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Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II

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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Wood Science and Forest Products".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (27 March 2023) | Viewed by 31101

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Prof. Dr. Roman Reh

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Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, SK-960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
Interests: wood-based composites; wood adhesives; wood sciences; wood physics
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Dr. Ľuboš Krišťák

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Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, SK-960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
Interests: physics; materials; thermal properties; wood sciences; wood physics
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Dr. Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis

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Research Center for Biomaterials, National Research and Innovation Agency, Bogor, West Java 16911, Indonesia
Interests: wood adhesives; wood-based panels; wood adhesion; forest products technology; wood science and technology; polymer composites
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Dr. Seng Hua Lee

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Department of Wood Industry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Branch Campus Jengka, Bandar Tun Razak 26400, Pahang, Malaysia
Interests: wood composites; wood treatments; wood adhesives; wood modification; polymers
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Dr. Petar Antov

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Department of Mechanical Wood Technology, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria
Interests: wood and wood-based composites; eco-friendly wood-based composites; lignocellulosic composites; wood technology; wood sciences; bio-based adhesives; advanced formaldehyde-based wood adhesives; formaldehyde emission; formaldehyde scavengers; recyclable materials; sustainability; bioeconomy
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Dear Colleagues,

Traditional wood-based composites are produced with synthetic, formaldehyde-based, isocyanates, and epoxy adhesives, which are commonly made from petroleum-derived constituents. Along with their numerous advantages, these adhesives are characterized by certain problems, connected with the emission of hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the finished wood-based composites, which are related to a number of serious environmental problems and adverse human-health effects, such as skin and eye irritation, respiratory problems, and cancer. The transition to a circular, low-carbon bioeconomy, the growing environmental concerns, and strict legislation related to the emission of harmful VOCs, e.g., formaldehyde emission from wood-based composites, have led to new requirements related to the development of sustainable, eco-friendly wood-based composites; optimization of the available lignocellulosic resources; and the use of alternative raw materials. The harmful VOCs released from wood-based composites can be reduced by adding various inorganic, organic, and mineral compounds such as scavengers to conventional adhesive systems, such as phosphates, salts, urea, nanoparticles, bark, lignin, tannins, etc., by surface treatment of finished wood-based panels, or by using eco-friendly, formaldehyde-free wood adhesive formulations.

Prof. Dr. Réh Roman
Dr. Ľuboš Krišťák
Dr. Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis
Dr. Seng Hua Lee
Prof. Dr. Petar Antov
Guest Editors

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Keywords

eco-friendly wood-based panels
bio-based wood adhesives
advanced formaldehyde-based wood adhesives
formaldehyde scavengers
biopolymer composites
lignocellulosic composites
reinforced composite structures
wood plastic composites
wood modification
nanotechnology and nanomaterials
mechanical properties

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

7 pages, 722 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II

by Petar Antov, Seng Hua Lee, Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis, Lubos Kristak and Roman Réh

Forests 2023, 14(4), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14040826 - 18 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1371

Abstract

The ongoing twin transition of the wood-based panel industry towards a green, digital, and more resilient bioeconomy is essential for a successful transformation, with the aim of decarbonising the sector and implementing a circular development model, transforming linear industrial value chains to minimize [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

Research

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19 pages, 7235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Physical and Mechanical Properties Considering the Stem Height and Cross-Section of Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Steud. x elongata (S.Y.Hu) Wood

by Marius Cătălin Barbu, Eugenia Mariana Tudor, Katharina Buresova and Alexander Petutschnigg

Forests 2023, 14(3), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030589 - 16 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1547

Abstract

The aim of this study is to analyze the properties of Paulownia tomentosa x elongata plantation wood from Serbia, considering the influence of the stem height (0 to 1 m and 4.5 to 6 m above soil level—height spot) and radial position from the pith to bark (in the core, near the bark, and in between these zones—cross-section spot). The results show that most properties are improved when the samples were taken from upper parts of the tree (height spot) and from the near bark spot (cross-section spot). The mean density measured 275 kg/m³ at the stem height between 4.5–6 m and 245 kg/m³ for the samples collected from 0–1 m trunk height. The density had the highest value on the spot near bark (290 kg/m³), for the mature wood at a height of 4.5–6 m, and near pith had a mean density of 230 kg/m³. The Brinell hardness exhibited highest values in the axial direction (23 N/mm²) and near bark (28 N/mm²). The bending strength was 41 N/mm² for the trunk’s height range of 4.5–6 m and 45 N/mm² in the cross-section, close to cambium. The three-point modulus of elasticity (MOR) of the samples taken at a stem height of 4.5 to 6 m was up to 5000 N/mm², and on the spot near bark, the MOR measured 5250 N/mm². Regarding compressive strength, in the cross-section, near the pith, the mean value was the highest with 23 N/mm² (4.5–6 m), whilst it was 19 N/mm² near bark. The tensile strength was, on average, 40 N/mm² for both 0–1 m and 4.5–6 m trunk height levels and 49 N/mm² between bark and pith. The screw withdrawal resistance measured 58 N/mm for the samples extracted at a stem height of 4.5 to 6 m and 92 N/mm for the specimens collected near pith. This study stresses the influence, in short-rotation Paulownia timber, of indicators, such as juvenile and mature wood (difference emphasized after the fifth year of growth) and height variation, on the physical and mechanical properties of sawn wood. This study will help utilize more efficient sustainable resources, such as Paulownia plantation wood. This fast-growing hardwood species from Europe is adequate as a core material in sandwich applications for furniture, transport, sport articles, and lightweight composites, being considered the European Balsa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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10 pages, 3410 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

In Situ Detection of the Flexural Fracture Behaviors of Inner and Outer Bamboo-Based Composites

by Xiu Hao, Yanglun Yu, Chunmei Yang and Wenji Yu

Forests 2023, 14(3), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030515 - 06 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1137

Abstract

This paper investigated the fracture toughness and enhancement mechanism for each component in bamboo-based composites at the cellular level. In situ characterization techniques identified the fracture behaviors of bamboo-based composites in three-point bending tests, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) further visualized the crack propagation of the fracture surface. In addition, the improvement mechanism of bamboo-based composites was illustrated by mechanical properties at the cellular level assisted with nanoindentation tests. Our in situ test results showed that the bamboo-based composites exhibited a longer deformation and higher bending load compared with bamboo. The fracture was non-catastrophic, and crack propagated in a tortuous manner in bamboo-based composites. Microstructural analysis revealed that phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin pulled out and middle lamella (ML) breaking rather than transverse transwall fracturing occurred in parenchymal cells. The higher density of fibers in the bamboo-based composites triggered massive interfacial delamination in the middle lamella (ML), which was a weak mechanical interface. Furthermore, indented modulus and hardness illustrated that phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin improved the mechanical strength of cell walls, especially parenchymal cells. The crosslinks of PF resin with the cell walls and massive fibers were the primary mechanisms responsible for the fracture toughness of bamboo-based composites, which could be helpful for advanced composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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15 pages, 2762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Adhesive Types and Structural Configurations on Shear Performance of Laminated Board from Two Gigantochloa Bamboos

by Norwahyuni Mohd Yusof, Paridah Md Tahir, Seng Hua Lee, Mohd Khairun Anwar Uyup, Redzuan Mohammad Suffian James, Syeed Saifulazry Osman Al-Edrus, Lubos Kristak, Roman Reh and Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis

Forests 2023, 14(3), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030460 - 23 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1466

Abstract

Semantan (Gigantochloa scortechinii) and beting (Gigantochloa levis) bamboo are the two Malaysian bamboo that are suitable to be converted into laminated bamboo boards. One of the main criteria for laminated board is its good bondability, which is determined by shear performance. The shear performance of laminated board is influenced by several factors such as the species used, adhesive types and lamination configurations. Therefore, in this study, laminated bamboo boards were produced using Semantan and Beting bamboo bonded with phenol–resorcinol–formaldehyde (PRF) and polyurethane (PUR) adhesives. Different configurations (lay-up patterns and strip arrangements) were used during the consolidation of the laminated boards. The bamboo strips were arranged in three different arrangements, namely vertical, horizontal and mixed, and then assembled into a three-layered structure with two lay-up patterns, which are perpendicular and parallel. Shear performances, such as shear strength, bamboo failure and delamination of the boards, were evaluated. The results revealed that the adhesive type and lay-up pattern were the most influential factors on the shear performance. PRF-bonded laminated bamboo boards outperformed PUR-bonded laminated bamboo boards in terms of shear strength and bamboo failure but PUR bonding had better bond durability as indicated by its low delamination. Boards laminated parallelly significantly outperformed those bonded perpendicularly. As for strip arrangement, PRF-bonded laminated boards were less influenced by it compared to PUR-bonded laminated boards. The results suggested that PRF is a better adhesive for bamboo lamination due to its higher shear performance and more consistent performance across structural configurations (lay-up patterns and strip arrangements). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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13 pages, 3656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Isocyanate Content and Hot-Pressing Temperatures on the Physical–Mechanical Properties of Particleboard Bonded with a Hybrid Urea–Formaldehyde/Isocyanate Adhesive

by Apri Heri Iswanto, Jajang Sutiawan, Atmawi Darwis, Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis, Marta Pędzik, Tomasz Rogoziński and Widya Fatriasari

Forests 2023, 14(2), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020320 - 06 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1840

Abstract

Particleboard (PB) is mainly produced using urea–formaldehyde (UF) adhesive. However, the low hydrolytic stability of UF leads to poor water resistance by the PB. This research aimed to analyze the effect of hot-pressing temperatures and the addition of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) in UF adhesive on the physical and mechanical properties of PB. The first experiment focused on pressing temperature treatments including 130, 140, 150, and 160 °C. The particles were bonded using a combination of UF and MDI resin at a ratio of 70/30 (%w/w). Furthermore, the second experiment focused on UF/MDI ratio treatment, including 100/0, 85/15, 70/30, and 55/45 (%w/w), and the particles were pressed at 140°C. All of the single-layer particleboard in this research were produced in 250 × 250 mm, with a target thickness and density of 10 mm and 750 kg/m³, respectively. This research used 12% resin content based on oven-dry weight wood shaving. The pressing time and pressing pressure were determined to be 10 min and 2.5 N/mm², respectively. Before the tests, the board was conditioned for 7 days. When studying the effect of treatment temperature, good physical properties (thickness swelling and water absorption) and mechanical properties (MOR and MOE) were obtained at 140 °C. However, no significant difference was observed in the UF/MDI ratio between 85/15 and 55/45 using the same temperature. The increase in the MDI adhesive ratio improves the MOE and MOR values. However, the internal bond was the contrary. This study suggests that a combination of UF/MDI at a ratio of 85/15 and hot-pressing temperature at 140 °C could produce a PB panel that meets a type 8 particleboard according to the JIS A5908-2003 standard and type P2 according to the EN 312-2010 standard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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16 pages, 4616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Boric Acid Pretreatment on the Properties of Four Selected Malaysian Bamboo Strips

by Norwahyuni Mohd Yusof, Lee Seng Hua, Paridah Md Tahir, Redzuan Mohammad Suffian James, Syeed Saifulazry Osman Al-Edrus, Rasdianah Dahali, Adlin Sabrina Muhammad Roseley, Widya Fatriasari, Lubos Kristak, Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis and Roman Reh

Forests 2023, 14(2), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020196 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2111

Abstract

Bamboo requires treatment to extend its service life. However, as bamboo strips could serve as a suitable candidate for lamination, the treatment may affect its bendability. The current study investigated the effects of boric acid treatment on the physical, mechanical, adhesion, and morphological properties of bamboo strips. Owing to their availability and popularity in local industries, four Malaysian bamboo species were used in this study, namely Gigantochloa scortechinii, Gigantochloa levis, Dendrocalamus asper, and Bambusa vulgaris. These four species’ bamboo strips were treated with 5% boric acid and their properties were evaluated. The findings revealed that the boric acid treatment had varying degrees of effect on the properties of the bamboo. Despite having lower treatability and stability, both G. scortechinii and G. levis have greatly superior mechanical properties that justify their use in the production of laminated products. The boric acid treatment was found to provide several benefits to bamboo strips intended for lamination, including increased wettability, dimensional stability, and mechanical strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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12 pages, 2937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advisability-Selected Parameters of Woodworking with a CNC Machine as a Tool for Adaptive Control of the Cutting Process

by Richard Kminiak, Miroslav Němec, Rastislav Igaz and Miloš Gejdoš

Forests 2023, 14(2), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020173 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1519

Abstract

The operation of CNC machining centers, despite their technological progress, can still be affected by undesirable events associated with the technological parameters of their operation. The minimization of these risks can be achieved via their adaptive control in the process of operation. Several input parameters for adaptive control are still the subject of research. The work aimed to find out the influence of the change in feed speed, revolutions, and radial depth of cut on the noise and temperature of the tool during the milling of wood-based composite material particleboard. At the same time, it was evaluated whether it is possible to use the measured values of these parameters in the future in the process of an adaptive control of the CNC machine with the minimization of their negative influence. The methods of measuring these parameters were chosen based on valid legislation and previous research. The results of the research show that all parameters influence both the noise and temperature of the tool, while the rate of the radial depth of cut has the greatest influence on the increase in temperature, and the noise is most affected by the revolutions. The effect of temperature during woodworking can also be characterized in terms of the potential long-term wear of the cutting tool. The setting of optimization algorithms of monitored parameters in the adaptive control of the CNC machining center will be the subject of further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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15 pages, 5392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Life Cycle Assessment of a Road Transverse Prestressed Wooden–Concrete Bridge

by Jozef Mitterpach, Roman Fojtík, Eva Machovčáková and Lenka Kubíncová

Forests 2023, 14(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14010016 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1810

Abstract

Through its anthropogenic activities in construction, human society is increasingly burdening the environment with a predominantly adverse impact. It is essential to try to use building materials that allow us to build environmentally friendly buildings. Therefore, this article deals with the determination of the environmental performance of a cross-prestressed timber-reinforced concrete bridge using life cycle assessment (LCA) compared with a reinforced concrete road bridge with a similar span and load. The positive environmental performance of the wooden concrete bridge was proved, with a relatively small (22.9 Pt) total environmental damage. The most significant impact on the environment is made by the wood–concrete bridge materials in three categories of impacts: Respiratory inorganics (7.89 Pt, 79.94 kg PM2.5 eq), Global warming (7.35 Pt, 7.28 × 10⁴ kg CO₂ eq), and Non-renewable energy (3.96 Pt, 6.01 × 10⁵ MJ primary). When comparing the wood–concrete and steel concrete road bridge, a higher environmental performance of 28% per m² for the wood–concrete bridge was demonstrated. Based on this environmental assessment, it can be stated that knowledge of all phases of the life cycle of building materials and structures is a necessary step for obtaining objective findings of environmental damage or environmental benefits of building materials or structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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12 pages, 8216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Management of Forest Residues as a Raw Material for the Production of Particleboards

by Marta Pędzik, Karol Tomczak, Dominika Janiszewska-Latterini, Arkadiusz Tomczak and Tomasz Rogoziński

Forests 2022, 13(11), 1933; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13111933 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2047

Abstract

Expanding the base of raw materials for use in the production of wood-based materials, researchers and panel manufacturers around the world are increasingly trying to produce panel prototypes from raw materials available in a given area and climate, or by managing waste from wood industry processing. The aim of the study was therefore to test the hypothesis that forest residues de-rived from Scots pine roundwood harvesting have the same suitability for the production of three-layer particleboard as the wood of the most valuable part of the Scots pine stem, by comparing selected properties of raw wood material and final product—particleboard. Characterization of both the raw material and the physical-mechanical and hygienic properties of the produced panels was carried out. For these panels from the tree trunk, MOR was 14.6 N/mm², MOE 1960 N/mm² and IB 0.46 N/mm². The MOR and IB values turned out to be higher for the panel from the branch and are 16.5 and 0.72 N/mm², respectively. Excessive swelling of the panels resulted in all manufactured particleboards meeting the standardized performance requirements of EN 312 for interior furnishing panels (including furniture) for use in dry conditions (type P2). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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18 pages, 5535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ignition of Wood-Based Boards by Radiant Heat

by Iveta Marková, Martina Ivaničová, Linda Makovická Osvaldová, Jozef Harangózo and Ivana Tureková

Forests 2022, 13(10), 1738; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101738 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1549

Abstract

Particleboards (PB) and oriented strand boards (OSB) are commonly used materials in building structures or building interiors. The surface of boards may hence become directly exposed to fire or radiant heat. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the behaviour of uncoated particleboards and OSB exposed to radiant heat. The following ignition parameters were used to observe the process of particleboard and OSB ignition: heat flux intensity (from 43 to 50 kW.m^-2) and ignition temperature. The time-to-ignition and mass loss of particleboards and OSB with thicknesses of 12, 15 and 18 mm were monitored and compared. The experiments were conducted on a modified device in accordance with ISO 5657: 1997. Results confirmed thermal degradation of samples. Heat flux had a significant effect on mass loss (burning rate) and time-to-ignition. OSB had higher ignition time than particleboards and the thermal degradation of OSB started later, i.e., at a higher temperature than that of particleboards, but OSB also had higher mass loss than particleboards. The samples yielded the same results above 47 kW.m⁻². Thermal analysis also confirmed a higher thermal decomposition temperature of OSB (179 °C) compared to particleboards (146 °C). The difference in mass loss in both stages did not exceed 1%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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12 pages, 1459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Paulownia tomentosa x elongata Sawn Wood from Spanish, Bulgarian and Serbian Plantations

by Marius Cătălin Barbu, Katharina Buresova, Eugenia Mariana Tudor and Alexander Petutschnigg

Forests 2022, 13(10), 1543; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101543 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3297

Abstract

The aim of this research is the characterization of physical and mechanical properties of Paulownia sawn wood from three plantation sites in Europe, namely Spain, Bulgaria and Serbia. As a fast-growing wood species, Paulownia has a significant positive forecast for the European markets and a wide range of possible applications that still need to be explored. For this purpose, Paulownia tomentosa(Tunb.) x elongata(S.Y. Hu) wood species was investigated. Sorption behaviour, Brinell hardness, 3-point bending strength, flexural modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, compressive strength and screw withdrawal resistance were examined in detail. The samples from Spain have the higher average bulk density (266 kg/m³), 3-point flexural strength (~40 N/mm²), 3-point flexural modulus of elasticity (~4900 N/mm²), compressive strength (~23 N/mm²), tensile strength (~44 N/mm²) and screw withdrawal resistance (~56 N/mm). The plantation wood from Bulgaria has the highest average of annual ring width (46 mm). Paulownia wood has potential in lightweight applications and can replace successfully expensive tropical species as Balsa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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Review

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24 pages, 4079 KiB

Open AccessReview

Environmentally Friendly Starch-Based Adhesives for Bonding High-Performance Wood Composites: A Review

by Muhammad Iqbal Maulana, Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis, Fauzi Febrianto, Lee Seng Hua, Apri Heri Iswanto, Petar Antov, Lubos Kristak, Efri Mardawati, Rita Kartika Sari, Lukmanul Hakim Zaini, Wahyu Hidayat, Valentina Lo Giudice and Luigi Todaro

Forests 2022, 13(10), 1614; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13101614 - 02 Oct 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 10211

Abstract

In recent years, bio-based wood adhesives have gained an increased industrial and research interest as an environmentally friendly and renewable alternative to the commercial petroleum-based synthetic adhesives used in the wood-based industry. Due to its renewability, abundance, relatively low price, and good adhesion properties, starch is a promising natural feedstock for synthesizing bio-based adhesives for wood-based composites. This review aims to summarize the recent advances in developing sustainable starch-based wood adhesives for manufacturing non-toxic, low-emission wood composites with enhanced properties and lower environmental impact. Recent developments in starch modification, physical, and enzymatic treatments applied to improve the performance of starch-based wood adhesives, mainly in terms of improving their water resistance and bonding strength, are also outlined and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Eco-Friendly Wood-Based Composites II)

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