location xB/c = 0.55 demonstrated a good buffet control effect. The lift-to-drag ratio of the buffet case was increased by 5.9%, and the root mean square of the lift coefficient fluctuation was decreased by 67.6%. Detailed time-averaged flow quantities and instantaneous flow fields were analyzed to demonstrate the flow phenomenon of the shock control bumps. The results demonstrate that an appropriate “λ” shockwave pattern caused by the bump is important for the flow control effect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Wing Aircraft)
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