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17 pages, 2006 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Gut Microbiome and Metabolome in Individuals with Alopecia Areata Disease

by Olga Nikoloudaki, Daniela Pinto, Marta Acin Albiac, Giuseppe Celano, Alessio Da Ros, Maria De Angelis, Fabio Rinaldi, Marco Gobbetti and Raffaella Di Cagno

Nutrients 2024, 16(6), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16060858 - 15 Mar 2024

Viewed by 895

Abstract

In recent years, heightened attention has been devoted to unravelling the intricate interplay between genetic and environmental factors shaping the gut microbiota and its significance for human health. This study delves into exploring the plausible connection between Alopecia Areata (AA), an autoimmune disease, [...] Read more.

In recent years, heightened attention has been devoted to unravelling the intricate interplay between genetic and environmental factors shaping the gut microbiota and its significance for human health. This study delves into exploring the plausible connection between Alopecia Areata (AA), an autoimmune disease, and the dynamics of the gut microbiome. Examining a cohort of healthy adults and individuals with AA, both the gut microbiota composition and volatile organic compound (VOC) metabolites from faeces and urine were analysed. While overall microbiota composition showed no significant differences, intra-individual variability revealed distinctions related to age, gender, and pathology status, with AA individuals exhibiting reduced species richness and evenness. Differential abundance analysis identified microbial biomarkers for AA, notably Firmicutes, Lachnospirales, and Blautia, while Coprococcus stood out for healthy individuals. The Data Integration Analysis for Biomarker discovery using Latent Components (DIABLO) method further supported these findings including metabolite biomarkers, such as esters of branched chain fatty acids and branched chain amino acids as predictors for AA, suggesting potential links to oxidative stress. Despite certain limitations, the study highlights the complexity of the gut microbiome and its metabolites in the context of AA, while the biomarkers identified could be useful starting points for upcoming studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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20 pages, 19233 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supplementing Ryegrass Ameliorates Commercial Diet-Induced Gut Microbial Dysbiosis-Associated Spleen Dysfunctions by Gut–Microbiota–Spleen Axis

by Qasim Ali, Sen Ma, Boshuai Liu, Jiakuan Niu, Mengqi Liu, Ahsan Mustafa, Defeng Li, Zhichang Wang, Hao Sun, Yalei Cui and Yinghua Shi

Nutrients 2024, 16(5), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050747 - 05 Mar 2024

Viewed by 916

Abstract

The type and composition of food strongly affect the variation and enrichment of the gut microbiota. The gut–microbiota–spleen axis has been developed, incorporating the spleen’s function and maturation. However, how short-chain fatty-acid-producing gut microbiota can be considered to recover spleen function, particularly in [...] Read more.

The type and composition of food strongly affect the variation and enrichment of the gut microbiota. The gut–microbiota–spleen axis has been developed, incorporating the spleen’s function and maturation. However, how short-chain fatty-acid-producing gut microbiota can be considered to recover spleen function, particularly in spleens damaged by changed gut microbiota, is unknown in geese. Therefore, the gut microbial composition of the caecal chyme of geese was assessed by 16S rRNA microbial genes, and a Tax4Fun analysis identified the enrichment of KEGG orthologues involved in lipopolysaccharide production. The concentrations of LPS, reactive oxygen species, antioxidant/oxidant enzymes, and immunoglobulins were measured from serum samples and spleen tissues using ELISA kits. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR was employed to detect the Kelch-like-ECH-associated protein 1–Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Keap1-Nrf2), B cell and T cell targeting markers, and anti-inflammatory/inflammatory cytokines from the spleen tissues of geese. The SCFAs were determined from the caecal chyme of geese by using gas chromatography. In this study, ryegrass-enriched gut microbiota such as Eggerthellaceae, Oscillospiraceae, Rikenellaceae, and Lachnospiraceae attenuated commercial diet-induced gut microbial alterations and spleen dysfunctions in geese. Ryegrass significantly improved the SCFAs (acetic, butyric, propionic, isovaleric, and valeric acids), AMPK pathway-activated Nrf2 redox signaling cascades, B cells (B220, CD19, and IgD), and T cells (CD3, CD4, CD8, and IL-2, with an exception of IL-17 and TGF-β) to activate anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) and immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG, and IgM) in geese. In conclusion, ryegrass-improved reprogramming of the gut microbiota restored the spleen functions by attenuating LPS-induced oxidative stress and systemic inflammation through the gut–microbiota–spleen axis in geese. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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12 pages, 4129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Fermented Milk Supplemented with Nisin or Plantaricin Q7 on Inflammatory Factors and Gut Microbiota in Mice

by Yisuo Liu, Yushan Bu, Jiayuan Cao, Yinxue Liu, Tai Zhang, Linlin Hao and Huaxi Yi

Nutrients 2024, 16(5), 680; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050680 - 28 Feb 2024

Viewed by 745

Abstract

Lactic-acid-bacteria-derived bacteriocins are used as food biological preservatives widely. Little information is available on the impact of bacteriocin intake with food on gut microbiota in vivo. In this study, the effects of fermented milk supplemented with nisin (FM-nisin) or plantaricin Q7 (FM-Q7) from [...] Read more.

Lactic-acid-bacteria-derived bacteriocins are used as food biological preservatives widely. Little information is available on the impact of bacteriocin intake with food on gut microbiota in vivo. In this study, the effects of fermented milk supplemented with nisin (FM-nisin) or plantaricin Q7 (FM-Q7) from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Q7 on inflammatory factors and the gut microbiota of mice were investigated. The results showed that FM-nisin or FM-Q7 up-regulated IFN-γ and down-regulated IL-17 and IL-12 in serum significantly. FM-nisin down-regulated TNF-α and IL-10 while FM-Q7 up-regulated them. The results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis suggested that the gut microbiome in mice was changed by FM-nisin or FM-Q7. The Firmicutes/Bacteroides ratio was reduced significantly in both groups. It was observed that the volume of Akkermansia_Muciniphila was significantly reduced whereas those of Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae were increased. The total number of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the mouse feces of the FM-nisin group and FM-Q7 group was increased. The content of acetic acid was increased while the butyric acid content was decreased significantly. These findings indicated that FM-nisin or FM-Q7 could stimulate the inflammation response and alter gut microbiota and metabolic components in mice. Further in-depth study is needed to determine the impact of FM-nisin or FM-Q7 on the host’s health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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12 pages, 1326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Delivery Matrix on Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis HN019 Survival through In Vitro Human Digestion

by Nicolas Yeung, Sofia D. Forssten, Markku T. Saarinen, Mehreen Anjum and Arthur C. Ouwehand

Nutrients 2023, 15(16), 3541; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15163541 - 11 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1391

Abstract

Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis HN019 is a probiotic with several documented human health benefits. Interest in probiotics has led to the development of new formats that probiotics, including HN019, can be supplemented into. In this study, we looked at common HN019 formats such as [...] Read more.

Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis HN019 is a probiotic with several documented human health benefits. Interest in probiotics has led to the development of new formats that probiotics, including HN019, can be supplemented into. In this study, we looked at common HN019 formats such as frozen culture and freeze-dried powder as well as supplementing it into the following food matrices: yogurts (dairy, soy, and oat based), xanthan gum-based tablets, pulpless orange juice, whey sports drink, and dark chocolate (70% cocoa). In this work, our aim was to investigate whether the food matrix that carried HN019 via simulated human digestion (a dual model system mimicking both upper and lower gastrointestinal digestion) influenced probiotic delivery. To that end, we validated and used a real-time qPCR assay to detect HN019 after simulated digestion. In addition, we also measured the effect on a panel of metabolites. After simulated digestion, we were able to detect HN019 from all the matrices tested, and the observed changes to the metabolite profile were consistent with those expected from the food matrix used. In conclusion, this work suggests that the food matrix supplemented with HN019 did not interfere with delivery to the colon via simulated human digestion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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27 pages, 1552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Butyrate Protects Barrier Integrity and Suppresses Immune Activation in a Caco-2/PBMC Co-Culture Model While HDAC Inhibition Mimics Butyrate in Restoring Cytokine-Induced Barrier Disruption

by Sandra G. P. J. Korsten, Herman Vromans, Johan Garssen and Linette E. M. Willemsen

Nutrients 2023, 15(12), 2760; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15122760 - 15 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2248

Abstract

Low-grade inflammation and barrier disruption are increasingly acknowledged for their association with non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), especially butyrate, could be a potential treatment because of their combined anti-inflammatory and barrier- protective capacities, but more insight into their mechanism of [...] Read more.

Low-grade inflammation and barrier disruption are increasingly acknowledged for their association with non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), especially butyrate, could be a potential treatment because of their combined anti-inflammatory and barrier- protective capacities, but more insight into their mechanism of action is needed. In the present study, non-activated, lipopolysaccharide-activated and αCD3/CD28-activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with and without intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) Caco-2 were used to study the effect of butyrate on barrier function, cytokine release and immune cell phenotype. A Caco-2 model was used to compare the capacities of butyrate, propionate and acetate and study their mechanism of action, while investigating the contribution of lipoxygenase (LOX), cyclooxygenase (COX) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition. Butyrate protected against inflammatory-induced barrier disruption while modulating inflammatory cytokine release by activated PBMCs (interleukin-1 beta↑, tumor necrosis factor alpha↓, interleukin-17a↓, interferon gamma↓, interleukin-10↓) and immune cell phenotype (regulatory T-cells↓, T helper 17 cells↓, T helper 1 cells↓) in the PBMC/Caco-2 co-culture model. Similar suppression of immune activation was shown in absence of IEC. Butyrate, propionate and acetate reduced inflammatory cytokine-induced IEC activation and, in particular, butyrate was capable of fully protecting against cytokine-induced epithelial permeability for a prolonged period. Different HDAC inhibitors could mimic this barrier-protective effect, showing HDAC might be involved in the mechanism of action of butyrate, whereas LOX and COX did not show involvement. These results show the importance of sufficient butyrate levels to maintain intestinal homeostasis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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12 pages, 1074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Megamonas funiformis, Plasma Zonulin, and Sodium Intake Affect C3 Complement Levels in Inactive Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

by Bianca Depieri Balmant, Danielle Cristina Fonseca, Ana Paula Aguiar Prudêncio, Ilanna Marques Rocha, Letícia Callado, Juliana Tepedino Martins Alves, Raquel Susana Matos de Miranda Torrinhas, Eduardo Ferreira Borba and Dan Linetzky Waitzberg

Nutrients 2023, 15(8), 1999; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15081999 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1985

Abstract

The etiology of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) remains unclear, with both genetic and environmental factors potentially contributing. This study aimed to explore the relationship among gut microbiota (GM), intestinal permeability, and food intake with inflammatory markers in inactive SLE patients. A total of [...] Read more.

The etiology of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) remains unclear, with both genetic and environmental factors potentially contributing. This study aimed to explore the relationship among gut microbiota (GM), intestinal permeability, and food intake with inflammatory markers in inactive SLE patients. A total of 22 women with inactive SLE and 20 healthy volunteers were enrolled, and dietary intake was assessed through 24-h dietary recalls. Plasma zonulin was used to evaluate intestinal permeability, while GM was determined by 16S rRNA sequencing. Regression models were used to analyze laboratory markers of lupus disease (C3 and C4 complement and C-reactive protein). Our results showed that the genus Megamonas was significantly enriched in the iSLE group (p < 0.001), with Megamonas funiformis associated with all evaluated laboratory tests (p < 0.05). Plasma zonulin was associated with C3 levels (p = 0.016), and sodium intake was negatively associated with C3 and C4 levels (p < 0.05). A combined model incorporating variables from each group (GM, intestinal permeability, and food intake) demonstrated a significant association with C3 complement levels (p < 0.01). These findings suggest that increased Megamonas funiformis abundance, elevated plasma zonulin, and higher sodium intake may contribute to reduced C3 complement levels in women with inactive SLE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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14 pages, 980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Red Meat Intake, Indole-3-Acetate, and Dorea longicatena Together Affect Insulin Resistance after Gastric Bypass

by Ana Paula Aguiar Prudêncio, Danielle Cristina Fonseca, Natasha Mendonça Machado, Juliana Tepedino Martins Alves, Priscila Sala, Gabriel R. Fernandes, Raquel Susana Torrinhas and Dan Linetzky Waitzberg

Nutrients 2023, 15(5), 1185; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051185 - 27 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2202

Abstract

Roux-en-Y Gastric bypass (RYGB) promotes improvement in type 2 diabetes (T2D) shortly after surgery, with metabolic mechanisms yet to be elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between food intake, tryptophan metabolism, and gut microbiota on the glycemic control of obese T2D [...] Read more.

Roux-en-Y Gastric bypass (RYGB) promotes improvement in type 2 diabetes (T2D) shortly after surgery, with metabolic mechanisms yet to be elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between food intake, tryptophan metabolism, and gut microbiota on the glycemic control of obese T2D women after RYGB surgery. Twenty T2D women who underwent RYGB were evaluated before and three months after surgery. Food intake data were obtained by a seven-day food record and a food frequency questionnaire. Tryptophan metabolites were determined by untargeted metabolomic analysis, and the gut microbiota was determined by 16S rRNA sequencing. The glycemic outcomes were fasting blood glucose, HbA1C, HOMA-IR, and HOMA-beta. Linear regression models were applied to assess the associations between the changes in food intake, tryptophan metabolism, and gut microbiota on glycemic control after RYGB. All variables changed after RYGB (p < 0.05), except for tryptophan intake. Jointly, the variation in red meat intake, plasma indole-3-acetate, and Dorea longicatena was associated with postoperative HOMA-IR {R² 0.80, R² adj 0.74; p < 0.01}. Red meat intake decreased three months after bariatric surgery while indole-3-acetate and Dorea longicatena increased in the same period. These combined variables were associated with better insulin resistance in T2D women after RYGB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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22 pages, 2732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Resistant Dextrin on Intestinal Gas Homeostasis and Microbiota

by Claudia Barber, Carlos Sabater, María Ángeles Ávila-Gálvez, Fernando Vallejo, Rogger Alvaro Bendezu, Laetitia Guérin-Deremaux, Francisco Guarner, Juan Carlos Espín, Abelardo Margolles and Fernando Azpiroz

Nutrients 2022, 14(21), 4611; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14214611 - 02 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2602

Abstract

Previous studies have shown that a resistant dextrin soluble fibre has prebiotic properties with related health benefits on blood glucose management and satiety. Our aim was to demonstrate the effects of continuous administration of resistant dextrin on intestinal gas production, digestive sensations, and [...] Read more.

Previous studies have shown that a resistant dextrin soluble fibre has prebiotic properties with related health benefits on blood glucose management and satiety. Our aim was to demonstrate the effects of continuous administration of resistant dextrin on intestinal gas production, digestive sensations, and gut microbiota metabolism and composition. Healthy subjects (n = 20) were given resistant dextrin (14 g/d NUTRIOSE^®, Roquette Frères, Lestrem, France) for four weeks. Outcomes were measured before, at the beginning, end, and two weeks after administration: anal evacuations of gas during daytime; digestive perception, girth, and gas production in response to a standard meal; sensory and digestive responses to a comfort meal; volume of colonic biomass by magnetic resonance; taxonomy and metabolic functions of fecal microbiota by shotgun sequencing; metabolomics in urine. Dextrin administration produced an initial increase in intestinal gas production and gas-related sensations, followed by a subsequent decrease, which magnified after discontinuation. Dextrin enlarged the volume of colonic biomass, inducing changes in microbial metabolism and composition with an increase in short chain fatty acids-producing species and modulation of bile acids and biotin metabolism. These data indicate that consumption of a soluble fibre induces an adaptative response of gut microbiota towards fermentative pathways with lower gas production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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Review

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22 pages, 1666 KiB

Open AccessReview

Dietary Implications of the Bidirectional Relationship between the Gut Microflora and Inflammatory Diseases with Special Emphasis on Irritable Bowel Disease: Current and Future Perspective

by Tariq Aziz, Ayaz Ali Khan, Athina Tzora, Chrysoula (Chrysa) Voidarou and Ioannis Skoufos

Nutrients 2023, 15(13), 2956; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15132956 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2923

Abstract

The immune system is vital for safeguarding the human body against infections and inflammatory diseases. The role of diet and meal patterns in modulating immune function is complex, and highlighting this topic is crucial for identifying potential ways to improve immune health. In [...] Read more.

The immune system is vital for safeguarding the human body against infections and inflammatory diseases. The role of diet and meal patterns in modulating immune function is complex, and highlighting this topic is crucial for identifying potential ways to improve immune health. In Europe, the Mediterranean diet and Western diet are the most common dietary patterns, and gaining an understanding of how they affect immune function is essential for public health. There are numerous inflammatory diseases that are observed in younger and older people. Some of the common diseases include polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), vasculitis, sarcopenia, cirrhosis, cancer, and fibromyalgia, but the main focus in this review article is on irritable bowel disease (IBD). In general, dietary choices can have an immense impact on the microbial flora of the gut in people with inflammatory diseases. The intake of Mediterranean-style foods promotes the growth of healthy bacteria that enhances the function of the immune system. On the other hand, it is mostly seen that the intake of Western-style foods leads to the growth of harmful gut bacteria that contributes to inflammation and disease development by weakening the immune system. Additionally, inflammation in the gut can impact brain function, leading to mood disorders, such as anxiety and depression. Rare inflammatory diseases, such as psoriasis and sarcoidosis, are of main interest in this article. All the above-mentioned common and rare inflammatory diseases have a certain relationship with the microbiota of the gut. The gut microbiome plays a significant role in IBD; fiber and prebiotic interventions may represent promising adjunct therapies for pediatric IBD by targeting the gut microbiome. By advancing a good overall arrangement of microorganisms in the stomach through dietary mediations, working on the side effects and alleviating of diseases might be conceivable. The gut microbiota can be affected differently by various dietary fatty acid types. There is also an involvement of genetics in the progression of IBD, such as transcriptional factors, and one gene of interest is the LCT gene, which encodes for lactase, an enzyme responsible for digesting lactose in the gut. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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17 pages, 5605 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Gut Microbial Metabolite Butyrate and Its Therapeutic Role in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Literature Review

by Neeraja Recharla, Ramasatyaveni Geesala and Xuan-Zheng Shi

Nutrients 2023, 15(10), 2275; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15102275 - 11 May 2023

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7006

Abstract

Background and objective: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, is a chronic inflammatory disorder characterized by aberrant immune responses and compromised barrier function in the gastrointestinal tract. IBD is associated with altered gut microbiota and their metabolites in [...] Read more.

Background and objective: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, is a chronic inflammatory disorder characterized by aberrant immune responses and compromised barrier function in the gastrointestinal tract. IBD is associated with altered gut microbiota and their metabolites in the colon. Butyrate, a gut microbial metabolite, plays a crucial role in regulating immune function, epithelial barrier function, and intestinal homeostasis. In this review, we aim to present an overview of butyrate synthesis and metabolism and the mechanism of action of butyrate in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and to discuss the therapeutic implications of butyrate in IBD. Methods: We searched the literature up to March 2023 through PubMed, Web of Science, and other sources using search terms such as butyrate, inflammation, IBD, Crohn’s disease, and ulcerative colitis. Clinical studies in patients and preclinical studies in rodent models of IBD were included in the summary of the therapeutic implications of butyrate. Results: Research in the last two decades has shown the beneficial effects of butyrate on gut immune function and epithelial barrier function. Most of the preclinical and clinical studies have shown the positive effect of butyrate oral supplements in reducing inflammation and maintaining remission in colitis animal models and IBD patients. However, butyrate enema showed mixed effects. Butyrogenic diets, including germinated barley foodstuff and oat bran, are found to increase fecal butyrate concentrations and reduce the disease activity index in both animal models and IBD patients. Conclusions: The current literature suggests that butyrate is a potential add-on therapy to reduce inflammation and maintain IBD remission. Further clinical studies are needed to determine if butyrate administration alone is an effective therapeutic treatment for IBD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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13 pages, 1119 KiB

Open AccessReview

Changes in the Gut Microbiota after the Use of Herbal Medicines in Overweight and Obese Individuals: A Systematic Review

by Miguel Huang, Cláudia dos Santos Cople-Rodrigues, Dan L. Waitzberg, Ilanna Marques Gomes da Rocha and Cintia Chaves Curioni

Nutrients 2023, 15(9), 2203; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15092203 - 05 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1864

Abstract

Background: Herbal medicine is a low-cost treatment and has been increasingly applied in obesity treatment. Gut microbiota (GM) is strongly associated with obesity pathogenesis. Methods: We conducted a systematic review guided by the question: “Does the use of herbal medicine change the GM [...] Read more.

Background: Herbal medicine is a low-cost treatment and has been increasingly applied in obesity treatment. Gut microbiota (GM) is strongly associated with obesity pathogenesis. Methods: We conducted a systematic review guided by the question: “Does the use of herbal medicine change the GM composition in obese individuals?” Randomized clinical trials with obese individuals assessing the effects of herbal medicine intervention in GM were retrieved from the Medline, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases, including the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register. Two reviewers independently extracted data using standardized piloted data extraction forms and assessed the study-level risk of bias using an Excel template of the Cochrane “Risk of bias” tool 2—RoB 2. Results: We identified 1094 articles in the databases. After removing duplicates and reading the title and abstract, 14 publications were fully evaluated, of which seven publications from six studies were considered eligible. The herbs analyzed were Moringa oleifera, Punica granatum, Scutellaria baicalensis, Schisandra chinensis, W-LHIT and WCBE. The analysis showed that Schisandra chinensis and Scutellaria baicalensis had significant effects on weight loss herbal intervention therapy composed by five Chinese herbal medicines Ganoderma lucidum, Coptis chinensis, Astragalus membranaceus, Nelumbo nucifera gaertn, and Fructus aurantii (W-LHIT) and white common bean extract (WCBE) on GM, but no significant changes in anthropometry and laboratory biomarkers. Conclusions: Herbal medicine modulates GM and is associated with increased genera in obese individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diet–Host–Microbiota Interaction to Regulate Intestinal Homeostasis)

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