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Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever

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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Viral Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2021) | Viewed by 26278

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Dr. Véronique Chevalier

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Guest Editor

CIRAD - International Centre of Research in Agronomy for Development, Astre Unit. Montpellier, France
IPC - Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Epidemiology and Public Health Unit. Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Interests: zoonotic infectious diseases epidemiology and modelling, with a special interest on vector borne diseases

Dr. Philippe Dussart

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

IPC - Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Head of the Virology Unit. Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Interests: diagnosis; epidemiology and molecular characterization; emerging tropical viral diseases; arboviruses; influenza viruses; rabies

Dr. Benoit Durand

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Laboratory for Animal Health, Head of the Epidemiology Unit. Maisons-Alfort, France
Interests: animal diseases; infectious disease epidemiology and modelling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Geographical distribution and economical and/or sanitary impact or vector borne zoonosis has dramatically increased during the last decades. Globalization, climatic changes –extreme events or long-term trends, provide to pathogens new opportunities to spread, and if conditions are favorable to colonize new territories and cause outbreaks in disease-free areas. The prediction and the quantification of these risks, as well as their variability is crucial in order to adapt surveillance and control measures.

Japanese Encephalitis (JE) and Rift Valley fever (RVF) are two major arbo-zoonosis. They both have a severe impact on human and/or animal health in endemic/enzootic areas. Their geographical distribution is limited to Asia/Pacific for JE, and Africa and Indian Ocean for RVF. Other arboviruses such as chikungunya or Zika viruses known to be established in a given geographical area have been recently circulating around the world. Recent findings suggest that JE and RVF viruses could travel, either within hots or infected vectors, and spread to new areas : a RVF human case was for the first time detected in China, probably imported from Angola [1-3]. The same year, a person who has never travelled outside Angola again, was declared co-infected by JE and yellow fever virus [4].

In this Special Issue, we aim to cover a wide range of topic focusing on RVF or JE infection and epidemiology, and provide (ii) new insights on their respective transmission, persistence and spread mechanisms in endemic/enzootic areas (ii) evaluation of the risk and consequences of spread and (iii) potential for endemisation in disease-free areas.

All types of articles will be considered for publication, including short reports, primary research articles, and reviews.

Potential topics include, but are not limited to, the following:

Persistence, transmission and diffusion mechanisms
Diversity, dynamics, competence, trophic behavior of vectors, niche modelling
Host/pathogen, host/vector interactions
Genetic diversity and virus reassortment
Epidemiological system modelling
Risk analysis

References

Shi Y, Zheng K, Li X, Li L, Li S, Ma J, et al. Isolation and phylogenetic study of Rift Valley fever virus from the first imported case to China. Virol Sin. 2017;32(3):253-6. doi: 10.1007/s12250-017-3949-z.
Liu J, Sun Y, Shi W, Tan S, Pan Y, Cui S, et al. The first imported case of Rift Valley fever in China reveals a genetic reassortment of different viral lineages. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2017;6(1):e4. doi: 10.1038/emi.2016.136.
Liu W, Sun F, Tong Y, Zhang S, Cao W. Rift Valley fever virus imported into China from Angola. Lancet Infect Dis 2016;16(11):1226. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30401-7. .
Simon-Loriere E, Faye O, Prot M, Casademont I, Fall G, Fernandez-Garcia M, et al. Autochthonous Japanese Encephalitis with Yellow Fever Coinfection in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(15):1483-5. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1701600.

Dr. Véronique Chevalier
Dr Philippe Dussart
Dr. Benoit Durand
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Persistence, transmission and diffusion mechanisms
Diversity, dynamics, competence, trophic behavior of vectors, niche modelling
Host/pathogen, host/vector interactions
Genetic diversity and virus reassortment
Epidemiological system modelling Risk analysis

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 2719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Over 100 Years of Rift Valley Fever: A Patchwork of Data on Pathogen Spread and Spillover

by Gebbiena M. Bron, Kathryn Strimbu, Hélène Cecilia, Anita Lerch, Sean M. Moore, Quan Tran, T. Alex Perkins and Quirine A. ten Bosch

Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060708 - 05 Jun 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4316

Abstract

During the past 100 years, Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), a mosquito-borne virus, has caused potentially lethal disease in livestock, and has been associated with significant economic losses and trade bans. Spillover to humans occurs and can be fatal. Here, we combined data on RVF disease in humans (22 countries) and animals (37 countries) from 1931 to 2020 with seroprevalence studies from 1950 to 2020 (n = 228) from publicly available databases and publications to draw a more complete picture of the past and current RVFV epidemiology. RVFV has spread from its original locus in Kenya throughout Africa and into the Arabian Peninsula. Throughout the study period seroprevalence increased in both humans and animals, suggesting potentially increased RVFV exposure. In 24 countries, animals or humans tested positive for RVFV antibodies even though outbreaks had never been reported there, suggesting RVFV transmission may well go unnoticed. Among ruminants, sheep were the most likely to be exposed during RVF outbreaks, but not during periods of cryptic spread. We discuss critical data gaps and highlight the need for detailed study descriptions, and long-term studies using a one health approach to further convert the patchwork of data to the tale of RFV epidemiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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13 pages, 2168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Replication of Rift Valley Fever Virus in Amphibian and Reptile-Derived Cell Lines

by Melanie Rissmann, Matthias Lenk, Franziska Stoek, Claudia A. Szentiks, Martin Eiden and Martin H. Groschup

Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 681; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060681 - 31 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

Rift Valley fever phlebovirus (RVFV) is a zoonotic arthropod-borne virus, which has led to devastating epidemics in African countries and on the Arabian Peninsula. Results of in-vivo, in-vitro and field studies suggested that amphibians and reptiles may play a role as reservoir hosts of RVFV, promoting its maintenance during inter-epidemic periods. To elucidate this hypothesis, we examined two newly established reptile-derived cell lines (Egyptian cobra and Chinese pond turtle) and five previously generated reptile- and amphibian-derived cell lines for their replicative capacity for three low- and high-pathogenic RVFV strains. At different time points after infection, viral loads (TCID₅₀), genome loads and the presence of intracellular viral antigen (immunofluorescence) were assessed. Additionally, the influence of temperatures on the replication was examined. Except for one cell line (read-eared slider), all seven cell lines were infected by all three RVFV strains. Two different terrapin-derived cell lines (Common box turtle, Chinese pond turtle) were highly susceptible. A temperature-dependent replication of RVFV was detected for both amphibian and reptile cells. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate the general permissiveness of amphibian and reptile cell lines to RVFV and propose a potential involvement of terrapins in the virus ecology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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14 pages, 1246 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Host-Feeding Preference and Diel Activity of Mosquito Vectors of the Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Rural Cambodia

by Sébastien Boyer, Benoit Durand, Sony Yean, Cécile Brengues, Pierre-Olivier Maquart, Didier Fontenille and Véronique Chevalier

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030376 - 21 Mar 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3827

Abstract

Japanese Encephalitis (JE) is the most important cause of human encephalitis in Southeast Asia, and this zoonosis is mainly transmitted from pigs to human by mosquitoes. A better understanding of the host-feeding preference of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) major vectors is crucial for identifying risk areas, defining bridge vector species and targeting adapted vector control strategies. To assess host-feeding preference of JE vectors in a rural Cambodian area where JE is known to circulate, in 2017, we implemented four sessions of mosquito trapping (March, June, September, December), during five consecutive nights, collecting four times a night (6 p.m. to 6 a.m.), and using five baited traps simultaneously, i.e., cow, chicken, pig, human, and a blank one for control. In addition, blood meals of 157 engorged females trapped at the same location were opportunistically analyzed with polymerase chain reaction (PCR), using cow, pig, human, and dog blood primers. More than 95% of the 36,709 trapped mosquitoes were potential JE vectors. These vectors were trapped in large numbers throughout the year, including during the dry season, and from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. Despite the apparent host-feeding preference of Culex vishnui, Cx. gelidus, and Cx. tritaenhyorhincus for cows, statistical analysis suggested that the primary target of these three mosquito species were pigs. Dog blood was detected in eight mosquitoes of the 157 tested, showing that mosquitoes also bite dogs, and suggesting that dogs may be used as proxy of the risk for human to get infected by JE virus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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9 pages, 1173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Rice and Livestock Production and the Potential Emergence of Japanese Encephalitis in Africa

by Jennifer S. Lord

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030294 - 04 Mar 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

The known distribution of Japanese encephalitis (JE) is limited to Asia and Australasia. However, autochthonous transmission of Japanese encephalitis virus was reported in Africa for the first time in 2016. Reasons for the current geographic restriction of JE and the circumstances that may permit emergence in non-endemic areas are not well known. Here, I assess potential changes in vector breeding habitat and livestock production in Africa that are conducive to JEV transmission, using open-source data available from the Food and Agriculture Organization between 1961 and 2019. For 16 of 57 countries in Africa, there was evidence of existing, or an increase in, conditions potentially suitable for JE emergence. This comprised the area used for rice production and the predicted proportion of blood meals on pigs. Angola, where autochthonous transmission was reported, was one of these 16 countries. Studies to better quantify the role of alternative hosts, including domestic birds in transmission in endemic regions, would help to determine the potential for emergence elsewhere. In Africa, surveillance programs for arboviruses should not rule out the possibility of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) circulation in areas with high pig or bird density coincident with Culicine breeding habitats. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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12 pages, 2069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Cleavage Sites Proteolytically Processed by NS2B-NS3 Protease in Polyprotein of Japanese Encephalitis Virus

by Abdul Wahaab, Ke Liu, Muddassar Hameed, Muhammad Naveed Anwar, Lei Kang, Chenxi Li, Xiaochun Ma, Abdul Wajid, Yi Yang, Umair Hassan Khan, Jianchao Wei, Beibei Li, Donghua Shao, Yafeng Qiu and Zhiyong Ma

Pathogens 2021, 10(2), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020102 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3249

Abstract

Understanding the proteolytic processing of polyprotein mediated by NS2B-NS3 protease contributes to the exploration of the mechanisms underlying infection of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a zoonotic flavivirus. In this study, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell models were employed to identify the cleavage sites mediated by viral NS2B-NS3 protease in JEV polyprotein. Artificial green fluorescent protein (GFP) substrates that contained the predicted cleavage site sequences of JEV polyprotein were expressed in swine testicle (ST) cells in the presence and absence of JEV infection, or co-expressed in E. coli with the recombinant NS2B-NS3 protease that was generated by fusing the N-terminal protease domain of NS3 to the central hydrophilic domain of NS2B. The cleavage of GFP substrates was examined by western blot. Among twelve artificial GFP substrates containing the cleavage site sequences predictively processed by host cell and/or NS2B-NS3 proteases, all sites were found to be cleaved by host cell proteases with different efficiencies. The sites at internal C, NS2A/NS2B, NS2B/NS3 and NS3/NS4A junctions, but not the sites at internal NS3, internal NS4A and NS4B/NS5 junctions were identified to be cleaved by JEV NS2B-NS3 protease. These data provide insight into the proteolytic processing of polyprotein, which is useful for understanding JEV replication and pathogenesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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20 pages, 1708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Farm-Level Risk Factors of Increased Abortion and Mortality in Domestic Ruminants during the 2010 Rift Valley Fever Outbreak in Central South Africa

by Melinda K. Rostal, Sarah Cleaveland, Claudia Cordel, Lara van Staden, Louise Matthews, Assaf Anyamba, William B. Karesh, Janusz T. Paweska, Daniel T. Haydon and Noam Ross

Pathogens 2020, 9(11), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9110914 - 04 Nov 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2461

Abstract

(1) Background: Rift Valley fever (RVF) outbreaks in domestic ruminants have severe socio-economic impacts. Climate-based continental predictions providing early warnings to regions at risk for RVF outbreaks are not of a high enough resolution for ruminant owners to assess their individual risk. (2) Methods: We analyzed risk factors for RVF occurrence and severity at the farm level using the number of domestic ruminant deaths and abortions reported by farmers in central South Africa during the 2010 RVF outbreaks using a Bayesian multinomial hurdle framework. (3) Results: We found strong support that the proportion of days with precipitation, the number of water sources, and the proportion of goats in the herd were positively associated with increased severity of RVF (the numbers of deaths and abortions). We did not find an association between any risk factors and whether RVF was reported on farms. (4) Conclusions: At the farm level we identified risk factors of RVF severity; however, there was little support for risk factors of RVF occurrence. The identification of farm-level risk factors for Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) occurrence would support and potentially improve current prediction methods and would provide animal owners with critical information needed in order to assess their herd’s risk of RVFV infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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13 pages, 709 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparison of Japanese Encephalitis Force of Infection in Pigs, Poultry and Dogs in Cambodian Villages

by Héléna Ladreyt, Heidi Auerswald, Sothyra Tum, Sreymom Ken, Leangyi Heng, Saraden In, Sokchea Lay, Chakriyouth Top, Sowath Ly, Veasna Duong, Philippe Dussart, Benoit Durand and Véronique Chevalier

Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 719; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090719 - 01 Sep 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3797

Abstract

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the main cause of human viral encephalitis in Asia, with a mortality rate reaching 30%, mostly affecting children. The traditionally described cycle involving wild birds as reservoirs, pigs as amplifying hosts and Culex mosquitoes as vectors is questioned, with increasing evidence of a more complex multi-host system involved in areas where densities of pigs are low, such as in Cambodia. In 2018, we examined pigs, chickens, ducks and dogs from Kandal province, Cambodia, for antibody response against JEV by hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralization assays. Forces of infection (FOI) for flaviviruses and JEV were estimated per species and per unit of body surface area (BSA). JEV seroprevalence reached 31% (95% CI: 23–41%) in pigs, 1% (95% CI: 0.1–3%) in chickens, 12% (95% CI: 7–19%) in ducks and 35% (95% CI: 28–42%) in dogs. Pigs were most likely to be infected (FOI: 0.09 per month), but the FOI was higher in ducks than in pigs for a given BSA (ratio of 0.13). Dogs had a lower FOI than ducks but a higher FOI than chickens (0.01 per month). For a given BSA, dogs were less likely to be infected than pigs (ratio of 1.9). In Cambodia, the virus may be circulating between multiple hosts. Dogs live in close contact with humans, and estimating their exposure to JEV infection could be a relevant indicator of the risk for humans to get infected, which is poorly known due to underdiagnosis. Understanding the JEV cycle and developing tools to quantify the exposure of humans is essential to adapt and support control measures for this vaccine-preventable disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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11 pages, 2265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Infection of Newly Hatched Domestic Ducklings via Japanese Encephalitis Virus-Infected Mosquitoes

by Di Di, Chenxi Li, Junjie Zhang, Muddassar Hameed, Xin Wang, Qiqi Xia, Hui Li, Shumin Xi, Zongjie Li, Ke Liu, Beibei Li, Donghua Shao, Yafeng Qiu, Jianchao Wei and Zhiyong Ma

Pathogens 2020, 9(5), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9050371 - 12 May 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2939

Abstract

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a zoonotic pathogen that is maintained by mosquito vectors and vertebrate hosts including birds in a natural transmission cycle. Domestic ducklings are sensitive to JEV infection, but the clinical responses of domestic ducklings to natural JEV infection are unknown. In this study, we simulated the natural JEV infection of domestic ducklings via JEV-infected mosquito bites to evaluate the pathogenicity of JEV in domestic ducklings. Specific pathogen-free domestic ducklings were infected at day 2 post-hatching with JEV-infected Culex pipiens mosquito bites and monitored for clinical responses. Among 20 ducklings exposed to JEV-infected mosquitoes, six showed mild and non-characteristic clinical signs starting at two days post-infection, then died suddenly with neurological signs of opisthotonos (a condition of spasm of the back muscles causing the head and limbs to bend backward and the trunk to arch forward) between two and three days post-infection. The mortality of the affected ducklings was 30% (6/20). Multifocal lymphohistiocytic perivascular cuffs and lymphohistiocytic meningitis were macroscopically observed in the affected duckling brains. JEV was detected in the cytoplasm of neuronal cells in the affected duckling brains by immunohistochemical assays and was recovered from the affected duckling brains by viral isolation. These observations indicated that JEV infection via mosquito bites causes mortality associated with viral encephalitis in newly hatched domestic ducklings, thus demonstrating the potential pathogenicity of JEV in domestic ducklings under natural conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever)

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