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Aerospace
Volume 11
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Aerospace, Volume 11, Issue 2 (February 2024) – 67 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The request for faster and greener civil aviation is urging the worldwide scientific community and aerospace industry to develop a new generation of supersonic aircraft. A key aspect is the aerodynamic efficiency and its impact on the real mission. This paper discloses increasing-fidelity aerodynamic modeling to improve the conceptual design of high-speed vehicles. The methodology foresees the development of aerodynamic aero-databases using incremental steps, from simplified methods to very reliable data based on high-fidelity CFD simulations. The multi-fidelity approach supports the aircraft design process at different stages of its design cycle. At each step, a detailed mission analysis is performed, including stability, trimability, and maneuverability analyses. View this paper
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23 pages, 5532 KiB  
Article
Air Traffic Flow Management Delay Prediction Based on Feature Extraction and an Optimization Algorithm
by Zheng Zhao, Jialing Yuan and Luhao Chen
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020168 - 19 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1673
Abstract
Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM) delay can quantitatively reflect the congestion caused by the imbalance between capacity and demand in an airspace network. Furthermore, it is an important parameter for the ex-post analysis of airspace congestion and the effectiveness of ATFM strategy implementation. [...] Read more.
Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM) delay can quantitatively reflect the congestion caused by the imbalance between capacity and demand in an airspace network. Furthermore, it is an important parameter for the ex-post analysis of airspace congestion and the effectiveness of ATFM strategy implementation. If ATFM delays can be predicted in advance, the predictability and effectiveness of ATFM strategies can be improved. In this paper, a short-term ATFM delay regression prediction method is proposed for the characteristics of the multiple sources, high dimension, and complexity of ATFM delay prediction data. The method firstly constructs an ATFM delay prediction network model, specifies the prediction object, and proposes an ATFM delay prediction index system by integrating common flow control information. Secondly, an ATFM delay prediction method based on feature extraction modules (including CNN, TCN, and attention modules), a heuristic optimization algorithm (sparrow search algorithm (SSA)), and a prediction model (LSTM) are proposed. The method constructs a CNN-LSTM-ATT model based on SSA optimization and a TCN-LSTM-ATT model based on SSA optimization. Finally, four busy airports and their major waypoints in East China are selected as the ATFM delay prediction network nodes for example validation. The experimental results show that the MAEs of the two models proposed in this paper for ATFM delay regression prediction are 4.25 min and 4.38 min, respectively. Compared with the CNN-LSTM model, the errors are reduced by 2.71 min and 2.59 min, respectively. Compared with the TCN-LSTM model, the times are 3.68 min and 3.55 min, respectively. In this paper, two improved LSTM models are constructed to improve the prediction accuracy of ATFM delay duration so as to provide support for the establishment of an ATFM delay early warning mechanism, further improve ATFM delay management, and enhance resource allocation efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Air Traffic and Airspace Control and Management (2nd Edition))
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18 pages, 1277 KiB  
Article
Near Real-Time Remote Sensing Based on Satellite Internet: Architectures, Key Techniques, and Experimental Progress
by Peng Zhang, Qin Qin, Shijie Zhang, Xiangtian Zhao, Xiaoliang Yan, Wei Wang and Hongbin Zhang
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020167 - 19 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1329
Abstract
Remote sensing has become an essential tool for geological exploration, disaster monitoring, emergency rescue, and environmental supervision, while the limited number of remote sensing satellites and ground stations restricts the timeliness of remote sensing services. Satellite Internet has features of large bandwidth, low [...] Read more.
Remote sensing has become an essential tool for geological exploration, disaster monitoring, emergency rescue, and environmental supervision, while the limited number of remote sensing satellites and ground stations restricts the timeliness of remote sensing services. Satellite Internet has features of large bandwidth, low latency, and wide coverage, which can provide ubiquitous high-speed access for time-sensitive remote sensing users. This study proposes a near real-time remote sensing (NRRS) architecture, which allows satellites to transmit remote sensing data via inter-satellite links and offload to the Earth Stations from the satellite that moves overhead. The NRRS architecture has the advantages of instant response, ubiquitous access, and intelligent integration. Based on a test communication constellation, a vehicle-mounted Satcom on-the-move experiment was conducted to validate the presented NRRS architecture. The results show that the whole process from demand collection to image acquisition takes no more than 25 min, which provides an engineering reference for the subsequent implementation of near real-time remote sensing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technology of Distributed Space Systems: Formation-Flying, Swarms, and Constellations)
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19 pages, 2694 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Training Cost and Difficulty for Aircraft-Type Transition Based on Similarity Assessment
by Kang Cao, Yongjie Zhang and Jianfei Feng
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020166 - 17 Feb 2024
Viewed by 903
Abstract
As aviation technology advances, numerous new aircraft enter the market. These not only offer airlines technological and fuel efficiency advantages but also present the challenge of how to conduct pilots’ aircraft-type transition training efficiently and economically. To address this issue, this study designed [...] Read more.
As aviation technology advances, numerous new aircraft enter the market. These not only offer airlines technological and fuel efficiency advantages but also present the challenge of how to conduct pilots’ aircraft-type transition training efficiently and economically. To address this issue, this study designed a methodology to quantitatively assess the similarity in panel display control design and standard operating procedures (SOPs) between aircraft types. Then, by combining the results of a questionnaire survey on A320, A330, B737, and B777 transition training and training cost data, it was verified quantitatively that inter-aircraft similarity has a positive impact on reducing the difficulty and cost of transition training. Taking the similarity in aircraft types as a feature, the KNN algorithm was used to successfully construct a difficulty prediction model for the training program of aircraft-type transition training. To overcome the limitation of insufficient training cost data volume, this study adopts the transfer learning method to construct a prediction model of the transition training cost, and the final significant prediction accuracy proves the effectiveness of the method. The research in this paper not only provides strong data support for the resource planning and cost management of airlines’ aircraft-type transition training but also provides new research perspectives and methodological guidance for the field of aviation training. Full article
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28 pages, 18290 KiB  
Article
Rivet Structural Design and Process Optimization for the Double-Sided Countersunk Riveting of Composite Wedge Structures
by Ligang Qu, Peng Li, Guangming Lv, Jing Li and Xian Luo
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020165 - 17 Feb 2024
Viewed by 969
Abstract
Within the double-sided countersunk riveting process of aircraft wings with a composite wedge structure, riveting consistency is poor, and composite damage is severe, which seriously affects the performance and reliability of the aircraft structure. This paper used the principal stress method to establish [...] Read more.
Within the double-sided countersunk riveting process of aircraft wings with a composite wedge structure, riveting consistency is poor, and composite damage is severe, which seriously affects the performance and reliability of the aircraft structure. This paper used the principal stress method to establish a stress model of countersunk riveting, and, based on the analysis of the stress on the structure during the pressure-riveting process, a composite structure rivet was designed. A finite element simulation model of the double-sided countersunk riveting of composite wedge structures’ composite rivets was established. The influences of the structure and the matching parameters of composite rivets on both the plastic flow of pressure riveting and the compressive stress of the structure during the pressure-riveting process were analyzed. The structural parameters and riveting process of composite rivets were optimized. The results show that the composite rivet structure could significantly reduce the contact-compressive stress at the riveting joint by more than 20%, thereby reducing the damage caused by the riveting to the composite material. For 4 mm rivets, an aperture of 4.04~4.06 mm can achieve precise relative interference riveting at 0.6% to 1.0%. Employing a 2.6 mm rivet elongation can exactly fill the countersunk hole of the wedge. Full article
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14 pages, 1797 KiB  
Article
Air Traffic Controller Fatigue Detection by Applying a Dual-Stream Convolutional Neural Network to the Fusion of Radiotelephony and Facial Data
by Lin Xu, Shanxiu Ma, Zhiyuan Shen and Ying Nan
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020164 - 17 Feb 2024
Viewed by 875
Abstract
The role of air traffic controllers is to direct and manage highly dynamic flights. Their work requires both efficiency and accuracy. Previous studies have shown that fatigue in air traffic controllers can impair their work ability and even threaten flight safety, which makes [...] Read more.
The role of air traffic controllers is to direct and manage highly dynamic flights. Their work requires both efficiency and accuracy. Previous studies have shown that fatigue in air traffic controllers can impair their work ability and even threaten flight safety, which makes it necessary to carry out research into how to optimally detect fatigue in controllers. Compared with single-modality fatigue detection methods, multi-modal detection methods can fully utilize the complementarity between diverse types of information. Considering the negative impacts of contact-based fatigue detection methods on the work performed by air traffic controllers, this paper proposes a novel AF dual-stream convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture that simultaneously extracts controller radio telephony fatigue features and facial fatigue features and performs two-class feature-fusion discrimination. This study designed two independent convolutional processes for facial images and radio telephony data and performed feature-level fusion of the extracted radio telephony and facial image features in the fully connected layer, with the fused features transmitted to the classifier for fatigue state discrimination. The experimental results show that the detection accuracy of radio telephony features under a single modality was 62.88%, the detection accuracy of facial images was 96.0%, and the detection accuracy of the proposed AF dual-stream CNN network architecture reached 98.03% and also converged faster. In summary, a dual-stream network architecture based on facial data and radio telephony data is proposed for fatigue detection that is faster and more accurate than the other methods assessed in this study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Factors during Flight Operations)
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16 pages, 4382 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Response Mechanism of Ethanol Atomization–Combustion Instability under a Contrary Equivalence Ratio Adjusting Trend
by Chengfei Tao, Rongyue Sun, Yichen Wang, Yang Gao, Lin Meng, Liangbao Jiao, Shaohua Liang and Ling Chen
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020163 - 17 Feb 2024
Viewed by 809
Abstract
This study experimentally explored the effects of equivalence ratio settings on ethanol fuel combustion oscillations with a laboratory-scale combustor. A contrary flame equivalence ratio adjusting trend was selected to investigate the dynamic characteristics of an ethanol atomization burner. Research findings denote that optimizing [...] Read more.
This study experimentally explored the effects of equivalence ratio settings on ethanol fuel combustion oscillations with a laboratory-scale combustor. A contrary flame equivalence ratio adjusting trend was selected to investigate the dynamic characteristics of an ethanol atomization burner. Research findings denote that optimizing the equivalence ratio settings can prevent the occurrence of combustion instability in ethanol burners. In the combustion chamber, the sound pressure amplitude increased from 138 Pa to 171 Pa and eventually dropped to 38 Pa, as the equivalence ratio increased from 0.45 to 0.90. However, the sound pressure amplitude increased from 35 Pa to 199 Pa and eventually dropped to 162 Pa, as the equivalence ratio decreased from 0.90 to 0.45. The oscillation frequency of the ethanol atomization burner presents a migration characteristic; this is mainly due to thermal effects associated with changes in the equivalence ratio that increase/decrease the speed of sound in burnt gases, leading to increased/decreased oscillation frequencies. The trend of the change in flame heat release rate is basically like that of sound pressure, but the time-series signal of the flame heat release rate is different from that of sound pressure. It can be concluded that the reversible change in equivalence ratio will bring significant changes to the amplitude of combustion oscillations. At the same time, the macroscopic morphology of the flame will also undergo significant changes. The flame front length decreased from 25 cm to 18 cm, and the flame frontal angle increased from 23 to 42 degrees when the equivalence ratio increased. A strange phenomenon has been observed, which is that there is also sound pressure fluctuation inside the atomized air pipeline, and it presents a special square waveform. This study explored the equivalence ratio adjusting trends on ethanol combustion instability, which will provide the theoretical basis for the design of ethanol atomization burners. Full article
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22 pages, 4510 KiB  
Article
A Novel Sea Target Tracking Algorithm for Multiple Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Considering Attitude Error in Low-Precision Geodetic Coordinate Environments
by Qiuyang Dai, Faxing Lu and Junfei Xu
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020162 - 16 Feb 2024
Viewed by 866
Abstract
Geodetic coordinate information and attitude information of the observation platform are necessary for multi-UAV position alignment and target tracking. In a complex sea environment, the navigation equipment of a UAV is susceptible to interference. High-precision geodetic coordinate information and attitude information are difficult [...] Read more.
Geodetic coordinate information and attitude information of the observation platform are necessary for multi-UAV position alignment and target tracking. In a complex sea environment, the navigation equipment of a UAV is susceptible to interference. High-precision geodetic coordinate information and attitude information are difficult to obtain. Aiming to solve the above problems, a low-precision geodetic coordinate real-time systematic spatial registration algorithm based on multi-UAV observation and an improved robust fusion tracking algorithm of multi-UAV to sea targets considering attitude error are proposed. The spatial registration algorithm obtains the observation information of the same target based on the mutual observation information. Then, geodetic coordinate systematic error is accurately estimated by establishing the systematic error estimation measurement equation. The improved robust fusion tracking algorithm considers the influence of UAV attitude error in the observation. The simulation experiment and practical experiment show that the algorithm can not only estimate systematic error accurately but also improve tracking accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances on Cooperative Navigation and Control Methods for Multiple Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)
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32 pages, 31805 KiB  
Article
Multi-Physics Digital Model of an Aluminum 2219 Liquid Hydrogen Aircraft Tank
by George Tzoumakis, Konstantinos Fotopoulos and George Lampeas
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020161 - 16 Feb 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 955
Abstract
Future liquid hydrogen-powered aircraft requires the design and optimization of a large number of systems and subsystems, with cryogenic tanks being one of the largest and most critical. Considering previous space applications, these tanks are usually stiffened by internal members such as stringers, [...] Read more.
Future liquid hydrogen-powered aircraft requires the design and optimization of a large number of systems and subsystems, with cryogenic tanks being one of the largest and most critical. Considering previous space applications, these tanks are usually stiffened by internal members such as stringers, frames, and stiffeners resulting in a complex geometry that leads to an eventual reduction in weight. Cryogenic tanks experience a variety of mechanical and thermal loading conditions and are usually constructed out of several different materials. The complexity of the geometry and the loads highlights the necessity for a computational tool in order to conduct analysis. In this direction, the present work describes the development of a multi-physics finite element digital simulation, conducting heat transfer and structural analysis in a fully parametric manner in order to be able to support the investigation of different design concepts, materials, geometries, etc. The capabilities of the developed model are demonstrated by the design process of an independent-type aluminum 2219 cryogenic tank for commuter aircraft applications. The designed tank indicates a potential maximum take-off weight reduction of about 8% for the commuter category and demonstrates that aluminum alloys are serious candidate materials for future aircraft. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 13th EASN International Conference on Innovation in Aviation and Space for Opening New Horizons)
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24 pages, 5903 KiB  
Article
Gliding Footprint Calculation Method for Aircraft with Thrust Failure Based on Six-Degree-of-Freedom Flight Envelope and Back-Propagation Artificial Neural Network
by Zhiwei Chen, Yuxue Ge, Jie Yuan and Yang Pei
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020160 - 16 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1089
Abstract
In hostile environments, engine damage is of particular concern since the engine is the only component to generate thrust that affects survivability. For an aircraft suffering thrust failure, the forced landing sites should be identified within the gliding footprint, which is the reachable [...] Read more.
In hostile environments, engine damage is of particular concern since the engine is the only component to generate thrust that affects survivability. For an aircraft suffering thrust failure, the forced landing sites should be identified within the gliding footprint, which is the reachable region on the ground. This paper proposes two calculation methods to obtain the gliding footprint by finding a series of boundary points with maximum gliding distance around the aircraft. Method 1 models the thrust-failed aircraft with six-degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) flight dynamics and adopts a novel 6-DOF unpowered-flight envelope to characterize its maneuvering capabilities. Given the initial altitude when thrust failure occurs, Method 1 determines all feasible gliding distances around the aircraft based on the constructed 6-DOF flight envelope and selects the landing points of maximum gliding distances along different radial directions as the boundary points. Method 2 employs the Back-Propagation Artificial Neural Network (BP-ANN) to predict the boundary points. Using the well-trained BP-ANN, this method can estimate the maximum gliding distances with only the initial altitude and radial directions. Simulations are conducted to analyze these two methods. Compared with conventional methods using point-mass flight dynamics, Method 1 considers more flight constraints, and the gliding footprint area is reduced by 20.79%. These results are relatively conservative and can improve the safety threshold of forced landing sites. Method 2 can estimate the gliding footprints (encircled by the boundary points under the entire operational altitude and full radial direction) in real time, which reserves more response and action time for aircraft forced landing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Aircraft Technology)
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12 pages, 4797 KiB  
Article
Global Surface Pressure Pattern for a Compressible Elliptical Cavity Flow Using Pressure-Sensitive Paint
by Yi-Xuan Huang and Kung-Ming Chung
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020159 - 15 Feb 2024
Viewed by 785
Abstract
The flow field in a cavity depends on the properties of the upstream boundary layer and the cavity geometry. Comprehensive studies for rectangular cavities have been conducted. This experimental study determines the global surface pressure pattern for elliptical cavities (eccentricities of 0, 0.66 [...] Read more.
The flow field in a cavity depends on the properties of the upstream boundary layer and the cavity geometry. Comprehensive studies for rectangular cavities have been conducted. This experimental study determines the global surface pressure pattern for elliptical cavities (eccentricities of 0, 0.66 and 0.87) in a naturally developed turbulent boundary layer using pressure-sensitive paint. The ratio between the length (major axis) and the depth is 4.43–21.5, and the freestream Mach number is 0.83. The mean surface pressure distribution of an elliptical cavity resembles that of a rectangular cavity. A change in the value of eccentricity (wall curvature) affects the region for an adverse pressure gradient in an open cavity, an extension of the plateau in a transitional–closed cavity and flow expansion near the front and rear edges. The boundaries between an open, transitional and closed cavities vary. Full article
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24 pages, 7197 KiB  
Article
An Energy Efficiency Optimization Method for Electric Propulsion Units during Electric Seaplanes’ Take-Off Phase
by Shuli Wang, Ziang Li and Qingxin Zhang
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020158 - 15 Feb 2024
Viewed by 912
Abstract
The electric seaplane, designed for take-off and landing directly on water, incorporates additional structures such as floats to meet operational requirements. Consequently, during the take-off taxiing phase, it encounters significantly higher aerodynamic and hydrodynamic resistance than other aircraft. This increases energy demand for [...] Read more.
The electric seaplane, designed for take-off and landing directly on water, incorporates additional structures such as floats to meet operational requirements. Consequently, during the take-off taxiing phase, it encounters significantly higher aerodynamic and hydrodynamic resistance than other aircraft. This increases energy demand for the electric seaplane during the take-off phase. A mathematical model for energy consumption during this stage was developed by analyzing resistance, using the propeller pitch angle as an optimization variable. This study proposes a coupled energy efficiency optimization method for the take-off phase of an electric seaplane’s electric propulsion unit (EPU). The method aims to determine an optimal propeller pitch angle configuration aligned with the seaplane’s design criteria. This ensures that the propeller output thrust meets minimal requirements during take-off while enhancing energy efficiency. Experimental validation with the two-seater electric seaplane prototype RX1E-S has demonstrated that selecting the optimal propeller pitch angle can effectively reduce energy consumption by approximately 10.4%, thereby significantly enhancing flight efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Aircraft Technology)
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41 pages, 8422 KiB  
Article
Online Deterministic 3D Trajectory Generation for Electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing Aircraft
by Zoe Mbikayi, Agnes Steinert, Dominik Heimsch, Moritz Speckmaier, Philippe Rudolph, Hugh Liu and Florian Holzapfel
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020157 - 15 Feb 2024
Viewed by 952
Abstract
The use of non-piloted eVTOL aircraft in non-segregated airspace requires reliable and deterministic automatic flight guidance systems for the aircraft to remain predictable to all the users of the airspace and maintain a high level of safety. In this paper we present a [...] Read more.
The use of non-piloted eVTOL aircraft in non-segregated airspace requires reliable and deterministic automatic flight guidance systems for the aircraft to remain predictable to all the users of the airspace and maintain a high level of safety. In this paper we present a 3D trajectory generation module based on clothoid transition segments in the horizontal plane and high order polynomial transition segments in the vertical plane. The expressions of the coefficients of the polynomial are derived offline are used to generate the trajectory online, making the system capable of running in real time without requiring enormous computational power. For the horizontal plane, we focus on the flyby transition, and therefore present a thorough analysis of the flyby geometry and the limitations linked to this geometry and the construct of three-segment trajectory generation around a fixed turn rate. We present feasible solutions for these limitations, and show simulation results for the combined horizontal and vertical plane concepts, allowing the system to generate complex 3D trajectories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced GNC Solutions for VTOL Systems)
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24 pages, 3990 KiB  
Article
Stacked Multiscale Densely Connected Temporal Convolutional Attention Network for Multi-Objective Speech Enhancement in an Airborne Environment
by Ping Huang and Yafeng Wu
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020156 - 15 Feb 2024
Viewed by 761
Abstract
Airborne speech enhancement is always a major challenge for the security of airborne systems. Recently, multi-objective learning technology has become one of the mainstream methods of monaural speech enhancement. In this paper, we propose a novel multi-objective method for airborne speech enhancement, called [...] Read more.
Airborne speech enhancement is always a major challenge for the security of airborne systems. Recently, multi-objective learning technology has become one of the mainstream methods of monaural speech enhancement. In this paper, we propose a novel multi-objective method for airborne speech enhancement, called the stacked multiscale densely connected temporal convolutional attention network (SMDTANet). More specifically, the core of SMDTANet includes three parts, namely a stacked multiscale feature extractor, a triple-attention-based temporal convolutional neural network (TA-TCNN), and a densely connected prediction module. The stacked multiscale feature extractor is leveraged to capture comprehensive feature information from noisy log-power spectra (LPS) inputs. Then, the TA-TCNN adopts a combination of these multiscale features and noisy amplitude modulation spectrogram (AMS) features as inputs to improve its powerful temporal modeling capability. In TA-TCNN, we integrate the advantages of channel attention, spatial attention, and T-F attention to design a novel triple-attention module, which can guide the network to suppress irrelevant information and emphasize informative features of different views. The densely connected prediction module is used to reliably control the flow of the information to provide an accurate estimation of clean LPS and the ideal ratio mask (IRM). Moreover, a new joint-weighted (JW) loss function is constructed to further improve the performance without adding to the model complexity. Extensive experiments on real-world airborne conditions show that our SMDTANet can obtain an on-par or better performance compared to other reference methods in terms of all the objective metrics of speech quality and intelligibility. Full article
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24 pages, 7184 KiB  
Article
Trajectory Predictor and Conflict Detection Figures of Merit for a Performance-Based Adaptive Air Traffic Monitoring System
by Chen Xia, Christian Eduardo Verdonk Gallego, Adrián Fabio Bracero, Víctor Fernando Gómez Comendador and Rosa María Arnaldo Valdés
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020155 - 15 Feb 2024
Viewed by 947
Abstract
This paper investigates the impact of trajectory predictor performance on the encounter probability generated by an adaptive conflict detection tool and examines the flexibility of the tool dependent on its adjustable thresholds, using historical radar track data. To achieve these objectives, two figures [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the impact of trajectory predictor performance on the encounter probability generated by an adaptive conflict detection tool and examines the flexibility of the tool dependent on its adjustable thresholds, using historical radar track data. To achieve these objectives, two figures of merit were proposed: System Dynamic Range and System Tuning Envelope. To examine the conflict detection’s performance variability under different uncertainty levels and predictor types, simple multi-horizon trajectory predictors trained with two machine learning techniques of different characteristics are assessed at various look-ahead times: extreme gradient boosting with a discrete nature and a multi-layer perceptron regressor with a continuous nature. The results highlight the interdependence between the performances of the trajectory predictor and the conflict detector, and the quantification of this relationship can be represented through a sigmoid function. In addition, the two proposed figures of merit are effective for selecting suitable operating points in an adaptive conflict detector, based on dynamic thresholds and the performance requirements necessary for the trajectory predictors to achieve the expected detection performance at different look-ahead time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Avionics and Astrionics Systems)
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28 pages, 12617 KiB  
Article
Fuel Burn Method Assessment Using Automatic Dependent Surveillance–Broadcast and European Reanalysis Data: Limited Flight Sample Analysis
by Karolina Krajček Nikolić, Petar Papoči, Dario Nikolić and Bruno Antulov-Fantulin
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020154 - 14 Feb 2024
Viewed by 796
Abstract
Fuel burn during the actual route flown is an important indicator of aircraft operational efficiency. This study aims to assess and systematically evaluate the method for fuel consumed during flights using data from the automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast (ADS-B), European reanalysis (ERA5) meteorological dataset, [...] Read more.
Fuel burn during the actual route flown is an important indicator of aircraft operational efficiency. This study aims to assess and systematically evaluate the method for fuel consumed during flights using data from the automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast (ADS-B), European reanalysis (ERA5) meteorological dataset, and BADA 3 performance. A literature background and comprehensive methodology are provided for fuel estimation using track data. The airborne part of the trajectory was used to estimate the total trip fuel consumed during several flights of a commercial airliner. The calculated fuel burn is compared with measured fuel consumption from the flight data recorder (FDR). The results show that fuel consumption for the entire airborne part of the trajectory can be estimated with an average error of 1.2% and with a standard deviation of 1.3%. Detailed results of fuel burn for individual flight phases, from the initial climb to the approach, are also presented. In addition, this paper also discusses the sources of errors and the potential applications of the method for network operations and environmental monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)
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23 pages, 1430 KiB  
Article
Autonomous and Earth-Independent Orbit Determination for a Lunar Navigation Satellite System
by Joshua J. R. Critchley-Marrows, Xiaofeng Wu, Yosuke Kawabata and Shinichi Nakasuka
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020153 - 14 Feb 2024
Viewed by 961
Abstract
In recent years, the number of expected missions to the Moon has increased significantly. With limited terrestrial-based infrastructure to support this number of missions, as well as restricted visibility over intended mission areas, there is a need for space navigation system autonomy. Autonomous [...] Read more.
In recent years, the number of expected missions to the Moon has increased significantly. With limited terrestrial-based infrastructure to support this number of missions, as well as restricted visibility over intended mission areas, there is a need for space navigation system autonomy. Autonomous on-board navigation systems in the lunar environment have been the subject of study by a number of authors. Suggested systems include optical navigation, high-sensitivity Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers, and navigation-linked formation flying. This paper studies the interoperable nature and fusion of proposed autonomous navigation systems that are independent of Earth infrastructure, given challenges in distance and visibility. This capability is critically important for safe and resilient mission architectures. The proposed elliptical frozen orbits of lunar navigation satellite systems will be of special interest, investigating the derivation of orbit determination by non-terrestrial sources utilizing celestial observations and inter-satellite links. Potential orbit determination performances around 100 m are demonstrated, highlighting the potential of the approach for future lunar navigation infrastructure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue GNC for the Moon, Mars, and Beyond)
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12 pages, 3762 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation on Ice–Aluminum Interface Adhesion Strength under Heating Conditions
by Yusong Wang, Chengxiang Zhu, Ke Xiong and Chunling Zhu
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020152 - 14 Feb 2024
Viewed by 768
Abstract
Ice accumulation on airfoils and engines seriously endangers fight safety. The design of anti-icing/de-icing systems calls for an accurate measurement of the adhesion strength between ice and substrates. In this research, a test bench for adhesion strength measurement is designed and built. Its [...] Read more.
Ice accumulation on airfoils and engines seriously endangers fight safety. The design of anti-icing/de-icing systems calls for an accurate measurement of the adhesion strength between ice and substrates. In this research, a test bench for adhesion strength measurement is designed and built. Its reliability and accuracy are verified by the calibration. The adhesion strength is first measured at different loading speeds and freezing times, and the most suitable values are determined based on the results. Then, the variation in adhesion strength with heating temperatures at different initial substrate temperatures and different heating powers is investigated. Parameter AW is defined to evaluate the heating power from the point of view of energy consumption and adhesion strength. As a result, the loading speed and the freezing time are determined to be 0.5 mm/s and 90 min, respectively. The adhesion strength degrades as the heating temperature increases. As the initial temperature drops, the adhesion strength decreases more slowly. Furthermore, the temperature of WAS (Weak Adhesion State) under heating varies with the initial temperature. Heating with a high power will yield more reduction in adhesion strength for the same temperature increase. The values of AW illustrate that a medium power heating is more favorable to reduce the adhesion strength with a low energy consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))
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15 pages, 2366 KiB  
Article
Characterization of a Solar Sail Membrane for Abaqus-Based Simulations
by Luisa Boni, Marco Bassetto and Alessandro A. Quarta
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020151 - 14 Feb 2024
Viewed by 814
Abstract
Photonic solar sails are a class of advanced propellantless propulsion systems that use thin, large, lightweight membranes to convert the momentum of light from the Sun into thrust for space navigation. The conceptually simple nature of such a fascinating propulsion system requires, however, [...] Read more.
Photonic solar sails are a class of advanced propellantless propulsion systems that use thin, large, lightweight membranes to convert the momentum of light from the Sun into thrust for space navigation. The conceptually simple nature of such a fascinating propulsion system requires, however, advances in materials, packaging, deployment, and control of a very large space structure. In this context, the finite element method (FEM), implemented in a robust and flexible software such as the commercial software Abaqus, represents a fundamental instrument to progress with the practical study of this promising propulsion system concept. In particular, in a typical (medium-size) square solar sail design process, the FEM-based analyses are used to better understand fundamental aspects of structural design, such as, for example, membrane pre-tensioning, deformations induced by Solar Radiation Pressure (SRP), and the buckling of reinforcing booms. The aim of this study is to describe an effective procedure to model a classical square solar sail structure into a typical commercial software for finite element analysis, such as the well-known suite Abaqus. In particular, we compare various membrane pre-tensioning techniques (useful for increasing the membrane’s bending stiffness) and describe possible approaches to applying the SRP-induced load in a realistic way. Additionally, the flexibility of the structure under the solar sail loads and the criticality of section shape and boom size are taken into account, with particular regard to the problem of structural instability. In this context, performance and critical issues of different structural solutions are discussed and compared, allowing an improvement in the preliminary design phase of solar sails to be obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)
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27 pages, 29417 KiB  
Article
Design Optimisation Approach of an Outer Rotor Multiphase PM Actuator for Multirotor Aerial Vehicle Applications
by Saad Chahba, Guillaume Krebs, Cristina Morel, Rabia Sehab and Ahmad Akrad
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020150 - 13 Feb 2024
Viewed by 978
Abstract
The electric urban air mobility sector has gained significant attraction in public debates, particularly with the proliferation of announcements demonstrating new aerial vehicles and the infrastructure that goes with them. In this context, the development of new methodologies for the design and sizing [...] Read more.
The electric urban air mobility sector has gained significant attraction in public debates, particularly with the proliferation of announcements demonstrating new aerial vehicles and the infrastructure that goes with them. In this context, the development of new methodologies for the design and sizing of actuation systems, ensuring high performances of these aerial vehicles, remains an important task in this process. This will allow for better integration within this transport sector. In this paper, a robust design optimisation approach of multiphase fault-tolerant (FT) outer rotor (OR) permanent magnets (PM) for multirotor aerial vehicle applications is proposed. In order to show the effectiveness and the robustness of the proposed design methodology, the number of stator winding phases, with a fractional slot concentrated winding (FSCW) configuration, as well as the PM configuration are considered as variables. Thus, four cases for the number of phases are considered, namely 3, 5, 6 and 7 phases, where for each number of phases case, the PM takes 3 configurations, namely surface PM, interior V-shape PM and interior spoke PM. First, a pre-sizing step is carried out, consisting of selecting the optimal combinations slot/pole, designing the multiphase FSCW layout, and estimating the electric motor (EM) geometry using analytical computations to obtain a preliminary validation of the design specifications. Second, constrained multiobjective optimisation is considered in order to optimise the EM performances, such as motor efficiency and weight, under constraints where the FEMM/Matlab based Finite Element Analysis (FEA) tool is used to perform this optimisation. Finally, results analysis and performance comparisons of different EM configurations are carried out in order to assess the design parameters, such as phases number, PM position, and harmonic currents in the EM design and consequently to select the best configuration for the considered application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Machines for Electrified Aircraft Propulsion)
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24 pages, 2586 KiB  
Article
Robust Approximate Optimal Trajectory Tracking Control for Quadrotors
by Rong Li, Zhengliang Yang, Gaowei Yan, Long Jian, Guoqiang Li and Zhiqiang Li
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020149 - 13 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 868
Abstract
This paper uses the adaptive dynamic programming (ADP) method to achieve optimal trajectory tracking control for quadrotors. Relying on an established mathematical model of a quadrotor, the approximate optimal trajectory tracking control, which consists of the steady-state control input and the approximate optimal [...] Read more.
This paper uses the adaptive dynamic programming (ADP) method to achieve optimal trajectory tracking control for quadrotors. Relying on an established mathematical model of a quadrotor, the approximate optimal trajectory tracking control, which consists of the steady-state control input and the approximate optimal feedback control input, is designed for a nominal system. Considering the compound disturbances in position and attitude dynamic models, disturbance observers are introduced. The estimated values are used to design robust compensation inputs to suppress the effect of the compound disturbances for good trajectory tracking performance. Theoretically, the Lyapunov theorem demonstrates the stability of a closed-loop system. The robustness and effectiveness of the proposed controller are confirmed by the simulation results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flight Dynamics, Control & Simulation (2nd Edition))
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16 pages, 8093 KiB  
Article
Mitigation of Shock-Induced Separation Using Square-Shaped Micro-Serrations—A Preliminary Study
by Fangyou Yu, Zhanbiao Gao, Qifan Zhang, Lianjie Yue and Hao Chen
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020148 - 12 Feb 2024
Viewed by 853
Abstract
Suppressing shock-induced flow separation has been a long-standing problem in the design of supersonic vehicles. To reduce the structural and design complexity of control devices, a passive control technique based on micro-serrations is proposed and its controlling effects are preliminarily investigated under test [...] Read more.
Suppressing shock-induced flow separation has been a long-standing problem in the design of supersonic vehicles. To reduce the structural and design complexity of control devices, a passive control technique based on micro-serrations is proposed and its controlling effects are preliminarily investigated under test conditions in which the Mach number is 2.5 and the ramp creating an incident shock is 15 deg. Meanwhile, a vorticity-based criterion for assessing separation scales is developed to resolve the inapplicability of the zero skin friction criterion caused by wall unevenness. The simulations demonstrate that the height of the first stair significantly influences the separation length. Generally, the separation length is shorter at higher stairs, but when the height is greater than half of the thickness of the incoming boundary layer, the corresponding separation point moves upstream. A stair with a height of only 0.4 times the thickness of the boundary layer reduces the separation length by 2.69%. Further parametric analysis reveals that while the remaining serrations have limited effects on the flow separation, an optimization of their shape (depth and width) can create more favorable spanwise vortices and offer a modest improvement of the overall controlling performance. Compared to the plate case, a 9.13% reduction in the separation length can be achieved using a slightly serrated design in which the leading stair is 0.1 high and the subsequent serrations are 0.2 deep and 0.05 wide (nondimensionalized, with the thickness of the incoming boundary layer). Meanwhile, the micro-serration structure even brings less drag. Considering the minor modification to the structure, the proposed method has the potential for use in conjunction with other techniques to exert enhanced control on separations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shock-Dominated Flow)
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19 pages, 3779 KiB  
Article
Assessing Mental Workload in Dual STEM–Air Force Language Listening Practice
by José Luis Roca-González, Juan-Antonio Vera-López and Margarita Navarro Pérez
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020147 - 11 Feb 2024
Viewed by 902
Abstract
Cognitive workload analysis is an important aspect of safety studies at the Spanish Air Force Academy where students must complete a dual academic curriculum based on military pilot training combined with an industrial engineering degree. Recently, a mental workload assessment (MWA) and forecasting [...] Read more.
Cognitive workload analysis is an important aspect of safety studies at the Spanish Air Force Academy where students must complete a dual academic curriculum based on military pilot training combined with an industrial engineering degree. Recently, a mental workload assessment (MWA) and forecasting model based on Shannon’s law from information theory (IT) has been published; it proposes a new mathematical procedure (MWA-IT) that defines a workload index that could be extrapolated to other case studies. The aim of this study was to adapt this model to the Spanish University Centre of Defence to calculate the mental workload caused by the listening practice in English as a foreign language. In addition, a contrasting methodology, the NASA task load index (NASA-TLX), was applied to validate the proposed model using the error study provided by SMAPE and MSE. The results established an expected reference baseline for MWA-IT in English listening that is between 36 and 92 at the end of the four courses, which corresponds to the students that start with the lowest English level (higher workload = 92) and the ones with the highest English level certification (lowest workload = 36); meanwhile, the NASA-TLX result was between 49.8 and 193.7 for the same circumstances. The main difference is that MWA-IT can be predicted with 41% less deviation than can NASA-TLX and does not require the completion of a questionnaire following the activities. Finally, the study also highlights the fact that that nearly 65% of the workload was caused by the first two courses, when the advanced STEM subjects were taught and the pilot learning and practice program had not yet begun. This methodology may help the teachers in charge to redesign or add new content depending on the expected workload reference. Full article
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15 pages, 6259 KiB  
Article
Study of Paired Approach Wake Separation Based on Crosswinds
by Weijun Pan, Yanqiang Jiang, Junjie Zhou, Wei Ye and Yuqin Zhang
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020146 - 9 Feb 2024
Viewed by 904
Abstract
The effect of crosswinds on paired approach (PA) procedures for Closely Spaced Parallel Runways (CSPR) is investigated in this paper by fully utilizing the crosswind environment to implement a more efficient PA and increase runway capacity. An improved wake dissipation model is used [...] Read more.
The effect of crosswinds on paired approach (PA) procedures for Closely Spaced Parallel Runways (CSPR) is investigated in this paper by fully utilizing the crosswind environment to implement a more efficient PA and increase runway capacity. An improved wake dissipation model is used to quickly predict the change in the wake velocity field for the PA procedures. The change in the width of the hazard zone is explored in detail using the roll moment coefficient as a determination index. The calculation method for the hazard zone of a wake encounter in a PA is designed considering the influence of crosswind, turbulence, and ground effect. The results show the diffusion rate of the hazard zone and a decrease in the width of the maximum hazard zone under a breezeless environment with increases in the turbulence intensity. The maximum hazard zone width decreases with an increase in crosswind speed. Favorable crosswinds can reduce wake separation and improve the efficiency of a PA. Lower turbulence intensity has a better crosswind effect under a normal PA. The 3-degree offset PA can accommodate larger unfavorable crosswinds, with a higher turbulence intensity having a better crosswind effect. The 3-degree offset PA can substantially increase the proportion of time when no wake affects the PA procedure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flight Control)
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19 pages, 22448 KiB  
Article
Design and Mechanical Properties of Maximum Bulk Modulus Microstructures Based on a Smooth Topology with Grid Point Density
by Xin Zhou, Chenglin Tao, Xi Liang, Zeliang Liu and Huijian Li
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020145 - 9 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1396
Abstract
The aim of topology optimisation is to determine the optimal distribution of material phases within the periodic cells of a microstructure. In this paper, the density of grid points under element volume fraction is constructed to replace the finite elements in the traditional [...] Read more.
The aim of topology optimisation is to determine the optimal distribution of material phases within the periodic cells of a microstructure. In this paper, the density of grid points under element volume fraction is constructed to replace the finite elements in the traditional SIMP framework, avoiding jagged and blurry boundaries in the computational process due to grid dependence. This is then combined with homogenisation theory, a microstructure topology optimisation algorithm with maximum bulk modulus under prescribed volume constraints is proposed, which can obtain 2D and 3D topologies with smooth boundaries. In addition, a closed form expression for the two-dimensional topological concave edge structure (taking the most typical topology as an example) was derived, and a compression experiment was conducted on the topological microstructure based on 3D metal printing technology. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the powder bonded on the surface of the printed structure was not completely melted and the step effect caused the finite element analysis results to be higher than the experimental results. Overall, the finite element simulation and experimental results of the concave surface structure have good consistency, with high strength and energy absorption effects. Topologies based on grid point density obtain microstructures with smooth boundaries, and the introduction of the Heaviside smoothing function and multiple filtering steps within this algorithm leads to more robust optimisation, facilitating 3D or 4D printing of microstructures that meet specific design requirements and confirming the feasibility of the proposed topology for lightweighting studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Analysis of Advanced Composites and Structures in Aerospace)
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23 pages, 15671 KiB  
Article
A330-300 Wake Encounter by ARJ21 Aircraft
by Haotian Luo, Weijun Pan, Yidi Wang and Yuming Luo
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020144 - 8 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1057
Abstract
Today, aviation has grown significantly in importance. However, the challenge of flight delays has become increasingly severe due to the need for safe separation between aircraft to mitigate wake turbulence effects. The primary emphasis of this investigation resides in elucidating the evolutionary attributes [...] Read more.
Today, aviation has grown significantly in importance. However, the challenge of flight delays has become increasingly severe due to the need for safe separation between aircraft to mitigate wake turbulence effects. The primary emphasis of this investigation resides in elucidating the evolutionary attributes of wake vortices in homogeneous isotropy turbulence. The large eddy simulation (LES) method is used to scrutinize the dynamic evolution of wake vortices engendered by an A333 aircraft in the atmospheric milieu and assess its ramifications on the ARJ21 aircraft. The research endeavor commences by formulating an LES methodology for the evolution of aircraft wake vortices, integrating adaptive grid technology to reduce the necessary grid volume significantly. This approach enables the implementation of axial and non-axial grid adaptive refinement, leading to more accurate simulations of both axial and non-axial vortices. Numerical simulations are conducted using the LES approach to scrutinize three distinct rates of turbulence dissipation amidst the ambient atmospheric turbulence, and the results are juxtaposed with Lidar measurements (Wind3D 6000 LiDAR) of wake vortices acquired at Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport (CTU). Subsequently, the rolling moment of the following aircraft is calculated, and three-dimensional hazard zones are determined for the A333. It is found that during the approach phase, the wake turbulence separation minima for an ARJ21 (CAT-F) following an A333 (CAT-B) is 3.35 NM, which represents a reduction of approximately 33% compared to ICAO RECAT (Wake Turbulence Re-categorization). The findings validate the dependability of the fine-grained mesh used in the vortex core region, engendered through the adaptive grid method, which proficiently captures the Crow instability and the interconnected phenomena of vortices in the numerical examination of aircraft wake. The safety of wake encounters primarily depends on the magnitude of environmental turbulence and the development of structural instability in wake vortices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aircraft Modeling, Simulation and Control II)
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20 pages, 8699 KiB  
Article
Aerodynamic Shape Optimization of Subsonic/Supersonic Flows Integrating Variable-Fidelity Longitudinal Trim Analysis
by Yacong Wu, Jun Huang, Boqian Ji and Lei Song
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020143 - 8 Feb 2024
Viewed by 900
Abstract
Most existing studies on aerodynamic shape optimization have not considered longitudinal trim under control surface deflection, typically achieving self-trim through a constraint of zero pitching moment or adjusting the optimized configuration for longitudinal trim. However, adjustments to the optimized configuration might introduce additional [...] Read more.
Most existing studies on aerodynamic shape optimization have not considered longitudinal trim under control surface deflection, typically achieving self-trim through a constraint of zero pitching moment or adjusting the optimized configuration for longitudinal trim. However, adjustments to the optimized configuration might introduce additional drag, reducing overall optimization benefits. In this paper, a novel approach of incorporating control surface deflection for longitudinal trim in aerodynamic optimization is proposed. Firstly, an aerodynamic computation program based on the high-order panel method was developed, introducing velocity perturbations on specific mesh surfaces to simulate actual control surface deflections. Subsequently, a comprehensive optimization framework was established, encompassing parametric modeling, aerodynamic computation, and variable-fidelity control surface deflection analysis. Finally, aerodynamic optimization analysis was conducted under both subsonic and supersonic conditions. Thirty-one design variables were selected with the trimmed lift-to-drag ratio in cruising condition as the objective function and the control surface deflection angle as the constraint. The results indicated an 8.52% increase in the trimmed lift-to-drag ratio compared to the baseline model under subsonic conditions and an 8.1% increase under supersonic conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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18 pages, 1348 KiB  
Article
Physics-Based Aircraft Dynamics Identification Using Genetic Algorithms
by Raymundo Peña-García, Rodolfo Daniel Velázquez-Sánchez, Cristian Gómez-Daza-Argumedo, Jonathan Omega Escobedo-Alva, Ricardo Tapia-Herrera and Jesús Alberto Meda-Campaña
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020142 - 8 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1303
Abstract
This research introduces a physics-based identification technique utilizing genetic algorithms. The primary objective is to derive a parametric matrix, denoted as A, describing the time-invariant linear model governing the longitudinal dynamics of an aircraft. This is achieved by proposing a fitness function [...] Read more.
This research introduces a physics-based identification technique utilizing genetic algorithms. The primary objective is to derive a parametric matrix, denoted as A, describing the time-invariant linear model governing the longitudinal dynamics of an aircraft. This is achieved by proposing a fitness function based on the properties of the transition matrix and taking advantage of some of the capabilities of the genetic algorithm, mainly those of restricting the search ranges of the unknowns. In this case, such unknowns are related to the type of aircraft and flight conditions that are considered during the identification process. The proposed identification method is validated with a reliable nonlinear model that can be found in the literature, as well as with the calculation of the trim condition and linearization generally used in aircraft dynamics. In summary, this study suggests that the genetic algorithm provided with the adequate fitness function could be an appealing alternative for aircraft model identification, even when limited data are available. Furthermore, in some cases, linearization using a genetic algorithm can be more efficient than classical methods. Full article
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20 pages, 5943 KiB  
Article
Conceptual Design of Layered Distributed Propulsion System to Improve Power-Saving Benefit of Boundary-Layer Ingestion
by Zhiping Li, Yujiang Lu and Tianyu Pan
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020141 - 8 Feb 2024
Viewed by 899
Abstract
DPS (distributed propulsion system) utilizing BLI (boundary-layer ingestion) has shown great potential for reducing the power consumption of sustainable AAM (advanced air mobility), such as BWB (blended-wing body) aircraft. However, the ingesting boundary layer makes it easier for flow separation to occur within [...] Read more.
DPS (distributed propulsion system) utilizing BLI (boundary-layer ingestion) has shown great potential for reducing the power consumption of sustainable AAM (advanced air mobility), such as BWB (blended-wing body) aircraft. However, the ingesting boundary layer makes it easier for flow separation to occur within the S-shaped duct, and the consequent distortion due to flow separation can dramatically reduce the aerodynamic performance of the fan, which offsets the power-saving benefit of BLI. By analyzing the source of power saving and power loss of BLI, this paper presents the LDPS (layered distributed propulsion system) concept, in which the freestream flow and boundary-layer flow are ingested separately to improve the power-saving benefit of BLI. In order to preliminarily verify the feasibility of LDPS, an existing DPS is modified. The design parameters and the system performances of LDPS are studied using a 1D engine model. The results show that there is an optimal ratio of the FPR (fan pressure ratio) for the FSE (freestream engine) to the BLE (boundary-layer engine) that maximizes the PSC (power-saving coefficient) of LDPS. This optimal ratio of FPR for the two fans can be obtained when the exit velocities of FSE and BLE are the same. Under the optimal ratio of FPR for the two fans, the PSC of LDPS is improved by 5.83% compared to conventional DPS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Research on UAM/AAM Aircraft and Systems: Modeling, Advanced Control, and Emerging Technologies)
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21 pages, 7496 KiB  
Article
Physics-Embedded Deep Learning to Predict Real-Time Flow Parameters in Complex Thermodynamic Machinery
by Zhifu Lin, Dasheng Xiao and Hong Xiao
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020140 - 7 Feb 2024
Viewed by 930
Abstract
Flow through complex thermodynamic machinery is intricate, incorporating turbulence, compressibility effects, combustion, and solid–fluid interactions, posing a challenge to classical physics. For example, it is not currently possible to simulate a three-dimensional full-field gas flow through the propulsion of an aircraft. In this [...] Read more.
Flow through complex thermodynamic machinery is intricate, incorporating turbulence, compressibility effects, combustion, and solid–fluid interactions, posing a challenge to classical physics. For example, it is not currently possible to simulate a three-dimensional full-field gas flow through the propulsion of an aircraft. In this study, a new approach is presented for predicting the real-time fluid properties of complex flow. This perspective is obtained from deep learning, but it is significant in that the physical context is embedded within the deep learning architecture. Cases of excessive working states are analyzed to validate the effectiveness of the given architecture, and the results align with the experimental data. This study introduces a new and appealing method for predicting real-time fluid properties using complex thermomechanical systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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22 pages, 871 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Visual and Vestibular Information on Motion Sickness in Flight Simulation
by Ahmad Javaid, Shahzad Rasool and Adnan Maqsood
Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020139 - 6 Feb 2024
Viewed by 997
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) is in its nascent technological advancement and market diffusion stages. Interestingly, the scientific exploration concerning the impact of non-isometric mapping disparities within visual–vestibular stimuli on motion sickness remains deficient. This investigation focuses on scrutinizing the visual–vestibular implications for motion sickness [...] Read more.
Virtual reality (VR) is in its nascent technological advancement and market diffusion stages. Interestingly, the scientific exploration concerning the impact of non-isometric mapping disparities within visual–vestibular stimuli on motion sickness remains deficient. This investigation focuses on scrutinizing the visual–vestibular implications for motion sickness within the context of flight simulation. The developed motion platform, offering specific pitch and roll ranges of ±16 and ±17 degrees, respectively, was employed to induce varying ratios of simulated visual–vestibular cues. Involving a cohort of five participants, the study exposed them to two prevalent simulated mission profiles, subsequently assessing their motion sickness symptoms. Sixty responses were analyzed using the subjective assessment of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ). The findings reveal a reduction in cybersickness severity with congruent visual–vestibular stimuli in proportion to the variance observed among visual–vestibular coupling ratios. A comparative analysis of SSQ sub-categories demonstrates that disorientation holds the most significance in the hierarchy of motion sickness contributors, followed by oculomotor discomfort, with nausea manifesting as the least influential. This study can lead to situation awareness analysis by integrating VR-based flight-simulation setups in the formal training of pilots and UAV operators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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