Editorial

4 pages, 181 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-Earthquakes

by Xuemin Zhang and Chieh-Hung Chen

Atmosphere 2023, 14(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14010004 - 20 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1145

In recent years, many ionospheric perturbations have been detected around strong earthquakes, especially after the launching of earthquake-related electromagnetic satellites, including DEMETER and CSES [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

Research

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13 pages, 7074 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Ionospheric Perturbations Possibly Related to Yangbi Ms6.4 and Maduo Ms7.4 Earthquakes on 21 May 2021 in China Using GPS TEC and GIM TEC Data

by Lei Dong, Xuemin Zhang and Xiaohui Du

Atmosphere 2022, 13(10), 1725; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13101725 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1653

Abstract

On 21 May 2021 (UT), Yangbi Ms6.4 and Maduo Ms7.4 earthquakes occurred in mainland China. This paper analyzed the ionospheric perturbations possibly related to the earthquake, based on global positioning system (GPS) total electron content (TEC) and global ionosphere map (GIM) TEC data. [...] Read more.

On 21 May 2021 (UT), Yangbi Ms6.4 and Maduo Ms7.4 earthquakes occurred in mainland China. This paper analyzed the ionospheric perturbations possibly related to the earthquake, based on global positioning system (GPS) total electron content (TEC) and global ionosphere map (GIM) TEC data. We identified GPS TEC anomalies by the sliding quartile, based on statistical analysis. After eliminating the days with high solar activity levels and strong geomagnetic disturbances, the time series analysis of GPS TEC data showed that there were significant TEC anomalies from 5 to 10 May. TEC anomalies were mainly positive anomalies. We obtained the spatial and temporal distributions of TEC anomalies using natural neighbor interpolation (NNI). The results showed that the TEC anomalies were distributed in the seismogenic zone and surrounded the epicenters of the Maduo and Yangbi earthquakes, indicating that they may be related to the earthquakes. From the GIM TEC difference map, we found the TEC enhancement in the seismogenic zone and its magnetic conjugate area of the Maduo and Yangbi earthquakes at 10:00–12:00 (UT) on the 5 and 6 May. We discussed our results according to the lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling mechanism. Finally, based our results, we suggested that the Yangbi and Maduo earthquakes may affect the ionosphere through seismogenic electric field and thermal anomalies generated during the process of lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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20 pages, 1269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Gamma Radiation Prior to Earthquakes in a Study of Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling in Northern Tien Shan

by Nazyf Salikhov, Alexander Shepetov, Galina Pak, Serik Nurakynov, Vladimir Ryabov, Nurzhan Saduyev, Turlan Sadykov, Zhumabek Zhantayev and Valery Zhukov

Atmosphere 2022, 13(10), 1667; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13101667 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2135

Abstract

Monitoring radiation background in the near-surface atmosphere and gamma rays, geoacoustic emission, and temperature in a borehole at 40 m depth, as well as Doppler sounding on a low-inclined radio pass, proceeded at the Tien Shan mountain station (3340 m a.s.l.) in northern [...] Read more.

Monitoring radiation background in the near-surface atmosphere and gamma rays, geoacoustic emission, and temperature in a borehole at 40 m depth, as well as Doppler sounding on a low-inclined radio pass, proceeded at the Tien Shan mountain station (3340 m a.s.l.) in northern Tien Shan with the common goal of searching for seismogenic effects preceding earthquakes. The flux of gamma rays in the borehole varied negligibly between the days, and it was not influenced by precipitation. Characteristic bay-like drops of the gamma ray flux were found (2–8) days before the M5.0–M6.2 earthquakes. In an M4.2 earthquake event with a 5.3 km epicenter distance, anomalies were detected (7–10) days before the earthquake in variation of the gamma ray flux, geoacoustic emission, and temperature. Simultaneously with gamma rays, a disturbance was detected in the Doppler shift of the ionospheric signal. Similarly, ionosphere disturbances triggered by the growth of radioactivity in the near-surface atmosphere were found in a retrospective analysis of the Doppler shift data acquired after underground nuclear explosions at the Semipalatinsk testing site. This effect is considered from the viewpoint of the lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling concept. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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17 pages, 7115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seismo-Ionospheric Effects Prior to Two Earthquakes in Taiwan Detected by the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite

by Yufan Guo, Xuemin Zhang, Jiang Liu, Muping Yang, Xing Yang, Xiaohui Du, Jian Lü and Jian Xiao

Atmosphere 2022, 13(9), 1523; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13091523 - 18 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2689

Abstract

In this paper, we focused on the characteristics of the seismo-ionospheric effects related to two successive earthquakes, namely, the earthquakes in 2022 in Taitung Sea, Taiwan, China, with magnitudes (M) of 6.7 and 6.3, at 23.45° N, 121.55° E and 23.39° N, 121.52° [...] Read more.

In this paper, we focused on the characteristics of the seismo-ionospheric effects related to two successive earthquakes, namely, the earthquakes in 2022 in Taitung Sea, Taiwan, China, with magnitudes (M) of 6.7 and 6.3, at 23.45° N, 121.55° E and 23.39° N, 121.52° E and with the same focal depth of 20 km, which were detected by the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite (CSES). By applying the sliding interquartile range method to electron density (Ne) data acquired by the Langmuir probe (LAP) onboard the CSES and the grid total electron content (TEC) data obtained from the Center for Orbit Determination in Europe (CODE), positive anomalies were found under quiet geomagnetic conditions on 2–3 March and 8–9 March 2022—that is, 19–20 and 13–14 d before the earthquakes, respectively, and the global ionospheric mapping (GIM) TEC data suggested that anomalies may also have been triggered in the magnetic conjugate area 13–14 d prior to the earthquakes occurrences. In addition, the CSES Ne data showed enhancements 3 and 5 d before the earthquakes occurred. Furthermore, 138 earthquakes with M ≥ 5.0 that occurred in Taiwan and the surrounding region during the period February 2019 to March 2022 were statistically analyzed using the CSES Ne data. The results show that most of the Ne anomalies were positive. Moreover, the greater the earthquake magnitude, the greater the frequency of the anomalies; however, the amplitude of the anomalies did not increase with the earthquake magnitude. The anomalies were concentrated during the period of 10 d before to 5 d after the earthquakes. No increase in the amplitude of anomalies was observed as the time of the earthquakes approached. Finally, based on evidence relating to earthquake precursor anomalies, we conclude that it is possible that earthquakes in Taiwan and the surrounding region affect the ionosphere through the geochemical, acoustic, and electromagnetic channels, as described by the lithosphere–atmosphere–ionosphere coupling (LAIC) model, and that the two studied earthquakes in Taiwan may have induced ionospheric effects through the geochemical channel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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15 pages, 24502 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Two Large Earthquakes Registered by the CSES Satellite during Its Earthquake Prediction Practice in China

by Mei Li, Haitao Wang, Jie Liu and Xuhui Shen

Atmosphere 2022, 13(5), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13050751 - 06 May 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2887

Abstract

Two large earthquakes, the Maduo M_S 7.4 earthquake and the Menyuan M_S 6.9 earthquake, have been successfully recorded on the Chinese mainland, since the data of the CSES satellite were put into service for earthquake prediction work on the Chinese mainland [...] Read more.

Two large earthquakes, the Maduo M_S 7.4 earthquake and the Menyuan M_S 6.9 earthquake, have been successfully recorded on the Chinese mainland, since the data of the CSES satellite were put into service for earthquake prediction work on the Chinese mainland at the end of April 2020. Obvious variations in O⁺ density and electron density were found during our weekly data processing work during 5–11 May 2021 and 28 December 2021–2 January 2022, respectively. Two warnings of impending events around the anomalous areas within two weeks had been reported immediately after the anomaly appearance. The Maduo M_S 7.4 earthquake occurred on 22 May 2021 and the Menyuan M_S 6.9 earthquake on 8 January 2022, during these two warning periods. More details were revealed after these two large shocks occurred. Ionospheric enhancement took place on 8 May 2021, with a magnitude of 41.6% for O⁺ density and 22.2% for electron density, a distance of 680 km from the Maduo epicenter, 14 days prior to the event. Before the Menyuan earthquake, ionospheric enhancement took place on 28 December 2021, as well as during its revisiting orbit on 2 January 2022, with a magnitude of 47.3% for O⁺ density and 38.4% for electron density, an epicentral distance of 120 km, 11 and 6 days prior to this event. The Kp index was also examined to avoid the influence from solar activities. Despite this, accurate earthquake prediction is not possible due to much uncertainty, such as the correct location and magnitude of an impending event. Thus, long-term practice and comprehensive investigation of the seismo-ionospheric influence are necessary in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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15 pages, 3213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Effects of Temperature and Instrument Drift in Long-Term Comparative Geomagnetic Vector Observations

by Zhaobo He, Xingxing Hu, Yuntian Teng, Gaochuan Liu, Xiuxia Zhang and Xiaoyu Shen

Atmosphere 2022, 13(3), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030449 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1596

Abstract

In order to minimize interruptions to recording, geomagnetic observatories usually use a back-up instrument operating simultaneously with the primary instrument in order to obtain comparative observations. Based on the correction parameter calculation method established in the previous work, we focused on the effects [...] Read more.

In order to minimize interruptions to recording, geomagnetic observatories usually use a back-up instrument operating simultaneously with the primary instrument in order to obtain comparative observations. Based on the correction parameter calculation method established in the previous work, we focused on the effects of temperature and instrument drift on the comparative geomagnetic vector observations. The linear influence of temperature on the comparative data was shown to be variable. The relative temperature coefficient changed around the temperature inflection point and showed a V-type distribution in a scatter plot. This conclusion was verified in laboratory experiments. The long-term time drift between the comparative instruments exhibits a linear pattern, and the fitness of the correction model can be evaluated by the degree to which the residual distribution of the fitted straight line conforms to the normal distribution. However, the absolute value of the long-term time drift between variometers with the same type of probe is very small. Therefore, long-term time drift correction should be carried out with care. The associated analysis and conclusions have the potential to benefit data agreement correction of long-term comparative geomagnetic vector observations and comparative testing of the performance of vector instruments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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15 pages, 9564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ionospheric Disturbances Possibly Associated with Yangbi Ms6.4 and Maduo Ms7.4 Earthquakes in China from China Seismo Electromagnetic Satellite

by Xiaohui Du and Xuemin Zhang

Atmosphere 2022, 13(3), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030438 - 08 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 1841

Abstract

In this paper, the data of electron density, electron temperature and ion compositions detected by the China seismo-electromagnetic satellite (CSES) before Yangbi Ms6.4 and Maduo Ms7.4 earthquakes in China during 21–22 May 2021 are analyzed by using the algorithms of moving average to [...] Read more.

In this paper, the data of electron density, electron temperature and ion compositions detected by the China seismo-electromagnetic satellite (CSES) before Yangbi Ms6.4 and Maduo Ms7.4 earthquakes in China during 21–22 May 2021 are analyzed by using the algorithms of moving average to get the high frequency perturbations, revisited orbit comparison to construct the normal background, and wavelet transform to obtain the spectrum characteristics. Most of the parameters we studied were characterized by synchronous changes and similar frequencies, and even have symmetrical structures in the seismogenic zone, suggesting that they may originate from the same disturbing source. The research results also demonstrated that the electron density and electron temperature forms changed from relatively stable to unstable about 40 days before the earthquakes, and then gradually recovered after the earthquakes. Meanwhile, the disturbances are concentrated near the epicenter. As the earthquakes approach, the number of disturbances gradually becomes more frequent. Based on those observational facts, we suggest that the Yangbi and Maduo earthquakes may have affected the ionosphere through the ionosphere and magnetosphere branch and thermal branch of the lithosphere atmosphere ionosphere coupling model mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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12 pages, 5500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Analysis of Ionospheric Anomalies before Strong Earthquakes in and around Mainland China

by Binbin Zhao, Cai Qian, Huaizhong Yu, Jianming Liu, Nilupaer Maimaitusun, Chen Yu, Xiaotao Zhang and Yuchuan Ma

Atmosphere 2022, 13(3), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030410 - 02 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2041

Abstract

The aims of the present study were to use Langmuir Probe payload electron density data and Plasma Analyzer Package payload O⁺ density data from the Zhangheng-1 electromagnetic satellite to statistically analyze anomalies in electron and oxygen ion densities before strong earthquakes ( [...] Read more.

The aims of the present study were to use Langmuir Probe payload electron density data and Plasma Analyzer Package payload O⁺ density data from the Zhangheng-1 electromagnetic satellite to statistically analyze anomalies in electron and oxygen ion densities before strong earthquakes (M_s ≥ 6.0) in western China and its neighboring areas. The goal was to investigate the physical mechanisms underlying electron and oxygen ion generation by evaluating the correlations between such anomalies and the seismic activity before the 6.4-magnitude earthquake in Yangbi, Yunnan, China, on 21 May 2021. Nine (75%) of the twelve earthquakes that occurred during the study period and were not affected by magnetic storms were preceded by anomalous electron or oxygen ion densities of 1.1–4.5 × 10¹⁰/m³ and 2.8–6.0 × 10¹⁰/m³, respectively. The anomalies were generally observed within the two weeks preceding the earthquakes and were associated with most strike-slip and thrust earthquakes, which were mainly located on the southeastern and northwestern edges of the Tibetan Plateau—but not normal fault earthquakes. The anomalies were likely the result of acoustic-gravity waves generated by slow vibrations of the Earth’s surface reaching the ionosphere, where they cause oscillations in ionospheric electron and ion densities. In addition, the association between ionospheric anomalies and strong earthquakes was confirmed by the observation of other atmospheric anomalies before the Yangbi earthquake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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10 pages, 5112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi Field Coupled Coseismic Changes of the Jiashi Ms = 6.4 Earthquake of 19 January 2020, Based on Ground Temperature Observation

by Donghui Jia, Binbin Zhao, Huaizhong Yu, Yuchuan Ma, Yuan Xiang and Wei Yan

Atmosphere 2022, 13(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020154 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1198

Abstract

The coseismic geothermal changes of ground temperature observed at observatories near the epicenter of the 2020 Jiashi Ms = 6.4 earthquake in China, provide a unique opportunity to study heat generation and conduction in rock. Here, evolutions of rock temperature at the Xikeer, [...] Read more.

The coseismic geothermal changes of ground temperature observed at observatories near the epicenter of the 2020 Jiashi Ms = 6.4 earthquake in China, provide a unique opportunity to study heat generation and conduction in rock. Here, evolutions of rock temperature at the Xikeer, Jiashizongchang, and Gedaliang observatories, which are located at epicentral distances of 1.4, 27.42, and 50 km respectively, were analyzed. Significant coseismic geothermal changes of 0.0432 °C were observed at the Xikeer observatory at the depth of 33.38 m, at which clear diurnal variations can be observed. Smaller changes of ~0.0001 °C were observed at the depths of 12.3 and 22.8 m at the Xikeer observatory and 22.3 m at the Jiashizongchang observatory. The stress transfer induced by the coseismic rupture induced a rise in local ground temperature, but the magnitude of the change was relatively small. The larger amplitude change at the Xikeer observatory was caused by fluid infiltration. We note that diurnal variation has been recorded at the Gedaliang observatory, but the coseismic response is no longer in existence. The temperature increases at the hypocentral area were higher than expected in the ground due to the coseismic stress transfer, but the change attenuated rapidly with distance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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11 pages, 4230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The LAI Coupling Associated with the M6 Luxian Earthquake in China on 16 September 2021

by Chieh-Hung Chen, Yang-Yi Sun, Kai Lin, Jing Liu, Yali Wang, Yongxin Gao, Dixin Zhang, Rui Xu and Cong Chen

Atmosphere 2021, 12(12), 1621; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121621 - 05 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2490

Abstract

Periodic signals replaced noise that was found in continuous seismic data, particularly in the nighttime, from the broadband seismometer at the MVP-LAI (monitoring vibrations and perturbations in the lithosphere, atmosphere and ionosphere) system before the occurrence of the Luxian earthquake on 16 September [...] Read more.

Periodic signals replaced noise that was found in continuous seismic data, particularly in the nighttime, from the broadband seismometer at the MVP-LAI (monitoring vibrations and perturbations in the lithosphere, atmosphere and ionosphere) system before the occurrence of the Luxian earthquake on 16 September 2021. A short distance of ~150 km between the MVP-LAI system and the epicenter of the Luxian earthquake suggests the periodic singles as promising seismo-phenomena, due to that the radius of the earthquake preparation zone is ~380 km for an M6 event. Integration of geophysical parameters, including atmospheric pressure, vertical electric field, radon concentration, groundwater level and precipitation, at the MVP-LAI system provides an excellent opportunity for studying the seismo-LAI coupling associated with the Luxian earthquake. Analytical results show that ground vibrations, atmospheric pressure and total electron content varied from ~10⁻³ to ~10⁻² Hz before the Luxian earthquake. The seismo-LAI coupling in the relatively low frequency band (~10⁻³ Hz) can be referred to as the acoustic-gravity waves triggered by the amplified ground vibrations. In contrast, the seismo-LAI coupling in a relatively high frequency band (~10⁻² Hz) would be caused by micro-cracks and/or the high-mode natural frequency that further drives changes of TEC due to the atmospheric resonance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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15 pages, 3038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stress-Induced Apparent Resistivity Variations at the Kalpin Observatory and the Correlation with the 2020 Mw 6.0 Jiashi Earthquake

by Yali Wang, Chen Yu, Huaizhong Yu, Chong Yue, Donghui Jia, Yuchuan Ma, Zhiguang Zhang and Wen Yang

Atmosphere 2021, 12(11), 1420; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12111420 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1330

Abstract

Stress may induce apparent resistivity changes. Clarifying the deformation process of the source media is critical for determining the correlations between resistivity variations and earthquake occurrence. In this study, the stress state of a medium was analyzed by integrating GPS measurements, the spatiotemporal [...] Read more.

Stress may induce apparent resistivity changes. Clarifying the deformation process of the source media is critical for determining the correlations between resistivity variations and earthquake occurrence. In this study, the stress state of a medium was analyzed by integrating GPS measurements, the spatiotemporal evolution of the load/unload response ratio (LURR), geochemical monitoring, and synchronous apparent resistivity changes preceding the 2020 Mw 6.0 Jiashi earthquake. The medium hosting the Kalpin Observatory underwent elastic deformation before 2019, and the synchronous decreases in the E–W and N–S apparent resistivities from 2015 can be attributed to N–S-dominated compressive stress. The microdamage stage occurred in 2019, with subsequent E–W apparent resistivity variation amplitudes that were ~0.4 Ωm higher than those in previous years. This difference is a result of microdamage to the medium owing to tensile stress during the seismogenic process. The spatiotemporal evolution of the LURR and gas seepage monitoring data also indicate that the medium was damaged prior to the earthquake. Variations in the apparent resistivity measured at the Kalpin Observatory indicate that the medium underwent elastic deformation, followed by microdamage, until stress triggered the earthquake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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21 pages, 4339 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceViewpoint

The Seismo-Ionospheric Disturbances before the 9 June 2022 Maerkang Ms6.0 Earthquake Swarm

by Jiang Liu, Xuemin Zhang, Weiwei Wu, Cong Chen, Mingming Wang, Muping Yang, Yufan Guo and Jun Wang

Atmosphere 2022, 13(11), 1745; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13111745 - 23 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1961

Abstract

Based on the multi-data of the global ionospheric map (GIM), ionospheric total electron content (TEC) inversed from GPS observations, the critical frequency of the F2 layer (f_OF₂) from the ionosonde, electron density (Ne), electron temperature (Te), and He⁺ [...] Read more.

Based on the multi-data of the global ionospheric map (GIM), ionospheric total electron content (TEC) inversed from GPS observations, the critical frequency of the F2 layer (f_OF₂) from the ionosonde, electron density (Ne), electron temperature (Te), and He⁺ and O⁺ densities detected by the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite (CSES), the temporal and spatial characteristics of ionospheric multi-parameter perturbations were analyzed around the Maerkang Ms6.0 earthquake swarm on 9 June 2022. The results showed that the seismo-ionospheric disturbances were observed during 2–4 June around the epicenter under quiet solar-geomagnetic conditions. All parameters we studied were characterized by synchronous changes and negative anomalies, with a better consistency between ionospheric ground-based and satellite observations. The negative ionospheric anomalies for all parameters appeared 5–7 days before the Maerkang Ms6.0 earthquake swarm can be considered as significant signals of upcoming main shock. The seismo-ionospheric coupling mechanism may be a combination of two coupling channels: an overlapped DC electric field and an acoustic gravity wave, as described by the lithosphere–atmosphere–ionosphere coupling (LAIC). In addition, in order to make the investigations still more convincing, we completed a statistical analysis for the ionospheric anomalies of earthquakes over Ms6.0 in the study area (20°~40° N, 92°~112° E) from 1 January 2019 to 1 July 2022. The nine seismic events reveal that most strong earthquakes are preceded by obvious synchronous anomalies from ground-based and satellite ionospheric observations. The anomalous disturbances generally appear 1–15 days before the earthquakes, and the continuity and reliability of ground-based ionospheric anomaly detection are relatively high. Based on the integrated ionospheric satellite–ground observations, a cross-validation analysis can effectively improve the confidence level of anomaly identification and reduce the frequency of false anomalies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Processes for Pre-, Co-, and Post-earthquakes)

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