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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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29 pages, 1543 KiB  
Review
Immunological Perspective for Ebola Virus Infection and Various Treatment Measures Taken to Fight the Disease
by Sahil Jain, Svetlana F. Khaiboullina and Manoj Baranwal
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100850 - 17 Oct 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5290
Abstract
Ebolaviruses, discovered in 1976, belongs to the Filoviridae family, which also includes Marburg and Lloviu viruses. They are negative-stranded RNA viruses with six known species identified to date. Ebola virus (EBOV) is a member of Zaire ebolavirus species and can cause the Ebola [...] Read more.
Ebolaviruses, discovered in 1976, belongs to the Filoviridae family, which also includes Marburg and Lloviu viruses. They are negative-stranded RNA viruses with six known species identified to date. Ebola virus (EBOV) is a member of Zaire ebolavirus species and can cause the Ebola virus disease (EVD), an emerging zoonotic disease that results in homeostatic imbalance and multi-organ failure. There are three EBOV outbreaks documented in the last six years resulting in significant morbidity (>32,000 cases) and mortality (>13,500 deaths). The potential factors contributing to the high infectivity of this virus include multiple entry mechanisms, susceptibility of the host cells, employment of multiple immune evasion mechanisms and rapid person-to-person transmission. EBOV infection leads to cytokine storm, disseminated intravascular coagulation, host T cell apoptosis as well as cell mediated and humoral immune response. In this review, a concise recap of cell types targeted by EBOV and EVD symptoms followed by detailed run-through of host innate and adaptive immune responses, virus-driven regulation and their combined effects contributing to the disease pathogenesis has been presented. At last, the vaccine and drug development initiatives as well as challenges related to the management of infection have been discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenesis of Emerging Zoonotic Viral Infections)
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0 pages, 1938 KiB  
Article
Sequencing of Historical Isolates, K-mer Mining and High Serological Cross-Reactivity with Ross River Virus Argue against the Presence of Getah Virus in Australia
by Daniel J. Rawle, Wilson Nguyen, Troy Dumenil, Rhys Parry, David Warrilow, Bing Tang, Thuy T. Le, Andrii Slonchak, Alexander A. Khromykh, Viviana P. Lutzky, Kexin Yan and Andreas Suhrbier
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100848 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3824
Abstract
Getah virus (GETV) is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus primarily associated with disease in horses and pigs in Asia. GETV was also reported to have been isolated from mosquitoes in Australia in 1961; however, retrieval and sequencing of the original isolates (N544 and N554), illustrated [...] Read more.
Getah virus (GETV) is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus primarily associated with disease in horses and pigs in Asia. GETV was also reported to have been isolated from mosquitoes in Australia in 1961; however, retrieval and sequencing of the original isolates (N544 and N554), illustrated that these viruses were virtually identical to the 1955 GETVMM2021 isolate from Malaysia. K-mer mining of the >40,000 terabases of sequence data in the Sequence Read Archive followed by BLASTn confirmation identified multiple GETV sequences in biosamples from Asia (often as contaminants), but not in biosamples from Australia. In contrast, sequence reads aligning to the Australian Ross River virus (RRV) were readily identified in Australian biosamples. To explore the serological relationship between GETV and other alphaviruses, an adult wild-type mouse model of GETV was established. High levels of cross-reactivity and cross-protection were evident for convalescent sera from mice infected with GETV or RRV, highlighting the difficulties associated with the interpretation of early serosurveys reporting GETV antibodies in Australian cattle and pigs. The evidence that GETV circulates in Australia is thus not compelling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)
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19 pages, 1660 KiB  
Review
Renibacterium salmoninarum—The Causative Agent of Bacterial Kidney Disease in Salmonid Fish
by Mohammad Reza Delghandi, Mansour El-Matbouli and Simon Menanteau-Ledouble
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100845 - 15 Oct 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6933
Abstract
Renibacterium salmoninarum is one of the oldest known bacterial pathogens of fish. This Gram-positive bacterium is the causative agent of bacterial kidney disease, a chronic infection that is mostly known to infect salmonid fish at low temperatures. Externally, infected fish can display exophthalmia [...] Read more.
Renibacterium salmoninarum is one of the oldest known bacterial pathogens of fish. This Gram-positive bacterium is the causative agent of bacterial kidney disease, a chronic infection that is mostly known to infect salmonid fish at low temperatures. Externally, infected fish can display exophthalmia as well as blebs on the skin and ulcerations alongside haemorrhages at the base of the fins and alongside the lateral line. Internally, the kidney, heart, spleen and liver can show signs of swelling. Granulomas can be seen on various internal organs, as can haemorrhages, and the organs can be covered with a false membrane. Ascites can also accumulate in the abdominal cavity. The bacterium is generally cultivated on specialized media such as kidney disease medium-1 (KDM-1), KDM-2 and selective kidney disease medium (SKDM), and a diagnostic is performed using molecular tools such as PCRs or real-time quantitative PCRs (RT-qPCRs). Several virulence mechanisms have been identified in R. salmoninarum, in particular the protein p57 that is known to play a role in both agglutination and immunosuppression of the host’s defense mechanisms. Control of the disease is difficult; the presence of asymptomatic carriers complicates the eradication of the disease, as does the ability of the bacterium to gain entrance inside the eggs. Bacterin-killed vaccines have proven to be of doubtful efficacy in controlling the disease, and even more recent application of a virulent environmental relative of R. salmoninarum is of limited efficacy. Treatment by antibiotics such as erythromycin, azithromycin and enrofloxacin can be effective but it is slow and requires prolonged treatment. Moreover, antibiotic-resistant strains have been reported. Despite being known for a long time, there is still much to be discovered about R. salmoninarum, notably regarding its virulence mechanisms and its vaccine potential. Consequently, these gaps in knowledge continue to hinder control of this bacterial disease in aquaculture settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogen Characterization, Host Immune Response and Development of Strategies to Reduce Losses to Disease in Aquaculture)
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26 pages, 7849 KiB  
Article
Effects of Naturally Occurring Mutations in Bovine Leukemia Virus 5′-LTR and Tax Gene on Viral Transcriptional Activity
by Aneta Pluta, Luc Willems, Renée N. Douville and Jacek Kuźmak
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100836 - 13 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2759
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a deltaretrovirus infecting bovine B cells and causing enzootic bovine leucosis (EBL). The long terminal repeat (LTR) plays an indispensable role in viral gene expression. The BLV Tax protein acts as the main transactivator of LTR-driven transcription of [...] Read more.
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a deltaretrovirus infecting bovine B cells and causing enzootic bovine leucosis (EBL). The long terminal repeat (LTR) plays an indispensable role in viral gene expression. The BLV Tax protein acts as the main transactivator of LTR-driven transcription of BLV viral genes. The aim of this study was to analyze mutations in the BLV LTR region and tax gene to determine their association with transcriptional activity. LTRs were obtained from one hundred and six BLV isolates and analyzed for their genetic variability. Fifteen variants were selected and characterized based on mutations in LTR regulatory elements, and further used for in vitro transcription assays. Reporter vectors containing the luciferase gene under the control of each variant BLV promoter sequence, in addition to variant Tax expression vectors, were constructed. Both types of plasmids were used for cotransfection of HeLa cells and the level of luciferase activity was measured as a proxy of transcriptional activity. Marked differences in LTR promoter activity and Tax transactivation activity were observed amongst BLV variants. These results demonstrate that mutations in both the BLV LTR and tax gene can affect the promoter activity, which may have important consequences on proviral load, viral fitness, and transmissibility in BLV-infected cattle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Bovine Leukemia Virus Infection)
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20 pages, 3795 KiB  
Article
Enterococcus faecalis Polymicrobial Interactions Facilitate Biofilm Formation, Antibiotic Recalcitrance, and Persistent Colonization of the Catheterized Urinary Tract
by Jordan R. Gaston, Marissa J. Andersen, Alexandra O. Johnson, Kirsten L. Bair, Christopher M. Sullivan, L. Beryl Guterman, Ashely N. White, Aimee L. Brauer, Brian S. Learman, Ana L. Flores-Mireles and Chelsie E. Armbruster
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100835 - 13 Oct 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4067
Abstract
Indwelling urinary catheters are common in health care settings and can lead to catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI). Long-term catheterization causes polymicrobial colonization of the catheter and urine, for which the clinical significance is poorly understood. Through prospective assessment of catheter urine colonization, [...] Read more.
Indwelling urinary catheters are common in health care settings and can lead to catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI). Long-term catheterization causes polymicrobial colonization of the catheter and urine, for which the clinical significance is poorly understood. Through prospective assessment of catheter urine colonization, we identified Enterococcus faecalis and Proteus mirabilis as the most prevalent and persistent co-colonizers. Clinical isolates of both species successfully co-colonized in a murine model of CAUTI, and they were observed to co-localize on catheter biofilms during infection. We further demonstrate that P. mirabilis preferentially adheres to E. faecalis during biofilm formation, and that contact-dependent interactions between E. faecalis and P. mirabilis facilitate establishment of a robust biofilm architecture that enhances antimicrobial resistance for both species. E. faecalis may therefore act as a pioneer species on urinary catheters, establishing an ideal surface for persistent colonization by more traditional pathogens such as P. mirabilis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Interactions during Infection)
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21 pages, 2179 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Mobile Genetic Elements Using Long-Read Sequencing for Tracking Listeria monocytogenes from Food Processing Environments
by Hee Jin Kwon, Zhao Chen, Peter Evans, Jianghong Meng and Yi Chen
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100822 - 7 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2512
Abstract
Recently developed nanopore sequencing technologies offer a unique opportunity to rapidly close the genome and to identify complete sequences of mobile genetic elements (MGEs). In this study, 17 isolates of Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) epidemic clone II (ECII) from seven ready-to-eat meat [...] Read more.
Recently developed nanopore sequencing technologies offer a unique opportunity to rapidly close the genome and to identify complete sequences of mobile genetic elements (MGEs). In this study, 17 isolates of Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) epidemic clone II (ECII) from seven ready-to-eat meat or poultry processing facilities, not known to be associated with outbreaks, were shotgun sequenced, and among them, five isolates were further subjected to long-read sequencing. Additionally, 26 genomes of Lm ECII isolates associated with three listeriosis outbreaks in the U.S. and South Africa were obtained from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database and analyzed to evaluate if MGEs may be used as a high-resolution genetic marker for identifying and sourcing the origin of Lm. The analyses identified four comK prophages in 11 non-outbreak isolates from four facilities and three comK prophages in 20 isolates associated with two outbreaks that occurred in the U.S. In addition, three different plasmids were identified among 10 non-outbreak isolates and 14 outbreak isolates. Each comK prophage and plasmid was conserved among the isolates sharing it. Different prophages from different facilities or outbreaks had significant genetic variations, possibly due to horizontal gene transfer. Phylogenetic analysis showed that isolates from the same facility or the same outbreak always closely clustered. The time of most recent common ancestor of the Lm ECII isolates was estimated to be in March 1816 with the average nucleotide substitution rate of 3.1 × 10−7 substitutions per site per year. This study showed that complete MGE sequences provide a good signal to determine the genetic relatedness of Lm isolates, to identify persistence or repeated contamination that occurred within food processing environment, and to study the evolutionary history among closely related isolates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis)
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25 pages, 4015 KiB  
Review
The Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis–The Koch Phenomenon Reinstated
by Robert L. Hunter
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100813 - 4 Oct 2020
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 8742
Abstract
Research on the pathogenesis of tuberculosis (TB) has been hamstrung for half a century by the paradigm that granulomas are the hallmark of active disease. Human TB, in fact, produces two types of granulomas, neither of which is involved in the development of [...] Read more.
Research on the pathogenesis of tuberculosis (TB) has been hamstrung for half a century by the paradigm that granulomas are the hallmark of active disease. Human TB, in fact, produces two types of granulomas, neither of which is involved in the development of adult type or post-primary TB. This disease begins as the early lesion; a prolonged subclinical stockpiling of secreted mycobacterial antigens in foamy alveolar macrophages and nearby highly sensitized T cells in preparation for a massive necrotizing hypersensitivity reaction, the Koch Phenomenon, that produces caseous pneumonia that is either coughed out to form cavities or retained to become the focus of post-primary granulomas and fibrocaseous disease. Post-primary TB progresses if the antigens are continuously released and regresses when they are depleted. This revised paradigm is supported by nearly 200 years of research and suggests new approaches and animal models to investigate long standing mysteries of human TB and vaccines that inhibit the early lesion to finally end its transmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis: Challenges and Opportunities)
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24 pages, 1232 KiB  
Review
One Health Approach to Leishmaniases: Understanding the Disease Dynamics through Diagnostic Tools
by Ahyun Hong, Ricardo Andrade Zampieri, Jeffrey Jon Shaw, Lucile Maria Floeter-Winter and Maria Fernanda Laranjeira-Silva
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100809 - 1 Oct 2020
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6121
Abstract
Leishmaniases are zoonotic vector-borne diseases caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania that affect millions of people around the globe. There are various clinical manifestations, ranging from self-healing cutaneous lesions to potentially fatal visceral leishmaniasis, all of which are associated with different [...] Read more.
Leishmaniases are zoonotic vector-borne diseases caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania that affect millions of people around the globe. There are various clinical manifestations, ranging from self-healing cutaneous lesions to potentially fatal visceral leishmaniasis, all of which are associated with different Leishmania species. Transmission of these parasites is complex due to the varying ecological relationships between human and/or animal reservoir hosts, parasites, and sand fly vectors. Moreover, vector-borne diseases like leishmaniases are intricately linked to environmental changes and socioeconomic risk factors, advocating the importance of the One Health approach to control these diseases. The development of an accurate, fast, and cost-effective diagnostic tool for leishmaniases is a priority, and the implementation of various control measures such as animal sentinel surveillance systems is needed to better detect, prevent, and respond to the (re-)emergence of leishmaniases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Translational Research for Zoonotic Parasites: New Findings toward Improved Diagnostics, Therapy and Prevention)
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20 pages, 3309 KiB  
Article
Transcriptome Response of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) to a New Piscine Orthomyxovirus
by Francisca Samsing, Pamela Alexandre, Megan Rigby, Richard S. Taylor, Roger Chong and James W. Wynne
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100807 - 30 Sep 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3247
Abstract
Pilchard orthomyxovirus (POMV) is an emerging pathogen of concern to the salmon industry in Australia. To explore the molecular events that underpin POMV infection, we challenged Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) post-smolts in seawater via cohabitation. Tissue samples of the head kidney [...] Read more.
Pilchard orthomyxovirus (POMV) is an emerging pathogen of concern to the salmon industry in Australia. To explore the molecular events that underpin POMV infection, we challenged Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) post-smolts in seawater via cohabitation. Tissue samples of the head kidney and liver were collected from moribund and surviving individuals and analyzed using transcriptome sequencing. Viral loads were higher in the head kidney compared to the liver, yet the liver presented more upregulated genes. Fish infected with POMV showed a strong innate immune response that included the upregulation of pathogen recognition receptors such as RIG-I and Toll-like receptors as well as the induction of interferon-stimulated genes (MX, ISG15). Moribund fish also presented a dramatic induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, contributing to severe tissue damage and morbidity. An induction of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I genes (B2M) and markers of T cell-mediated immunity (CD8-alpha, CD8-beta, Perforin-1, Granzyme-A) was observed in both moribund fish and survivors. In addition, differential connectivity analysis showed that three key regulators (RELA/p65, PRDM1, and HLF) related to cell-mediated immunity had significant differences in connectivity in “clinically healthy” versus “clinically affected” or moribund fish. Collectively, our results show that T cell-mediated immunity plays a central role in the response of Atlantic salmon to the infection with POMV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogen Characterization, Host Immune Response and Development of Strategies to Reduce Losses to Disease in Aquaculture)
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17 pages, 1732 KiB  
Article
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide Alleviates Intestinal, Extra-Intestinal and Systemic Inflammatory Responses during Acute Campylobacter jejuni-induced Enterocolitis in Mice
by Markus M. Heimesaat, Soraya Mousavi, Sigri Kløve, Claudia Genger, Dennis Weschka, Andrea Tamas, Dora Reglodi and Stefan Bereswill
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 805; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100805 - 30 Sep 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2030
Abstract
Human Campylobacter jejuni infections are emerging, and constitute a significant health burden worldwide. The ubiquitously expressed pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is well-known for its cell-protective and immunomodulatory effects. In our actual intervention study, we used an acute campylobacteriosis model and assessed the [...] Read more.
Human Campylobacter jejuni infections are emerging, and constitute a significant health burden worldwide. The ubiquitously expressed pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is well-known for its cell-protective and immunomodulatory effects. In our actual intervention study, we used an acute campylobacteriosis model and assessed the potential disease-alleviating effects of exogenous PACAP. Therefore, secondary abiotic IL-10−/− mice were perorally infected with C. jejuni and treated with synthetic PACAP38 intraperitoneally from day 2 until day 5 post-infection. Whereas PACAP did not interfere with the gastrointestinal colonization of the pathogen, mice from the PACAP group exhibited less severe clinical signs of C. jejuni-induced disease, as compared to mock controls, which were paralleled by alleviated apoptotic, but enhanced cell proliferative responses in colonic epithelia on day 6 post-infection. Furthermore, PACAP dampened the accumulation of macrophages and monocytes, but enhanced regulatory T cell responses in the colon, which were accompanied by less IFN-γ secretion in intestinal compartments in PACAP versus mock-treated mice. Remarkably, the inflammation-dampening properties of PACAP could also be observed in extra-intestinal organs, and strikingly, even the systemic circulation on day 6 post-infection. For the first time, we provide evidence that synthetic PACAP might be a promising candidate to combat acute campylobacteriosis and post-infectious sequelae. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Campylobacter Infections)
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12 pages, 2095 KiB  
Article
A Siderophore Analog of Fimsbactin from Acinetobacter Hinders Growth of the Phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae and Induces Systemic Priming of Immunity in Arabidopsis thaliana
by Fabrice Betoudji, Taha Abd El Rahman, Marvin J. Miller, Manuka Ghosh, Mario Jacques, Kamal Bouarab and François Malouin
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100806 - 30 Sep 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2875
Abstract
Siderophores produced in soil by plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs) play several roles, including nutrient mobilizers and can be useful as plants defense elicitors. We investigated the role of a synthetic mixed ligand bis-catechol-mono-hydroxamate siderophore (SID) that mimics the chemical structure of a natural [...] Read more.
Siderophores produced in soil by plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs) play several roles, including nutrient mobilizers and can be useful as plants defense elicitors. We investigated the role of a synthetic mixed ligand bis-catechol-mono-hydroxamate siderophore (SID) that mimics the chemical structure of a natural siderophore, fimsbactin, produced by Acinetobacter spp. in the resistance against the phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringaepv tomato DC3000 (Pst DC3000), in Arabidopsis thaliana. We first tested the antibacterial activity of SID against Pst DC3000 in vitro. After confirming that SID had antibacterial activity against Pst DC3000, we tested whether the observed in vitro activity could translate into resistance of Arabidopsis to Pst DC3000, using bacterial loads as endpoints in a plant infection model. Furthermore, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, we explored the molecular actors involved in the resistance of Arabidopsis induced by SID. Finally, to assure that SID would not interfere with PGPRs, we tested in vitro the influence of SID on the growth of a reference PGPR, Bacillus subtilis. We report here that SID is an antibacterial agent as well as an inducer of systemic priming of resistance in A. thaliana against Pst DC3000, and that SID can, at the same time, promote growth of a PGPR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Control of Phytopathogens: Mechanisms and Applications)
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11 pages, 1514 KiB  
Article
Development and Optimization of In-house ELISA for Detection of Human IgG Antibody to SARS-CoV-2 Full Length Spike Protein
by Thamir A. Alandijany, Sherif A. El-Kafrawy, Ahmed M. Tolah, Sayed S. Sohrab, Arwa A. Faizo, Ahmed M. Hassan, Tagreed L. Alsubhi, Norah A. Othman and Esam I. Azhar
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100803 - 28 Sep 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7428
Abstract
The ongoing coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), poses a threat to human health. Despite this, many affected countries are now in the process of gradual lifting of COVID-19 restrictions that were initially [...] Read more.
The ongoing coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), poses a threat to human health. Despite this, many affected countries are now in the process of gradual lifting of COVID-19 restrictions that were initially implemented in response to the pandemic. The success of the so-called “exit strategy” requires continued surveillance of virus circulation in the community and evaluation of the prevalence of protective immunity among population. Serology tests are valuable tools for these purposes. Herein, SARS-CoV-2 full-length spike (S) recombinant protein was utilized to develop and optimize an indirect enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) that enables a reliable detection of virus-specific IgG antibody in human sera. Importantly, the performance of this assay was evaluated utilizing micro-neutralization (MN) assay as a reference test. Our developed ELISA offers 100% sensitivity, 98.4% specificity, 98.8% agreement, and high overall accuracy. Moreover, the optical density (OD) values of positive samples significantly correlated with their MN titers. The assay specifically detects human IgG antibodies directed against SARS-CoV-2, but not those to Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) or human coronavirus HKU1 (HCoV-HKU1). The availability of this in-house ELISA protocol would be valuable for various diagnostic and epidemiological applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 in Low and Middle Income Countries)
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17 pages, 3246 KiB  
Article
Species Detection within the Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato Complex by Novel Probe-Based Real-Time PCRs
by Pavlo Maksimov, Hannes Bergmann, Marion Wassermann, Thomas Romig, Bruno Gottstein, Adriano Casulli and Franz J. Conraths
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100791 - 26 Sep 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3363
Abstract
Infections with eggs of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) can cause cystic echinococcosis in intermediate host animals and humans. Upon ingestion of viable eggs, oncospheres hatch from the eggs and subsequently develop into fluid-filled larval cysts, most frequently in the liver [...] Read more.
Infections with eggs of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) can cause cystic echinococcosis in intermediate host animals and humans. Upon ingestion of viable eggs, oncospheres hatch from the eggs and subsequently develop into fluid-filled larval cysts, most frequently in the liver or the lungs. The slowly growing cysts progressively interfere with organ function. The risk of infection is determined by the host range of the parasite, its pathogenicity and other epidemiologically relevant parameters, which differ significantly among the five species within the E. granulosus s.l. complex. It is therefore essential to diagnose the correct species within E. granulosus s.l. to help understand specific disease epidemiology and to facilitate effective implementation of control measures. For this purpose, simple, fast and cost-effective typing techniques are needed. We developed quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions (qPCRs) to target polymorphic regions in the mitochondrial genome of E. granulosus s.l. In a single-step typing approach, we distinguished E. granulosus s.l. members in four epidemiologically relevant subgroups. These were E. granulosus sensu stricto, E. equinus, E. ortleppi and the E. canadensis cluster. The technique also allowed identification and differentiation of these species from other Echinococcus or Taenia taxa for samples isolated from cysts or faeces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Echinococcus)
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14 pages, 4757 KiB  
Article
Inhibition of Mixed Biofilms of Candida albicans and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus by Positively Charged Silver Nanoparticles and Functionalized Silicone Elastomers
by Humberto H. Lara and Jose L. Lopez-Ribot
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100784 - 25 Sep 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3189
Abstract
Both bacterial and fungal organisms display the ability to form biofilms; however, mixed bacterial/fungal biofilms are particularly difficult to control and eradicate. The opportunistic microbial pathogens Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus are among the most frequent causative agents of healthcare-acquired infections, and are [...] Read more.
Both bacterial and fungal organisms display the ability to form biofilms; however, mixed bacterial/fungal biofilms are particularly difficult to control and eradicate. The opportunistic microbial pathogens Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus are among the most frequent causative agents of healthcare-acquired infections, and are often co-isolated forming mixed biofilms, especially from contaminated catheters. These mixed species biofilms display a high level of antibiotic resistance; thus, these infections are challenging to treat resulting in excess morbidity and mortality. In the absence of effective conventional antibiotic treatments, nanotechnology-based approaches represent a promising alternative for the treatment of highly recalcitrant polymicrobial biofilm infections. Our group has previously reported on the activity of pure positively charged silver nanoparticles synthesized by a novel microwave technique against single-species biofilms of C. albicans and S. aureus. Here, we have expanded our observations to demonstrate that that silver nanoparticles display dose-dependent activity against dual-species C. albicans/S. aureus biofilms. Moreover, the same nanoparticles were used to functionalize catheter materials, leading to the effective inhibition of the mixed fungal/bacterial biofilms. Overall, our results indicate the potent activity of silver nanoparticles against these cross-kingdom biofilms. More studies are warranted to examine the ability of functionalized catheters in the prevention of catheter-related bloodstream infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Interactions during Infection)
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14 pages, 241 KiB  
Review
Endothelial Cell Contributions to COVID-19
by Alexandra E. Oxford, Fabio Halla, Evan B. Robertson and Brad E. Morrison
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100785 - 25 Sep 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3478
Abstract
Understanding of the clinical, histological and molecular features of the novel coronavirus 2019 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)) has remained elusive. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by this virus has unusual clinical presentation with regard to other related coronaviruses. Recent reports [...] Read more.
Understanding of the clinical, histological and molecular features of the novel coronavirus 2019 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)) has remained elusive. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by this virus has unusual clinical presentation with regard to other related coronaviruses. Recent reports suggest that SARS-CoV-2, unlike other related viruses, infects and replicates within endothelial cells, which may explain a significant portion of the observed clinical pathology. Likewise, mounting evidence associates vascular and endothelial cell dysfunction with increased mortality. This review focuses on understanding how endothelial cell pathology is caused by SARS-CoV-2 at the molecular and cellular levels and how these events relate to COVID-19. A detailed examination of current knowledge regarding canonical inflammatory reaction pathways as well as alteration of endothelial cell-derived exosomes and transdifferentiation by SARS-CoV-2 is included in this assessment. Additionally, given an understanding of endothelial contributions to COVID-19, potential therapeutic aims are discussed, particularly as would affect endothelial function and pathology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)
17 pages, 1570 KiB  
Review
Infectious Bronchitis Coronavirus Infection in Chickens: Multiple System Disease with Immune Suppression
by Shahnas M. Najimudeen, Mohamed S. H. Hassan, Susan C. Cork and Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 779; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100779 - 24 Sep 2020
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7595
Abstract
In the early 1930s, infectious bronchitis (IB) was first characterized as a respiratory disease in young chickens; later, the disease was also described in older chickens. The etiology of IB was confirmed later as being due to a coronavirus: the infectious bronchitis virus [...] Read more.
In the early 1930s, infectious bronchitis (IB) was first characterized as a respiratory disease in young chickens; later, the disease was also described in older chickens. The etiology of IB was confirmed later as being due to a coronavirus: the infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Being a coronavirus, IBV is subject to constant genome change due to mutation and recombination, with the consequence of changing clinical and pathological manifestations. The potential use of live attenuated vaccines for the control of IBV infection was demonstrated in the early 1950s, but vaccine breaks occurred due to the emergence of new IBV serotypes. Over the years, various IBV genotypes associated with reproductive, renal, gastrointestinal, muscular and immunosuppressive manifestations have emerged. IBV causes considerable economic impacts on global poultry production due to its pathogenesis involving multiple body systems and immune suppression; hence, there is a need to better understand the pathogenesis of infection and the immune response in order to help developing better management strategies. The evolution of new strains of IBV during the last nine decades against vaccine-induced immune response and changing clinical and pathological manifestations emphasize the necessity of the rational development of intervention strategies based on a thorough understanding of IBV interaction with the host. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews From Section "Animal Pathogens")
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12 pages, 1242 KiB  
Article
Occurrence of Fungi in the Potable Water of Hospitals: A Public Health Threat
by Giuseppina Caggiano, Giusy Diella, Francesco Triggiano, Nicola Bartolomeo, Francesca Apollonio, Carmen Campanale, Marco Lopuzzo and Maria Teresa Montagna
Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100783 - 24 Sep 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2439
Abstract
Since the last decade, attention towards the occurrence of fungi in potable water has increased. Commensal and saprophytic microorganisms widely distributed in nature are also responsible for causing public health problems. Fungi can contaminate hospital environments, surviving and proliferating in moist and unsterile [...] Read more.
Since the last decade, attention towards the occurrence of fungi in potable water has increased. Commensal and saprophytic microorganisms widely distributed in nature are also responsible for causing public health problems. Fungi can contaminate hospital environments, surviving and proliferating in moist and unsterile conditions. According to Italian regulations, the absence of fungi is not a mandatory parameter to define potable water, as a threshold value for the fungal occurrence has not been defined. This study evaluated the occurrence of fungi in potable water distribution systems in hospitals. The frequency of samples positive for the presence of fungi was 56.9%; among them, filamentous fungi and yeasts were isolated from 94.2% and 9.2% of the samples, respectively. The intensive care unit (87.1%) had the highest frequency of positive samples. Multivariable model (p < 0.0001), the variables of the period of the year (p < 0.0001) and type of department (p = 0.0002) were found to be statistically significant, suggesting a high distribution of filamentous fungi in the potable water of hospitals. Further studies are necessary to validate these results and identify the threshold values of fungi levels for different types of water used for various purposes to ensure the water is safe for consumption and protect public health. Full article
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20 pages, 2911 KiB  
Review
Orthohantaviruses, Emerging Zoonotic Pathogens
by Emmanuel Kabwe, Yuriy Davidyuk, Anton Shamsutdinov, Ekaterina Garanina, Ekaterina Martynova, Kristina Kitaeva, Moffat Malisheni, Guzel Isaeva, Tatiana Savitskaya, Richard A. Urbanowicz, Sergey Morzunov, Cyprian Katongo, Albert Rizvanov and Svetlana Khaiboullina
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090775 - 22 Sep 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5411
Abstract
Orthohantaviruses give rise to the emerging infections such as of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in Eurasia and the Americas, respectively. In this review we will provide a comprehensive analysis of orthohantaviruses distribution and circulation in Eurasia [...] Read more.
Orthohantaviruses give rise to the emerging infections such as of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in Eurasia and the Americas, respectively. In this review we will provide a comprehensive analysis of orthohantaviruses distribution and circulation in Eurasia and address the genetic diversity and evolution of Puumala orthohantavirus (PUUV), which causes HFRS in this region. Current data indicate that the geographical location and migration of the natural hosts can lead to the orthohantaviruses genetic diversity as the rodents adapt to the new environmental conditions. The data shows that a high level of diversity characterizes the genome of orthohantaviruses, and the PUUV genome is the most divergent. The reasons for the high genome diversity are mainly caused by point mutations and reassortment, which occur in the genome segments. However, it still remains unclear whether this diversity is linked to the disease’s severity. We anticipate that the information provided in this review will be useful for optimizing and developing preventive strategies of HFRS, an emerging zoonosis with potentially very high mortality rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses)
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12 pages, 270 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Impact of the Recombinant Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus Horsens Strain on the Reproductive Performance in Pregnant Sows
by Sandra Genís, Lise K. Kvisgaard, Lars E. Larsen, Lucas P. Taylor, Jay G. Calvert and Mònica Balasch
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 772; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090772 - 21 Sep 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2238
Abstract
This study assessed the impact of a PRRSV (porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus) recombinant strain (Horsens strain) on the reproductive performance of naïve pregnant sows in the last third of gestation. Fifteen sows were included: four negative reproductive controls (NTX), five infected [...] Read more.
This study assessed the impact of a PRRSV (porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus) recombinant strain (Horsens strain) on the reproductive performance of naïve pregnant sows in the last third of gestation. Fifteen sows were included: four negative reproductive controls (NTX), five infected with a PRRSV-1 field strain (Olot/91, T01), and six infected with the recombinant PRRSV-1 strain (Horsens strain, T02). Piglets were monitored until weaning. Reproductive performance was the primary variable. In sows, viremia and nasal shedding (T01 and T02 groups), and, in piglets, viral load in blood and in lungs, as well as macroscopic lung lesions (T01 and T02 groups), were the secondary variables. The reproductive performance results were numerically different between the two challenged groups. Moreover, viral loads in blood were 1.83 × 106 ± 9.05 × 106 copies/mL at farrowing, 1.05 × 107 ± 2.21 × 107 copies/mL at weaning from piglets born from T01 animals and 1.64 × 103 ± 7.62 × 103 copies/mL at farrowing, 1.95 × 103 ± 1.17 × 104 copies/mL at weaning from piglets born from T02 sows. Overall, 68.8% of T01 piglets and 38.1% of T02 piglets presented mild lung lesions. In conclusion, the results suggest that Horsens strain is less virulent than the field strain Olot/91 under these experimental conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Animal Pathogens)
19 pages, 1577 KiB  
Review
Long Noncoding RNAs in Plant Viroids and Viruses: A Review
by Nipin Shrestha and Józef J. Bujarski
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090765 - 18 Sep 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6900
Abstract
Infectious long-noncoding (lnc) RNAs related to plants can be of both viral and non-viral origin. Viroids are infectious plant lncRNAs that are not related to viruses and carry the circular, single-stranded, non-coding RNAs that replicate with host enzymatic activities via a rolling circle [...] Read more.
Infectious long-noncoding (lnc) RNAs related to plants can be of both viral and non-viral origin. Viroids are infectious plant lncRNAs that are not related to viruses and carry the circular, single-stranded, non-coding RNAs that replicate with host enzymatic activities via a rolling circle mechanism. Viroids interact with host processes in complex ways, emerging as one of the most productive tools for studying the functions of lncRNAs. Defective (D) RNAs, another category of lnc RNAs, are found in a variety of plant RNA viruses, most of which are noncoding. These are derived from and are replicated by the helper virus. D RNA-virus interactions evolve into mutually beneficial combinations, enhancing virus fitness via competitive advantages of moderated symptoms. Yet the satellite RNAs are single-stranded and include either large linear protein-coding ss RNAs, small linear ss RNAs, or small circular ss RNAs (virusoids). The satellite RNAs lack sequence homology to the helper virus, but unlike viroids need a helper virus to replicate and encapsidate. They can attenuate symptoms via RNA silencing and enhancement of host defense, but some can be lethal as RNA silencing suppressor antagonists. Moreover, selected viruses produce lncRNAs by incomplete degradation of genomic RNAs. They do not replicate but may impact viral infection, gene regulation, and cellular functions. Finally, the host plant lncRNAs can also contribute during plant-virus interactions, inducing plant defense and the regulation of gene expression, often in conjunction with micro and/or circRNAs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Structure-to-Function Relationship of Long Non-coding RNAs in Various Biological Systems)
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17 pages, 941 KiB  
Review
Zoonotic Implications of Onchocerca Species on Human Health
by Maria Cambra-Pellejà, Javier Gandasegui, Rafael Balaña-Fouce, José Muñoz and María Martínez-Valladares
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 761; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090761 - 17 Sep 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5472
Abstract
The genus Onchocerca includes several species associated with ungulates as hosts, although some have been identified in canids, felids, and humans. Onchocerca species have a wide geographical distribution, and the disease they produce, onchocerciasis, is generally seen in adult individuals because of its [...] Read more.
The genus Onchocerca includes several species associated with ungulates as hosts, although some have been identified in canids, felids, and humans. Onchocerca species have a wide geographical distribution, and the disease they produce, onchocerciasis, is generally seen in adult individuals because of its large prepatency period. In recent years, Onchocerca species infecting animals have been found as subcutaneous nodules or invading the ocular tissues of humans; the species involved are O. lupi, O. dewittei japonica, O. jakutensis, O. gutturosa, and O. cervicalis. These findings generally involve immature adult female worms, with no evidence of being fertile. However, a few cases with fertile O. lupi, O. dewittei japonica, and O. jakutensis worms have been identified recently in humans. These are relevant because they indicate that the parasite’s life cycle was completed in the new host—humans. In this work, we discuss the establishment of zoonotic Onchocerca infections in humans, and the possibility of these infections to produce symptoms similar to human onchocerciasis, such as dermatitis, ocular damage, and epilepsy. Zoonotic onchocerciasis is thought to be an emerging human parasitic disease, with the need to take measures such as One Health Strategies, in order to identify and control new cases in humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Onchocerciasis and River Epilepsy)
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9 pages, 234 KiB  
Article
Statin Use Is Associated with Decreased Risk of Invasive Mechanical Ventilation in COVID-19 Patients: A Preliminary Study
by Sophia L. Song, Sarah B. Hays, Constance E. Panton, Evangelia K. Mylona, Markos Kalligeros, Fadi Shehadeh and Eleftherios Mylonakis
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 759; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090759 - 17 Sep 2020
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 4284
Abstract
COVID-19 disproportionately affects patients with medical comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease (CVD). Patients with CVD are widely prescribed 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutayl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (statins), a class of lipid-lowering medications known for their pleiotropic anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. However, the relationship between statin use and [...] Read more.
COVID-19 disproportionately affects patients with medical comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease (CVD). Patients with CVD are widely prescribed 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutayl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (statins), a class of lipid-lowering medications known for their pleiotropic anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. However, the relationship between statin use and COVID-19 outcomes is not fully understood. In this preliminary study, we explored the association between statin use and severe COVID-19 outcomes in hospitalized patients, including intensive care unit (ICU) admission, the need for invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV), and in-hospital death. We performed a retrospective cohort study of 249 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 from 3 March 2020 to 10 April 2020 in Rhode Island, USA. Patient demographics, past medical history, current medications, and hospital course were recorded and analyzed. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine associations. After adjusting for age, sex, race, cardiovascular disease, chronic pulmonary disease, diabetes, and obesity, statin use was significantly associated with decreased risk for IMV (adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) = 0.45, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.20–0.99). Our results support the continued use of statins among COVID-19 patients and could have implications for future prospective studies on the management of COVID-19. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection SARS-CoV Infections)
14 pages, 1771 KiB  
Review
Pathogenic Delivery: The Biological Roles of Cryptococcal Extracellular Vesicles
by Haroldo C. de Oliveira, Rafael F. Castelli, Flavia C. G. Reis, Juliana Rizzo and Marcio L. Rodrigues
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090754 - 16 Sep 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4238
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life. In fungi, these structures were first described in Cryptococcus neoformans and, since then, they were characterized in several pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungal species. Cryptococcal EVs participate in the export of virulence factors that [...] Read more.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life. In fungi, these structures were first described in Cryptococcus neoformans and, since then, they were characterized in several pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungal species. Cryptococcal EVs participate in the export of virulence factors that directly impact the Cryptococcus–host interaction. Our knowledge of the biogenesis and pathogenic roles of Cryptococcus EVs is still limited, but recent methodological and scientific advances have improved our understanding of how cryptococcal EVs participate in both physiological and pathogenic events. In this review, we will discuss the importance of cryptococcal EVs, including early historical studies suggesting their existence in Cryptococcus, their putative mechanisms of biogenesis, methods of isolation, and possible roles in the interaction with host cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenesis of Cryptococcus neoformans)
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16 pages, 1597 KiB  
Article
Role of TRP Channels in Shaping the Gut Microbiome
by Ravinder Nagpal, Santosh Kumar Mishra, Gagan Deep and Hariom Yadav
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090753 - 16 Sep 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4044
Abstract
Transient receptor potential (TRP) channel family proteins are sensors for pain, which sense a variety of thermal and noxious chemicals. Sensory neurons innervating the gut abundantly express TRPA1 and TRPV1 channels and are in close proximity of gut microbes. Emerging evidence indicates a [...] Read more.
Transient receptor potential (TRP) channel family proteins are sensors for pain, which sense a variety of thermal and noxious chemicals. Sensory neurons innervating the gut abundantly express TRPA1 and TRPV1 channels and are in close proximity of gut microbes. Emerging evidence indicates a bi-directional gut–brain cross-talk in several entero-neuronal pathologies; however, the direct evidence of TRP channels interacting with gut microbial populations is lacking. Herein, we examine whether and how the knockout (KO) of TRPA1 and TRPV1 channels individually or combined TRPA1/V1 double-knockout (dKO) impacts the gut microbiome in mice. We detect distinct microbiome clusters among the three KO mouse models versus wild-type (WT) mice. All three TRP-KO models have reduced microbial diversity, harbor higher abundance of Bacteroidetes, and a reduced proportion of Firmicutes. Specifically distinct arrays in the KO models are determined mainly by S24-7, Bacteroidaceae, Clostridiales, Prevotellaceae, Helicobacteriaceae, Rikenellaceae, and Ruminococcaceae. A1KO mice have lower Prevotella, Desulfovibrio, Bacteroides, Helicobacter and higher Rikenellaceae and Tenericutes; V1KO mice demonstrate higher Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcus, Desulfovibrio and Mucispirillum; and A1V1dKO mice exhibit higher Bacteroidetes, Bacteroides and S24-7 and lower Firmicutes, Ruminococcaceae, Oscillospira, Lactobacillus and Sutterella abundance. Furthermore, the abundance of taxa involved in biosynthesis of lipids and primary and secondary bile acids is higher while that of fatty acid biosynthesis-associated taxa is lower in all KO groups. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating distinct gut microbiome signatures in TRPA1, V1 and dKO models and should facilitate prospective studies exploring novel diagnostic/ therapeutic modalities regarding the pathophysiology of TRP channel proteins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Animal Pathogens)
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11 pages, 6043 KiB  
Article
Elevated Baseline Salivary Protease Activity May Predict the Steadiness of Gingival Inflammation During Periodontal Healing: A 12-Week Follow-Up Study on Adults
by Ulvi Kahraman Gürsoy, Dareen Fteita, Floris J. Bikker, Maria Anastasia Grande, Kamran Nazmi, Mervi Gürsoy, Eija Könönen and Daniel Belstrøm
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090751 - 15 Sep 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2420
Abstract
Aim was to profile salivary total protease, Porphyromonas gingivalis gingipain, and neutrophil elastase activities in relation to the resolution of periodontal inflammation, salivary macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC), and macrophage inflammatory protein-1α concentrations. Nonsurgical periodontal treatment was performed in 24 periodontitis patients in a prospective [...] Read more.
Aim was to profile salivary total protease, Porphyromonas gingivalis gingipain, and neutrophil elastase activities in relation to the resolution of periodontal inflammation, salivary macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC), and macrophage inflammatory protein-1α concentrations. Nonsurgical periodontal treatment was performed in 24 periodontitis patients in a prospective interventional study design. Periodontal clinical parameters were recorded, and stimulated saliva samples were collected at baseline and 2, 6, and 12 weeks after treatment. Salivary total protease and gingipain activities were determined using fluorogenic substrates, elastase activity by chromogenic substrates, and cytokine concentrations by Luminex immunoassay. For statistical analyses, generalized linear mixed models for repeated measures were used. Salivary total protease activity elevated, while gingival inflammation and plaque accumulation decreased 2 and 6 weeks after periodontal therapy. Salivary MDC concentration was elevated 12 weeks after periodontal treatment. Patients with elevated protease activities at baseline in comparison to patients with low baseline total protease activities, had higher levels of gingival inflammation before and after periodontal treatment. In conclusion, elevations in salivary total protease activity seem to be part of periodontal healing at its early phases. Higher levels of salivary total protease activities before periodontal treatment may predict the severity and steadiness of unresolved gingival inflammation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oral Immunology and Periodontitis)
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9 pages, 513 KiB  
Review
Current Perspectives on Uniparental Mitochondrial Inheritance in Cryptococcus neoformans
by Amber R. Matha and Xiaorong Lin
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 743; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090743 - 10 Sep 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2943
Abstract
The mitochondrion is a vital organelle in most eukaryotic cells. It contains its own DNA which differs from nuclear DNA, since it is often inherited from only one parent during sexual reproduction. In anisogamous mammals, this is largely due to the fact that [...] Read more.
The mitochondrion is a vital organelle in most eukaryotic cells. It contains its own DNA which differs from nuclear DNA, since it is often inherited from only one parent during sexual reproduction. In anisogamous mammals, this is largely due to the fact that the oocyte has over 1000 times more copies of mitochondrial DNA than the sperm. However, in the isogamous fungus Cryptococcus neoformans, uniparental mitochondrial inheritance (UMI) still occurs during sexual reproduction. It is proposed that UMI might have evolved in the last common ancestor of eukaryotes. Thus, understanding the fundamental process of UMI in lower eukaryotes may give insights into how the process might have evolved in eukaryotic ancestors. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge regarding the cellular features as well as the molecular underpinnings of UMI in Cryptococcus during the mating process, and open questions that need to be answered to solve the mystery of UMI in this eukaryotic microbe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenesis of Cryptococcus neoformans)
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15 pages, 5018 KiB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of Infection by Rickettsia rickettsii Sheila Smith and Taiaçu Strains in a Murine Model
by Eliane Esteves, Chanida Fongsaran, Ingeborg M. Langohr, Sean P. Riley, Marcelo B. Labruna, Sirlei Daffre, Andréa C. Fogaça and Kevin R. Macaluso
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 744; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090744 - 10 Sep 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3458
Abstract
Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a life-threatening tick-borne disease caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, which is widely distributed throughout the Americas. Over 4000 cases of RMSF are recorded annually in the United States, while only around 100 cases are reported in Brazil. [...] Read more.
Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a life-threatening tick-borne disease caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, which is widely distributed throughout the Americas. Over 4000 cases of RMSF are recorded annually in the United States, while only around 100 cases are reported in Brazil. Conversely, while case fatality rates in the United States oscillate around 5%, in Brazil they can surpass 70%, suggesting that differences in tick vectoring capacity, population sensitivity, and/or variability in virulence of the rickettsial strains may exist. In this study, we compared the susceptibility of C3H/HeN mice to two highly virulent strains of R. rickettsii, one from the United States (Sheila Smith) and the other from Brazil (Taiaçu). Animals inoculated with the Taiaçu strain succumbed to infection earlier and exhibited severe histological lesions in both liver and spleen sooner than mice infected with the Sheila Smith strain. These differences in survival and signs of the disease are not related to a greater proliferation of the Taiaçu strain, as there were no significant differences in the rickettsial load in mice tissues inoculated with either strain. The present study is the first step to experimentally assess differences in fatality rates of RMSF in two different regions of the American continent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virulence Mechanisms of Rickettsiae)
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30 pages, 2265 KiB  
Review
Control Measures for SARS-CoV-2: A Review on Light-Based Inactivation of Single-Stranded RNA Viruses
by Joshua Hadi, Magdalena Dunowska, Shuyan Wu and Gale Brightwell
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 737; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090737 - 8 Sep 2020
Cited by 66 | Viewed by 11253
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus classified in the family Coronaviridae. In this review, we summarize the literature on light-based (UV, blue, and red lights) sanitization methods for the inactivation of ssRNA viruses in different matrixes (air, liquid, and solid). The rate [...] Read more.
SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus classified in the family Coronaviridae. In this review, we summarize the literature on light-based (UV, blue, and red lights) sanitization methods for the inactivation of ssRNA viruses in different matrixes (air, liquid, and solid). The rate of inactivation of ssRNA viruses in liquid was higher than in air, whereas inactivation on solid surfaces varied with the type of surface. The efficacy of light-based inactivation was reduced by the presence of absorptive materials. Several technologies can be used to deliver light, including mercury lamp (conventional UV), excimer lamp (UV), pulsed-light, and light-emitting diode (LED). Pulsed-light technologies could inactivate viruses more quickly than conventional UV-C lamps. Large-scale use of germicidal LED is dependent on future improvements in their energy efficiency. Blue light possesses virucidal potential in the presence of exogenous photosensitizers, although femtosecond laser (ultrashort pulses) can be used to circumvent the need for photosensitizers. Red light can be combined with methylene blue for application in medical settings, especially for sanitization of blood products. Future modelling studies are required to establish clearer parameters for assessing susceptibility of viruses to light-based inactivation. There is considerable scope for improvement in the current germicidal light-based technologies and practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)
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23 pages, 6213 KiB  
Review
Mayaro Virus Pathogenesis and Transmission Mechanisms
by Cheikh Tidiane Diagne, Michèle Bengue, Valérie Choumet, Rodolphe Hamel, Julien Pompon and Dorothée Missé
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 738; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090738 - 8 Sep 2020
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 7421
Abstract
Mayaro virus (MAYV), isolated for the first time in Trinidad and Tobago, has captured the attention of public health authorities worldwide following recent outbreaks in the Americas. It has a propensity to be exported outside its original geographical range, because of the vast [...] Read more.
Mayaro virus (MAYV), isolated for the first time in Trinidad and Tobago, has captured the attention of public health authorities worldwide following recent outbreaks in the Americas. It has a propensity to be exported outside its original geographical range, because of the vast distribution of its vectors. Moreover, most of the world population is immunologically naïve with respect to infection with MAYV which makes this virus a true threat. The recent invasion of several countries by Aedesalbopictus underscores the risk of potential urban transmission of MAYV in both tropical and temperate regions. In humans, the clinical manifestations of MAYV disease range from mild fever, rash, and joint pain to arthralgia. In the absence of a licensed vaccine and clinically proven therapeutics against Mayaro fever, prevention focuses mainly on household mosquito control. However, as demonstrated for other arboviruses, mosquito control is rather inefficient for outbreak management and alternative approaches to contain the spread of MAYV are therefore necessary. Despite its strong epidemic potential, little is currently known about MAYV. This review addresses various aspects of MAYV, including its epidemiology, vector biology, mode of transmission, and clinical complications, as well as the latest developments in MAYV diagnosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Untargeted Alternative Routes of Arbovirus Transmission)
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18 pages, 2649 KiB  
Article
Trends of the Dengue Serotype-4 Circulation with Epidemiological, Phylogenetic, and Entomological Insights in Lao PDR between 2015 and 2019
by Elodie Calvez, Virginie Pommelet, Somphavanh Somlor, Julien Pompon, Souksakhone Viengphouthong, Phaithong Bounmany, Thep Aksone Chindavong, Thonglakhone Xaybounsou, Phoyphaylinh Prasayasith, Sitsana Keosenhom, Paul T. Brey, Olivier Telle, Marc Choisy, Sébastien Marcombe and Marc Grandadam
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090728 - 3 Sep 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4721
Abstract
Dengue outbreaks have regularly been recorded in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR) since the first detection of the disease in 1979. In 2012, an integrated arbovirus surveillance network was set up in Lao PDR and an entomological surveillance has been implemented since 2016 [...] Read more.
Dengue outbreaks have regularly been recorded in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR) since the first detection of the disease in 1979. In 2012, an integrated arbovirus surveillance network was set up in Lao PDR and an entomological surveillance has been implemented since 2016 in Vientiane Capital. Here, we report a study combining epidemiological, phylogenetic, and entomological analyzes during the largest DENV-4 epidemic ever recorded in Lao PDR (2015–2019). Strikingly, from 2015 to 2019, we reported the DENV-4 emergence and spread at the country level after two large epidemics predominated by DENV-3 and DENV-1, respectively, in 2012–2013 and 2015. Our data revealed a significant difference in the median age of the patient infected by DENV-4 compared to the other serotypes. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the circulation of DENV-4 Genotype I at the country level since at least 2013. The entomological surveillance showed a predominance of Aedesaegypti compared to Aedesalbopictus and high abundance of these vectors in dry and rainy seasons between 2016 and 2019, in Vientiane Capital. Overall, these results emphasized the importance of an integrated approach to evaluate factors, which could impact the circulation and the epidemiological profile of dengue viruses, especially in endemic countries like Lao PDR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Untargeted Alternative Routes of Arbovirus Transmission)
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29 pages, 4775 KiB  
Article
Differences in the Endophytic Microbiome of Olive Cultivars Infected by Xylella fastidiosa across Seasons
by Annalisa Giampetruzzi, Paula Baptista, Massimiliano Morelli, Cristina Cameirão, Teresa Lino Neto, Daniela Costa, Giusy D’Attoma, Raied Abou Kubaa, Giuseppe Altamura, Maria Saponari, José Alberto Pereira and Pasquale Saldarelli
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 723; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090723 - 2 Sep 2020
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 6079
Abstract
The dynamics of Xylella fastidiosa infections in the context of the endophytic microbiome was studied in field-grown plants of the susceptible and resistant olive cultivars Kalamata and FS17. Whole metagenome shotgun sequencing (WMSS) coupled with 16S/ITS rRNA gene sequencing was carried out on [...] Read more.
The dynamics of Xylella fastidiosa infections in the context of the endophytic microbiome was studied in field-grown plants of the susceptible and resistant olive cultivars Kalamata and FS17. Whole metagenome shotgun sequencing (WMSS) coupled with 16S/ITS rRNA gene sequencing was carried out on the same trees at two different stages of the infections: In Spring 2017 when plants were almost symptomless and in Autumn 2018 when the trees of the susceptible cultivar clearly showed desiccations. The progression of the infections detected in both cultivars clearly unraveled that Xylella tends to occupy the whole ecological niche and suppresses the diversity of the endophytic microbiome. However, this trend was mitigated in the resistant cultivar FS17, harboring lower population sizes and therefore lower Xylella average abundance ratio over total bacteria, and a higher α-diversity. Host cultivar had a negligible effect on the community composition and no clear associations of a single taxon or microbial consortia with the resistance cultivar were found with both sequencing approaches, suggesting that the mechanisms of resistance likely reside on factors that are independent of the microbiome structure. Overall, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Bacteriodetes dominated the bacterial microbiome while Ascomycota and Basidiomycota those of Fungi. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endophytes in Plant Health and Disease)
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13 pages, 3545 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Characterization of Multidrug-Resistant Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 Viruses Carrying a Dual Neuraminidase Mutation Isolated from Immunocompromised Patients
by Emi Takashita, Seiichiro Fujisaki, Masaru Yokoyama, Masayuki Shirakura, Hiroko Morita, Kazuya Nakamura, Noriko Kishida, Tomoko Kuwahara, Hironori Sato, Ikuko Doi, Yuji Sato, Shinichi Takao, Yukie Shimazu, Takeshi Shimomura, Takuo Ito, Shinji Watanabe, Takato Odagiri and on behalf of The Influenza Virus Surveillance Group of Japan
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090725 - 2 Sep 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3305
Abstract
Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses carrying a dual neuraminidase (NA) substitution were isolated from immunocompromised patients after administration of one or more NA inhibitors. These mutant viruses possessed an H275Y/I223R, H275Y/I223K, or H275Y/G147R substitution in their NA and showed enhanced cross-resistance to oseltamivir and peramivir [...] Read more.
Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses carrying a dual neuraminidase (NA) substitution were isolated from immunocompromised patients after administration of one or more NA inhibitors. These mutant viruses possessed an H275Y/I223R, H275Y/I223K, or H275Y/G147R substitution in their NA and showed enhanced cross-resistance to oseltamivir and peramivir and reduced susceptibility to zanamivir compared to single H275Y mutant viruses. Baloxavir could be a treatment option against the multidrug-resistant viruses because these dual H275Y mutant viruses showed susceptibility to this drug. The G147R substitution appears to stabilize the NA structure, with the fitness of the H275Y/G147R mutant virus being similar or somewhat better than that of the wild-type virus. Since the multidrug-resistant viruses may be able to transmit between humans, surveillance of these viruses must continue to improve clinical management and to protect public health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Influenza A Virus)
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13 pages, 709 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Japanese Encephalitis Force of Infection in Pigs, Poultry and Dogs in Cambodian Villages
by Héléna Ladreyt, Heidi Auerswald, Sothyra Tum, Sreymom Ken, Leangyi Heng, Saraden In, Sokchea Lay, Chakriyouth Top, Sowath Ly, Veasna Duong, Philippe Dussart, Benoit Durand and Véronique Chevalier
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 719; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090719 - 1 Sep 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3886
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the main cause of human viral encephalitis in Asia, with a mortality rate reaching 30%, mostly affecting children. The traditionally described cycle involving wild birds as reservoirs, pigs as amplifying hosts and Culex mosquitoes as vectors is questioned, [...] Read more.
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the main cause of human viral encephalitis in Asia, with a mortality rate reaching 30%, mostly affecting children. The traditionally described cycle involving wild birds as reservoirs, pigs as amplifying hosts and Culex mosquitoes as vectors is questioned, with increasing evidence of a more complex multi-host system involved in areas where densities of pigs are low, such as in Cambodia. In 2018, we examined pigs, chickens, ducks and dogs from Kandal province, Cambodia, for antibody response against JEV by hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralization assays. Forces of infection (FOI) for flaviviruses and JEV were estimated per species and per unit of body surface area (BSA). JEV seroprevalence reached 31% (95% CI: 23–41%) in pigs, 1% (95% CI: 0.1–3%) in chickens, 12% (95% CI: 7–19%) in ducks and 35% (95% CI: 28–42%) in dogs. Pigs were most likely to be infected (FOI: 0.09 per month), but the FOI was higher in ducks than in pigs for a given BSA (ratio of 0.13). Dogs had a lower FOI than ducks but a higher FOI than chickens (0.01 per month). For a given BSA, dogs were less likely to be infected than pigs (ratio of 1.9). In Cambodia, the virus may be circulating between multiple hosts. Dogs live in close contact with humans, and estimating their exposure to JEV infection could be a relevant indicator of the risk for humans to get infected, which is poorly known due to underdiagnosis. Understanding the JEV cycle and developing tools to quantify the exposure of humans is essential to adapt and support control measures for this vaccine-preventable disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)
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19 pages, 3375 KiB  
Review
Epidemiology of Usutu Virus: The European Scenario
by Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek, Tamas Petrovic, Vladimir Savic, Ljubo Barbic, Irena Tabain, Vladimir Stevanovic, Ana Klobucar, Anna Mrzljak, Maja Ilic, Maja Bogdanic, Iva Benvin, Marija Santini, Krunoslav Capak, Federica Monaco, Eddy Listes and Giovanni Savini
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090699 - 26 Aug 2020
Cited by 72 | Viewed by 7464
Abstract
Usutu virus (USUV) is an emerging arbovirus isolated in 1959 (Usutu River, Swaziland). Previously restricted to sub-Saharan Africa, the virus was introduced in Europe in 1996. While the USUV has received little attention in Africa, the virus emergence has prompted numerous studies with [...] Read more.
Usutu virus (USUV) is an emerging arbovirus isolated in 1959 (Usutu River, Swaziland). Previously restricted to sub-Saharan Africa, the virus was introduced in Europe in 1996. While the USUV has received little attention in Africa, the virus emergence has prompted numerous studies with robust epidemiological surveillance programs in Europe. The natural transmission cycle of USUV involves mosquitoes (vectors) and birds (amplifying hosts) with humans and other mammals considered incidental (“dead-end”) hosts. In Africa, the virus was isolated in mosquitoes, rodents and birds and serologically detected in horses and dogs. In Europe, USUV was detected in bats, whereas antibodies were found in different animal species (horses, dogs, squirrels, wild boar, deer and lizards). While bird mortalities were not reported in Africa, in Europe USUV was shown to be highly pathogenic for several bird species, especially blackbirds (Turdus merula) and great gray owls (Strix nebulosa). Furthermore, neurotropism of USUV for humans was reported for the first time in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. Epizootics and genetic diversity of USUV in different bird species as well as detection of the virus in mosquitoes suggest repeated USUV introductions into Europe with endemization in some countries. The zoonotic potential of USUV has been reported in a growing number of human cases. Clinical cases of neuroinvasive disease and USUV fever, as well as seroconversion in blood donors were reported in Europe since 2009. While most USUV strains detected in humans, birds and mosquitoes belong to European USUV lineages, several reports indicate the presence of African lineages as well. Since spreading trends of USUV are likely to continue, continuous multidisciplinary interventions (“One Health” concept) should be conducted for monitoring and prevention of this emerging arboviral infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Usutu Virus Infection)
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18 pages, 9060 KiB  
Article
Atypical Non-H2S-Producing Monophasic Salmonella Typhimurium ST3478 Strains from Chicken Meat at Processing Stage Are Adapted to Diverse Stresses
by Joana Mourão, Andreia Rebelo, Sofia Ribeiro, Luísa Peixe, Carla Novais and Patrícia Antunes
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 701; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090701 - 26 Aug 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5176
Abstract
Poultry products are still an important cause of Salmonella infections worldwide, with an increasingly reported expansion of less-frequent serotypes or atypical strains that are frequently multidrug-resistant. Nevertheless, the ability of Salmonella to survive antimicrobials promoted in the context of antibiotic reducing/replacing and farming [...] Read more.
Poultry products are still an important cause of Salmonella infections worldwide, with an increasingly reported expansion of less-frequent serotypes or atypical strains that are frequently multidrug-resistant. Nevertheless, the ability of Salmonella to survive antimicrobials promoted in the context of antibiotic reducing/replacing and farming rethinking (e.g., organic acids and copper in feed/biocides) has been scarcely explored. We investigated Salmonella occurrence (conventional and molecular assays) among chicken meat at the processing stage (n = 53 batches/29 farms) and characterized their tolerance to diverse stress factors (antibiotics, copper, acid pH, and peracetic acid). Whole-genome sequencing was used to assess adaptive features and to perform comparative analysis. We found a low Salmonella occurrence (4%) and identified S. Enteritidis/ST11 plus atypical non-H2S-producing S. 1,4,[5],12:i:-/ST3478. The ST3478 presented the ability to grow under diverse stresses (antibiotics, copper, and acid-pH). Comparative genomics among ST3478 isolates showed similar antibiotic/metal resistance gene repertoires and identical nonsense phsA thiosulfate reductase mutations (related to H2S-negative phenotype), besides their close phylogenetic relationship by cgMLST and SNPs. This study alerts for the ongoing national and international spread of an emerging monophasic Salmonella Typhimurium clonal lineage with an enlarged ability to survive to antimicrobials/biocides commonly used in poultry production, being unnoticed by conventional Salmonella detection approaches due to an atypical non-H2S-producing phenotype. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on Control of Foodborne Pathogens: From Conventional to Cutting-Edge Approaches)
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9 pages, 2189 KiB  
Article
Detection of Feline Coronavirus in Feline Effusions by Immunofluorescence Staining and Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction
by Yi-Chen Luo, I-Li Liu, Yu-Tan Chen and Hui-Wen Chen
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 698; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090698 - 25 Aug 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4066
Abstract
Feline coronavirus (FCoV), the pathogen for feline infectious peritonitis, is a lethal infectious agent that can cause effusions in the pleural and abdominal cavities in domestic cats. To study the epidemiology of FCoV in Taiwan, 81 FIP-suspected sick cats with effusive specimens were [...] Read more.
Feline coronavirus (FCoV), the pathogen for feline infectious peritonitis, is a lethal infectious agent that can cause effusions in the pleural and abdominal cavities in domestic cats. To study the epidemiology of FCoV in Taiwan, 81 FIP-suspected sick cats with effusive specimens were recruited to test for FCoV infection using immunofluorescence staining and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction as detection methods, and viral RNAs were recovered from the specimens to conduct genotyping and phylogenetic analysis based on the spike (S) protein gene. The results revealed that a total of 47 (47/81, 58%) of the sick cats were positive for FCoV in the effusion samples, of which 39 were successfully sequenced and comprised of 21 type I strains, 9 type II strains, and 9 co-infections. The signalment analysis of these sick cats revealed that only the sex of cats showed a significant association (odds ratio = 2.74, 95% confidence interval = 1.06–7.07, p = 0.03) with the infection of FCoV, while age and breed showed no association. FCoV-positive cats demonstrated a significantly lower albumin to globulin ratio than negative individuals (p = 0.0004). The partial S gene-based phylogenetic analysis revealed that the type I strains demonstrated genetic diversity forming several clades, while the type II strains were more conserved. This study demonstrates the latest epidemiological status of FCoV infection in the northern part of Taiwan among sick cats and presents comparisons of Taiwan and other countries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feline Infectious Peritonitis)
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13 pages, 3881 KiB  
Article
Giardia duodenalis Induces Apoptosis in Intestinal Epithelial Cells via Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Mitochondrial Pathway In Vitro
by Lin Liu, Rui Fang, Ziyan Wei, Jingxue Wu, Xiaoyun Li and Wei Li
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090693 - 23 Aug 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3614
Abstract
The intestinal protozoan parasite, Giardia duodenalis, infects a large number of people in the world annually. Giardia infection has been considered a negative effect on intestinal epithelial cell growth, while the underlying mechanisms remain to be explored. Here we evaluated reactive oxygen [...] Read more.
The intestinal protozoan parasite, Giardia duodenalis, infects a large number of people in the world annually. Giardia infection has been considered a negative effect on intestinal epithelial cell growth, while the underlying mechanisms remain to be explored. Here we evaluated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptotic events in Giardia trophozoites-stimulated Caco-2 cells via fluorescence microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, flow cytometry, western blot, and cell counting kit-8 analyses. The results showed that Giardia trophozoite treatment could induce lactate dehydrogenase release and Caco-2 cell apoptosis. The ROS levels were increased post treatment. The observed typical characteristics of mitochondria damage include significant swelling and degeneration of matrix and cristae. After trophozoite treatment, the level of Bax protein expression was increased, while Bcl-2 protein decreased. Trophozoite stimulation also led to reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria to the cytoplasm, and this process was accompanied by activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 cleavage. Pretreatment with N-acetyl-L-cysteine, a ROS inhibitor, reversed G. duodenalis-induced Caco-2 cell apoptosis. Taken together, we indicated that G. duodenalis could induce Caco-2 cell apoptosis through a ROS- and mitochondria-mediated caspase-dependent pathway. This study furthers our understanding of the cellular mechanism of the interaction between Giardia trophozoites and host cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)
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17 pages, 2256 KiB  
Article
Highly Sensitive Virome Characterization of Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens Complex from Central Europe and the Caribbean Reveals Potential for Interspecies Viral Transmission
by Jakob Thannesberger, Nicolas Rascovan, Anna Eisenmann, Ingeborg Klymiuk, Carina Zittra, Hans-Peter Fuehrer, Thea Scantlebury-Manning, Marquita Gittens-St.Hilaire, Shane Austin, Robert Clive Landis and Christoph Steininger
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 686; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090686 - 21 Aug 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4065
Abstract
Mosquitoes are the most important vectors for arthropod-borne viral diseases. Mixed viral infections of mosquitoes allow genetic recombination or reassortment of diverse viruses, turning mosquitoes into potential virologic mixing bowls. In this study, we field-collected mosquitoes of different species (Aedes aegypti and [...] Read more.
Mosquitoes are the most important vectors for arthropod-borne viral diseases. Mixed viral infections of mosquitoes allow genetic recombination or reassortment of diverse viruses, turning mosquitoes into potential virologic mixing bowls. In this study, we field-collected mosquitoes of different species (Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens complex), from different geographic locations and environments (central Europe and the Caribbean) for highly sensitive next-generation sequencing-based virome characterization. We found a rich virus community associated with a great diversity of host species. Among those, we detected a large diversity of novel virus sequences that we could predominately assign to circular Rep-encoding single-stranded (CRESS) DNA viruses, including the full-length genome of a yet undescribed Gemykrogvirus species. Moreover, we report for the first time the detection of a potentially zoonotic CRESS-DNA virus (Cyclovirus VN) in mosquito vectors. This study expands the knowledge on virus diversity in medically important mosquito vectors, especially for CRESS-DNA viruses that have previously been shown to easily recombine and jump the species barrier. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Translational Research for Zoonotic Parasites: New Findings toward Improved Diagnostics, Therapy and Prevention)
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9 pages, 629 KiB  
Review
Buffalopox Virus: An Emerging Virus in Livestock and Humans
by Kamal H. Eltom, Abdallah M. Samy, Ahmed Abd El Wahed and Claus-Peter Czerny
Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 676; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090676 - 20 Aug 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5488
Abstract
Buffalopox virus (BPXV) is the cause of buffalopox, which was recognized by the FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Zoonosis as an important zoonotic disease. Buffalopox was first described in India, later in other countries, and has become an emerging contagious viral zoonotic disease [...] Read more.
Buffalopox virus (BPXV) is the cause of buffalopox, which was recognized by the FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Zoonosis as an important zoonotic disease. Buffalopox was first described in India, later in other countries, and has become an emerging contagious viral zoonotic disease infecting milkers with high morbidity among affected domestic buffalo and cattle. BPXV is a member of the genus Orthopoxvirus and a close variant of the vaccinia virus (VACV). Recent genome data show that BPXV shares a most recent common ancestor of VACV Lister strain, which had been used for inoculating buffalo calves to produce a Smallpox vaccine. Over time, VACV evolved into BPXV by establishing itself in buffaloes to be increasingly pathogenic to this host and to make infections in cattle and humans. Together with the current pandemic of SARS-COV2/COVID 19, BPXV infections illustrate how vulnerable the human population is to the emergence and re-emergence of viral pathogens from unsuspected sources. In view that majority of the world population are not vaccinated against smallpox and are most vulnerable in the event of its re-emergence, reviewing and understanding the biology of vaccinia-like viruses are necessary for developing a new generation of safer smallpox vaccines in the smallpox-free world. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Animal Pathogens)
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16 pages, 2594 KiB  
Article
Continuous Reassortment of Clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 Highly Pathogenetic Avian Influenza Viruses Demonstrating High Risk to Public Health
by Huanan Li, Qian Li, Bo Li, Yang Guo, Jinchao Xing, Qiang Xu, Lele Liu, Jiahao Zhang, Wenbao Qi, Weixin Jia and Ming Liao
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080670 - 18 Aug 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3377
Abstract
Since it firstly emerged in China in 2013, clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) has rapidly replaced predominant H5N1 to become the dominant H5 subtype in China, especially in ducks. Not only endemic in China, it also crossed the geographical [...] Read more.
Since it firstly emerged in China in 2013, clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) has rapidly replaced predominant H5N1 to become the dominant H5 subtype in China, especially in ducks. Not only endemic in China, it also crossed the geographical barrier and emerged in South Korea, Japan, and Europe. Here, we analyzed the genetic properties of the clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 HPAIVs with full genome sequences available online together with our own isolates. Phylogenetic analysis showed that clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 HPAIVs continuously reassorted with local H5, H6, and H7N9/H9N2. Species analysis reveals that aquatic poultry and migratory birds became the dominant hosts of H5N6. Adaption to aquatic poultry might help clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 better adapt to migratory birds, thus enabling it to become endemic in China. Besides, migratory birds might help clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 transmit all over the world. Clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 HPAIVs also showed a preference for α2,6-SA receptors when compared to other avian origin influenza viruses. Experiments in vitro and in vivo revealed that clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 HPAIVs exhibited high replication efficiency in both avian and mammal cells, and it also showed high pathogenicity in both mice and chickens, demonstrating high risk to public health. Considering all the factors together, adaption to aquatic poultry and migratory birds helps clade 2.3.4.4 H5N6 overcome the geographical isolation, and it has potential to be the next influenza pandemic in the world, making it worthy of our attention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Infectious Diseases of Domestic Animals in a One Health Perspective)
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21 pages, 409 KiB  
Review
Water as a Source of Antimicrobial Resistance and Healthcare-Associated Infections
by Claire Hayward, Kirstin E. Ross, Melissa H. Brown and Harriet Whiley
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080667 - 18 Aug 2020
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5174
Abstract
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are one of the most common patient complications, affecting 7% of patients in developed countries each year. The rise of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria has been identified as one of the biggest global health challenges, resulting in an estimated 23,000 [...] Read more.
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are one of the most common patient complications, affecting 7% of patients in developed countries each year. The rise of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria has been identified as one of the biggest global health challenges, resulting in an estimated 23,000 deaths in the US annually. Environmental reservoirs for AMR bacteria such as bed rails, light switches and doorknobs have been identified in the past and addressed with infection prevention guidelines. However, water and water-related devices are often overlooked as potential sources of HAI outbreaks. This systematic review examines the role of water and water-related devices in the transmission of AMR bacteria responsible for HAIs, discussing common waterborne devices, pathogens, and surveillance strategies. AMR strains of previously described waterborne pathogens including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium spp., and Legionella spp. were commonly isolated. However, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae that are not typically associated with water were also isolated. Biofilms were identified as a hot spot for the dissemination of genes responsible for survival functions. A limitation identified was a lack of consistency between environmental screening scope, isolation methodology, and antimicrobial resistance characterization. Broad universal environmental surveillance guidelines must be developed and adopted to monitor AMR pathogens, allowing prediction of future threats before waterborne infection outbreaks occur. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Waterborne/Foodborne/Airborne Pathogens)
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15 pages, 1034 KiB  
Article
Molecular Epidemiology Reveals Low Genetic Diversity among Cryptococcus neoformans Isolates from People Living with HIV in Lima, Peru, during the Pre-HAART Era
by Nathalie van de Wiele, Edgar Neyra, Carolina Firacative, Felix Gilgado, Carolina Serena, Beatriz Bustamante and Wieland Meyer
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080665 - 18 Aug 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3079
Abstract
Cryptococcosis, a mycosis presenting mostly as meningoencephalitis, affecting predominantly human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected people, is mainly caused by Cryptococcus neoformans. The genetic variation of 48 C. neoformans isolates, recovered from 20 HIV-positive people in Lima, Peru, during the pre-highly active antiretroviral therapy [...] Read more.
Cryptococcosis, a mycosis presenting mostly as meningoencephalitis, affecting predominantly human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected people, is mainly caused by Cryptococcus neoformans. The genetic variation of 48 C. neoformans isolates, recovered from 20 HIV-positive people in Lima, Peru, during the pre-highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) era, was studied retrospectively. The mating type of the isolates was determined by PCR, and the serotype by agglutination and CAP59-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Genetic diversity was assessed by URA5-RFLP, PCR-fingerprinting, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). All isolates were mating type alpha, with 39 molecular type VNI, seven VNII, corresponding to C. neoformans var. grubii serotype A, and two VNIII AD hybrids. Overall, the cryptococcal population from HIV-positive people in Lima shows a low degree of genetic diversity. In most patients with persistent cryptococcal infection, the same genotype was recovered during the follow-up. In four patients with relapse and one with therapy failure, different genotypes were found in isolates from the re-infection and from the isolate recovered at the end of the treatment. In one patient, two genotypes were found in the first cryptococcosis episode. This study contributes data from Peru to the ongoing worldwide population genetic analysis of Cryptococcus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Pathogens)
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14 pages, 933 KiB  
Article
Cystatin C and α-1-Microglobulin Predict Severe Acute Kidney Injury in Patients with Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome
by Magnus Hansson, Rasmus Gustafsson, Chloé Jacquet, Nedia Chebaane, Simon Satchell, Therese Thunberg, Clas Ahlm and Anne-Marie Fors Connolly
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080666 - 18 Aug 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3529
Abstract
Puumala orthohantavirus causes hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) characterized by acute kidney injury (AKI), an abrupt decrease in renal function. Creatinine is routinely used to detect and quantify AKI; however, early AKI may not be reflected in increased creatinine levels. Therefore, kidney [...] Read more.
Puumala orthohantavirus causes hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) characterized by acute kidney injury (AKI), an abrupt decrease in renal function. Creatinine is routinely used to detect and quantify AKI; however, early AKI may not be reflected in increased creatinine levels. Therefore, kidney injury markers that can predict AKI are needed. The potential of the kidney injury markers urea, cystatin C, α1-microglobulin (A1M) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) to detect early AKI during HFRS was studied by quantifying the levels of these markers in consecutively obtained plasma (P) and urine samples (U) for 44 HFRS patients. P-cystatin C and U-A1M levels were significantly increased during early HFRS compared to follow-up. In a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, P-cystatin C, U-A1M and P-urea predicted severe AKI with area under the curve 0.72, 0.73 and 0.71, respectively, whereas the traditional kidney injury biomarkers creatinine and U-albumin did not predict AKI. Nearly half of the HFRS patients (41%) fulfilled the criteria for shrunken pore syndrome, which was associated with the level of inflammation as measured by P-CRP. P-cystatin C and U-A1M are more sensitive and earlier markers compared to creatinine in predicting kidney injury during HFRS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses)
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22 pages, 1268 KiB  
Article
Molecular Characterisation of a Rare Reassortant Porcine-Like G5P[6] Rotavirus Strain Detected in an Unvaccinated Child in Kasama, Zambia
by Wairimu M. Maringa, Peter N. Mwangi, Julia Simwaka, Evans M. Mpabalwani, Jason M. Mwenda, Ina Peenze, Mathew D. Esona, M. Jeffrey Mphahlele, Mapaseka L. Seheri and Martin M. Nyaga
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080663 - 17 Aug 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4138
Abstract
A human-porcine reassortant strain, RVA/Human-wt/ZMB/UFS-NGS-MRC-DPRU4723/2014/G5P[6], was identified in a sample collected in 2014 from an unvaccinated 12 month old male hospitalised for gastroenteritis in Zambia. We sequenced and characterised the complete genome of this strain which presented the constellation: G5-P[6]-I1-R1-C1-M1-A8-N1-T1-E1-H1. The genotype A8 [...] Read more.
A human-porcine reassortant strain, RVA/Human-wt/ZMB/UFS-NGS-MRC-DPRU4723/2014/G5P[6], was identified in a sample collected in 2014 from an unvaccinated 12 month old male hospitalised for gastroenteritis in Zambia. We sequenced and characterised the complete genome of this strain which presented the constellation: G5-P[6]-I1-R1-C1-M1-A8-N1-T1-E1-H1. The genotype A8 is often observed in porcine strains. Phylogenetic analyses showed that VP6, VP7, NSP2, NSP4, and NSP5 genes were closely related to cognate gene sequences of porcine strains (e.g., RVA/Pig-wt/CHN/DZ-2/2013/G5P[X] for VP7) from the NCBI database, while VP1, VP3, VP4, and NSP3 were closely related to porcine-like human strains (e.g., RVA/Human-wt/CHN/E931/2008/G4P[6] for VP1, and VP3). On the other hand, the origin of the VP2 was not clear from our analyses, as it was not only close to both porcine (e.g., RVA/Pig-tc/CHN/SWU-1C/2018/G9P[13]) and porcine-like human strains (e.g., RVA/Human-wt/LKA/R1207/2009/G4P[6]) but also to three human strains (e.g., RVA/Human-wt/USA/1476/1974/G1P[8]). The VP7 gene was located in lineage II that comprised only porcine strains, which suggests the occurrence of independent porcine-to-human reassortment events. The study strain may have collectively been derived through interspecies transmission, or through reassortment event(s) involving strains of porcine and porcine-like human origin. The results of this study underline the importance of whole-genome characterisation of rotavirus strains and provide insights into interspecies transmissions from porcine to humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rotaviruses and Rotavirus Vaccines)
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17 pages, 653 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in the Diagnosis of Classical Swine Fever and Future Perspectives
by Lihua Wang, Rachel Madera, Yuzhen Li, David Scott McVey, Barbara S. Drolet and Jishu Shi
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080658 - 15 Aug 2020
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5617
Abstract
Classical swine fever (CSF) is a highly contagious viral disease of pigs, including wild boar. It is regarded as one of the major problems in the pig industry as it is still endemic in many regions of the world and has the potential [...] Read more.
Classical swine fever (CSF) is a highly contagious viral disease of pigs, including wild boar. It is regarded as one of the major problems in the pig industry as it is still endemic in many regions of the world and has the potential to cause devastating epidemics, particularly in countries free of the disease. Rapid and reliable diagnosis is of utmost importance in the control of CSF. Since clinical presentations of CSF are highly variable and may be confused with other viral diseases in pigs, laboratory diagnosis is indispensable for an unambiguous diagnosis. On an international level, well-established diagnostic tests of CSF such as virus isolation, fluorescent antibody test (FAT), antigen capture antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), virus neutralization test (VNT), and antibody ELISA have been described in detail in the OIE Terrestrial Manual. However, improved CSF diagnostic methods or alternatives based on modern technologies have been developed in recent years. This review thus presents recent advances in the diagnosis of CSF and future perspectives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Classical Swine Fever)
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20 pages, 1719 KiB  
Article
BLIGHTSIM: A New Potato Late Blight Model Simulating the Response of Phytophthora infestans to Diurnal Temperature and Humidity Fluctuations in Relation to Climate Change
by Hossein A. Narouei-Khandan, Shankar K. Shakya, Karen A. Garrett, Erica M. Goss, Nicholas S. Dufault, Jorge L. Andrade-Piedra, Senthold Asseng, Daniel Wallach and Ariena H.C van Bruggen
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080659 - 15 Aug 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5590
Abstract
Temperature response curves under diurnal oscillating temperatures differ from those under constant conditions for all stages of the Phytophthora infestans infection cycle on potatoes. We developed a mechanistic model (BLIGHTSIM) with an hourly time step to simulate late blight under fluctuating environmental conditions [...] Read more.
Temperature response curves under diurnal oscillating temperatures differ from those under constant conditions for all stages of the Phytophthora infestans infection cycle on potatoes. We developed a mechanistic model (BLIGHTSIM) with an hourly time step to simulate late blight under fluctuating environmental conditions and predict late blight epidemics in potato fields. BLIGHTSIM is a modified susceptible (S), latent (L), infectious (I) and removed (R) compartmental model with hourly temperature and relative humidity as driving variables. The model was calibrated with growth chamber data covering one infection cycle and validated with field data from Ecuador. The model provided a good fit to all data sets evaluated. There was a significant interaction between average temperature and amplitude in their effects on the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) as predicted from growth chamber data on a single infection cycle. BLIGHTSIM can be incorporated in a potato growth model to study effects of diurnal temperature range on late blight impact under climate change scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant Pathogens)
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21 pages, 3464 KiB  
Article
Analyses of the Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola) Transcriptome during Host Infection Highlight Specific Gene Expression Profiling in Resistant Rice Plants
by Anne-Sophie Petitot, Alexis Dereeper, Corinne Da Silva, Julie Guy and Diana Fernandez
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080644 - 8 Aug 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4210
Abstract
The plant-parasitic nematode Meloidogyne graminicola causes considerable damages to rice (Oryza sativa) culture. Resistance to M. graminicola in the related species Oryza glaberrima reduces root penetration by juveniles and stops further nematode development. M. graminicola genes expressed during O. sativa infection [...] Read more.
The plant-parasitic nematode Meloidogyne graminicola causes considerable damages to rice (Oryza sativa) culture. Resistance to M. graminicola in the related species Oryza glaberrima reduces root penetration by juveniles and stops further nematode development. M. graminicola genes expressed during O. sativa infection were previously characterized but no information is available about the molecular dialogue established with a resistant plant. We compared the M. graminicola transcriptomes of stage-two juveniles (J2s) before and during infection of susceptible or resistant rice. Among 36,121 M. graminicola genes surveyed, 367 were differentially expressed during infection of resistant or susceptible plants. Genes encoding cell wall-degrading enzymes, peptidases and neuropeptides were expressed for a longer time in resistant plants compared to susceptible plants. Conversely, genes related to nematode development were not activated in the resistant host. The majority of M. graminicola effector genes had similar expression patterns, whatever the host genotype. However, two venom allergen-like protein (VAP)-encoding genes were specifically induced in resistant plants and Mg-VAP1 silencing in J2s reduced their ability to colonize roots. This study highlighted that M. graminicola adapts its gene expression to the host susceptibility. Further investigation is required to assess the role of Mg-VAPs in the rice–nematode interaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant Pathogens)
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15 pages, 1062 KiB  
Article
Field Experience of Antibody Testing against Mycoplasma bovis in Adult Cows in Commercial Danish Dairy Cattle Herds
by Mette Bisgaard Petersen, Lars Pedersen, Lone Møller Pedersen and Liza Rosenbaum Nielsen
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080637 - 6 Aug 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3323
Abstract
Mycoplasma bovis in cattle is difficult to diagnose. Recently, the ID screen® mycoplasma bovis indirect ELISA (ID screen) was commercially released by IDVet. The objectives of this study were to: (1) gain and share experience of using the ID screen in adult [...] Read more.
Mycoplasma bovis in cattle is difficult to diagnose. Recently, the ID screen® mycoplasma bovis indirect ELISA (ID screen) was commercially released by IDVet. The objectives of this study were to: (1) gain and share experience of using the ID screen in adult dairy cows under field conditions; (2) determine the correlation between antibody levels in milk and serum and (3) compare the ID screen results with those of the Bio K 302 (BioX 302) ELISA from BioX Diagnostics. Paired serum and milk samples were collected from 270 cows from 12 Danish dairy herds with three categories of M. bovis disease history. The ID screen tested nearly all cows positive in all, but the three non-infected herds, while the BioX 302 tested very few cows positive. The ID screen is therefore a much more sensitive test than the BioX 302. However, cows in five exposed herds without signs of ongoing infection and two herds with no history of M. bovis infection also tested ID screen positive. Therefore, the performance and interpretation of the test must be investigated under field conditions in best practice test evaluation setups. A concordance correlation coefficient of 0.66 (95% CI: 0.59–0.72) between the ID screen serum and milk results indicates that milk samples can replace serum samples for the ID screen diagnosis of M. bovis in adult cows. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycoplasma bovis Infections: Occurrence, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Control, Including Prevention and Therapy)
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19 pages, 634 KiB  
Review
Factoring in the Complexity of the Cystic Fibrosis Lung to Understand Aspergillus fumigatus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Interactions
by Emily Beswick, Jorge Amich and Sara Gago
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080639 - 6 Aug 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5731
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa has long been established as the most prevalent respiratory pathogen in Cystic Fibrosis (CF) patients, with opportunistic infection causing profound morbidity and mortality. Recently, Aspergillus fumigatus has also been recognised as a key contributor to CF lung deterioration, being consistently associated [...] Read more.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa has long been established as the most prevalent respiratory pathogen in Cystic Fibrosis (CF) patients, with opportunistic infection causing profound morbidity and mortality. Recently, Aspergillus fumigatus has also been recognised as a key contributor to CF lung deterioration, being consistently associated with decreased lung function and worsened prognosis in these patients. As clinical evidence for the common occurrence of combined infection with these two pathogens increases, research into the mechanism and consequences of their interaction is becoming more relevant. Clinical evidence suggests a synergistic effect of combined infection, which translates into a poorer prognosis for the patients. In vitro results from the laboratory have identified a variety of possible synergistic and antagonistic interactions between A. fumigatus and P. aeruginosa. Here, we present a comprehensive overview of the complex environment of the CF lung and discuss how it needs to be considered to determine the exact molecular interactions that A. fumigatus and P. aeruginosa undergo during combined infection and their effects on the host. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aspergillosis)
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21 pages, 1187 KiB  
Review
Mycoplasma bovis Infections—Occurrence, Diagnosis and Control
by Katarzyna Dudek, Robin A. J. Nicholas, Ewelina Szacawa and Dariusz Bednarek
Pathogens 2020, 9(8), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9080640 - 6 Aug 2020
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 8712
Abstract
Mycoplasma bovis is a cause of bronchopneumonia, mastitis and arthritis but may also affect other main organs in cattle such us the eye, ear or brain. Despite its non-zoonotic character, M. bovis infections are responsible for substantial economic health and welfare problems worldwide. [...] Read more.
Mycoplasma bovis is a cause of bronchopneumonia, mastitis and arthritis but may also affect other main organs in cattle such us the eye, ear or brain. Despite its non-zoonotic character, M. bovis infections are responsible for substantial economic health and welfare problems worldwide. M. bovis has spread worldwide, including to countries for a long time considered free of the pathogen. Control of M. bovis infections is hampered by a lack of effective vaccines and treatments due to increasing trends in antimicrobial resistance. This review summarizes the latest data on the epizootic situation of M. bovis infections and new sources/routes of transmission of the infection, and discusses the progress in diagnostics. The review includes various recommendations and suggestions which could be applied to infection control programs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycoplasma bovis Infections: Occurrence, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Control, Including Prevention and Therapy)
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