Editorial

3 pages, 192 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for the Special Issue on Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III

by Jose Luis Sanchez-Rojas

Micromachines 2023, 14(10), 1862; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14101862 - 28 Sep 2023

Viewed by 546

This is the third volume of a Special Issue focused on piezoelectric transducers, covering a wide range of topics, including the design, fabrication, characterization, packaging and system integration or final applications of mili/micro/nano-electro-mechanical system-based transducers featuring piezoelectric materials and devices [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

23 pages, 12279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compensation Method for the Nonlinear Characteristics with Starting Error of a Piezoelectric Actuator in Open-Loop Controls Based on the DSPI Model

by Dong An, Ji Li, Songhua Li, Meng Shao, Weinan Wang, Chuan Wang and Yixiao Yang

Micromachines 2023, 14(4), 742; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14040742 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1038

Abstract

Nanopositioning stages with piezoelectric actuators have been widely used in fields such as precision mechanical engineering, but the nonlinear start-up accuracy problem under open-loop control has still not been solved, and more errors will accumulate, especially under open-loop control. This paper first analyzes [...] Read more.

Nanopositioning stages with piezoelectric actuators have been widely used in fields such as precision mechanical engineering, but the nonlinear start-up accuracy problem under open-loop control has still not been solved, and more errors will accumulate, especially under open-loop control. This paper first analyzes the causes of the starting errors from both the physical properties of materials and voltages: the starting errors are affected by the material properties of piezoelectric ceramics, and the magnitude of the voltage determines the magnitude of the starting errors. Then, this paper adopts an image-only model of the data separated by a Prandtl-Ishlinskii model (DSPI) based on the classical Prandtl-Ishlinskii model (CPI), which can improve the positioning accuracy of the nanopositioning platform after separating the data based on the start-up error characteristics. This model can improve the positioning accuracy of the nanopositioning platform while solving the problem of nonlinear start-up errors under open-loop control. Finally, the DSPI inverse model is used for the feedforward compensation control of the platform, and the experimental results show that the DSPI model can solve the nonlinear start-up error problem existing under open-loop control. The DSPI model not only has higher modeling accuracy than the CPI model but also has better performance in terms of compensation results. The DSPI model improves the localization accuracy by 99.427% compared to the CPI model. When compared with another improved model, the localization accuracy is improved by 92.763%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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19 pages, 5864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aluminum Nitride Out-of-Plane Piezoelectric MEMS Actuators

by Almur A. S. Rabih, Mohammad Kazemi, Michaël Ménard and Frederic Nabki

Micromachines 2023, 14(3), 700; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14030700 - 22 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1954

Abstract

Integrating microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) actuators with low-loss suspended silicon nitride waveguides enables the precise alignment of these waveguides to other photonic integrated circuits (PICs). This requires both in-plane and out-of-plane actuators to ensure high-precision optical alignment. However, most current out-of-plane electrostatic actuators are [...] Read more.

Integrating microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) actuators with low-loss suspended silicon nitride waveguides enables the precise alignment of these waveguides to other photonic integrated circuits (PICs). This requires both in-plane and out-of-plane actuators to ensure high-precision optical alignment. However, most current out-of-plane electrostatic actuators are bulky, while electrothermal actuators consume high power. Thus, piezoelectric actuators, thanks to their moderate actuation voltages and low power consumption, could be used as alternatives. Furthermore, piezoelectric actuators can provide displacements in two opposite directions. This study presents a novel aluminum nitride-based out-of-plane piezoelectric MEMS actuator equipped with a capacitive sensing mechanism to track its displacement. This actuator could be integrated within PICs to align different chips. Prototypes of the device were tested over the range of ±60 V, where they provided upward and downward displacements, and achieved a total average out-of-plane displacement of 1.30 ± 0.04 μm. Capacitance measurement showed a linear relation with the displacement, where at −60 V, the average change in capacitance was found to be −13.10 ± 0.89 fF, whereas at 60 V the change was 11.09 ± 0.73 fF. This study also investigates the effect of the residual stress caused by the top metal electrode, on the linearity of the displacement–voltage relation. The simulation predicts that the prototype could be modified to accommodate waveguide routing above it without affecting its performance, and it could also incorporate in-plane lateral actuators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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18 pages, 7623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Polymeric Piezoelectric Tactile Sensor Fabricated by 3D Printing and Laser Micromachining for Hardness Differentiation during Palpation

by Chang Ge and Edmond Cretu

Micromachines 2022, 13(12), 2164; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13122164 - 07 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1426

Abstract

Tactile sensors are important bionic microelectromechanical systems that are used to implement an artificial sense of touch for medical electronics. Compared with the natural sense of touch, this artificial sense of touch provides more quantitative information, augmenting the objective aspects of several medical [...] Read more.

Tactile sensors are important bionic microelectromechanical systems that are used to implement an artificial sense of touch for medical electronics. Compared with the natural sense of touch, this artificial sense of touch provides more quantitative information, augmenting the objective aspects of several medical operations, such as palpation-based diagnosis. Tactile sensors can be effectively used for hardness differentiation during the palpation process. Since palpation requires direct physical contact with patients, medical safety concerns are alleviated if the sensors used can be made disposable. In this respect, the low-cost, rapid fabrication of tactile sensors based on polymers is a possible alternative. The present work uses the 3D printing of elastic resins and the laser micromachining of piezoelectric polymeric films to make a low-cost tactile sensor for hardness differentiation through palpation. The fabricated tactile sensor has a sensitivity of 1.52 V/mm to mechanical deformation at the vertical direction, a sensitivity of 11.72 mV/HA in sensing material hardness with a pressing depth of 500 µm for palpation, and a validated capability to detect rigid objects buried in a soft tissue phantom. Its performance is comparable with existing piezoelectric tactile sensors for similar applications. In addition, the tactile sensor has the additional advantage of providing a simpler microfabrication process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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13 pages, 4119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Miniature Autonomous Robot Based on Legged In-Plane Piezoelectric Resonators with Onboard Power and Control

by David Robles-Cuenca, Mario Rodolfo Ramírez-Palma, Víctor Ruiz-Díez, Jorge Hernando-García and José Luis Sánchez-Rojas

Micromachines 2022, 13(11), 1815; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13111815 - 24 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1752

Abstract

This work reports the design, fabrication, and characterization of a centimetre-scale autonomous robot with locomotion based on in-plane piezoelectric resonators and 3D-printed inclined legs. The robot consists of a pair of cooperative piezoelectric motors, an electronic power circuit and a battery-powered microcontroller. The [...] Read more.

This work reports the design, fabrication, and characterization of a centimetre-scale autonomous robot with locomotion based on in-plane piezoelectric resonators and 3D-printed inclined legs. The robot consists of a pair of cooperative piezoelectric motors, an electronic power circuit and a battery-powered microcontroller. The piezoelectric motors feature a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) plate of dimensions 20 mm × 3 mm × 0.2 mm vibrating on its first extensional resonant mode at around 70 kHz. A particular position of 3D-printed inclined legs allowed the conversion of the in-plane movement into an effective forward thrust. To enable arbitrary trajectories of the robot on a surface, two parallel piezoelectric plate motors were arranged in a differential drive scheme. The signals to excite these plates were generated by the microcontroller and adapted by a supplementary electronic circuit to increase the effective voltage supplied by the onboard battery. The fully assembled robot had a size of 27 mm × 15 mm and a weight of 7 g and reached a linear speed of approximately 15 mm/s and a rotational speed of up to 50 deg./s. Finally, the autonomous robot demonstrated the ability to follow pre-programmed paths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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12 pages, 3324 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Increasing Performances of 1–3 Piezocomposite Ultrasonic Transducer by Alternating Current Poling Method

by Ke Zhu, Jinpeng Ma, Yang Liu, Bingzhong Shen, Da Huo, Yixiao Yang, Xudong Qi, Enwei Sun and Rui Zhang

Micromachines 2022, 13(10), 1715; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13101715 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1711

Abstract

Ultrasonic transducers are the basic core component of diagnostic imaging devices, wherein the piezoelectric materials are the active element of transducers. Recent studies showed that the alternating current poling (ACP) method could develop the properties of piezocomposites, which had great potential to improve [...] Read more.

Ultrasonic transducers are the basic core component of diagnostic imaging devices, wherein the piezoelectric materials are the active element of transducers. Recent studies showed that the alternating current poling (ACP) method could develop the properties of piezocomposites, which had great potential to improve transducer performance. Herein, transducers (f_c = 3 MHz) made of DCP and ACP 1–3 piezocomposites (prepared by PZT-5H ceramics and PMN-PT single crystals) were fabricated. The effect of the ACP method on the bandwidth and insertion loss (sensitivity) was explored. The results indicate that the ACP method can significantly enhance the bandwidth and slightly increase the insertion loss of transducers. Particularly, a superhigh bandwidth of 142.8% was achieved in the transducer of ACP 1–3 PMN-PT single crystal combined with suitable matching and backing layers. This bandwidth is higher than that of all reported transducers with similar center frequency. Moreover, the optimization mechanism of transducer performance by the ACP method was discussed. The obtained results suggested that the ACP is an effective and convenient technology to improve transducer performances, especially for the bandwidth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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12 pages, 2583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Piezoelectric Heterostructure Scavenging Mechanical Energy from Human Foot Strikes

by Wei He

Micromachines 2022, 13(8), 1353; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13081353 - 20 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1321

Abstract

This paper presents a piezoelectric heterostructure for extracting mechanical energy from human foot strikes based on the impact of a moving block on the tips of the piezoelectric unimorph cantilevers. The use of the magnetic springs allows low-frequency and high-amplitude movements of the [...] Read more.

This paper presents a piezoelectric heterostructure for extracting mechanical energy from human foot strikes based on the impact of a moving block on the tips of the piezoelectric unimorph cantilevers. The use of the magnetic springs allows low-frequency and high-amplitude movements of the device. The piezoelectric unimorph cantilevers deform under a human foot strike on the pedal, and the piezoelectric elements in d₃₁-mode produce output voltages. An analysis was conducted, and the working principle was stated. A prototype was fabricated to validate the feasibility of the proposed design. The experimental results show that the generated RMS voltage increases with human walking (running) speed. At the walking speed of 6 km/h, an average power of 36.26 μW is produced across a matching resistive load of 4 MΩ with an initial separating distance of 9 mm. Improvements of the device are possible, allowing an increase in the average power by increasing the number of piezoelectric unimorph cantilevers and using the piezoelectric materials with higher piezoelectric constants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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16 pages, 4305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Characterization of a Planar Micro-Conveyor Device Based on Cooperative Legged Piezoelectric MEMS Resonators

by Víctor Ruiz-Díez, Abdallah Ababneh, Helmut Seidel and José Luis Sánchez-Rojas

Micromachines 2022, 13(8), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13081202 - 28 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1583

Abstract

This paper reports the design, fabrication, and performance of a hybrid piezoelectric planar micro-conveyor based on Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) bridge resonators and featuring 3D-printed vertical legs. The device includes two cooperating silicon plate resonators with an area of 5 × 1 mm² [...] Read more.

This paper reports the design, fabrication, and performance of a hybrid piezoelectric planar micro-conveyor based on Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) bridge resonators and featuring 3D-printed vertical legs. The device includes two cooperating silicon plate resonators with an area of 5 × 1 mm², actuated by an integrated aluminum-nitride (AlN) piezoelectric thin film. An optimally designed array of 3D-printed projection legs was attached to the plates, to convert the standing-wave (SW) vertical vibrations into horizontal rotations or translations of the supported slider. An open-loop control strategy based on burst-type driving signals, with different numbers of sinusoidal cycles applied on each of the resonators, allowed the cooperation of the two bridges to set up prescribed trajectories of small flat objects, up to 100 mg, with positional accuracy below 100 nm and speeds up to 20 mm/s, by differential drive actuation. The effect of the leg tip and sliders’ surface finish on the conveyor performance was investigated, suggesting that further optimizations may be possible by modifying the tribological properties. Finally, the application of the micro-conveyor as a reconfigurable electronic system, driven by a preprogrammed sequence of signals, was demonstrated by delivering some surface-mount technology (SMD) parts lying on a 65 mg glass slider. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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18 pages, 8284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Characterization of Optimized Dual-Frequency Vibration Energy Harvesters for Low-Power Industrial Applications

by Sofiane Bouhedma, Siyang Hu, Arwed Schütz, Fred Lange, Tamara Bechtold, Mohammed Ouali and Dennis Hohlfeld

Micromachines 2022, 13(7), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13071078 - 07 Jul 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1288

Abstract

We present a multiresonant vibration energy harvester designed for ultra-low-power applications in industrial environments together with an optimized harvester design. The proposed device features dual-frequency operation, enabling the harvesting of energy over a wider operational frequency range. It has been designed such that [...] Read more.

We present a multiresonant vibration energy harvester designed for ultra-low-power applications in industrial environments together with an optimized harvester design. The proposed device features dual-frequency operation, enabling the harvesting of energy over a wider operational frequency range. It has been designed such that its harvesting bandwidth range is [50, 100] Hz, which is a typical frequency range for vibrations found in industrial applications. At an excitation level of 0.5 g, a maximum mean power output of 6 mW and 9 mW can be expected at the resonance frequencies of 63.3 and 76.4 Hz, respectively. The harvester delivers a power density of 492 µW/cm². Design optimization led to improved harvester geometries yielding up to 2.6 times closer resonance frequencies, resulting in a wider harvesting bandwidth and a significantly higher power output. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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22 pages, 12993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Characteristic Analysis of Electromagnetic Piezoelectric Hybrid Drive Motor

by Zheng Li, Xuetong Chen, Hui Zhao, Jinsong Wang, Shenhui Du, Xiaoqiang Guo and Hexu Sun

Micromachines 2022, 13(6), 967; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13060967 - 18 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1700

Abstract

Temperature rise has always been one of the main researchfocusesof the motor. When the temperature is too high, it will have a serious impact on the stability and reliability of motor performance. Due to the special structure of electromagnetic piezoelectric hybrid drive motor [...] Read more.

Temperature rise has always been one of the main researchfocusesof the motor. When the temperature is too high, it will have a serious impact on the stability and reliability of motor performance. Due to the special structure of electromagnetic piezoelectric hybrid drive motor (EPHDM), the loss and temperature distribution of electromagnetic drive part and piezoelectric drive part werestudied. By analyzing the operation principle of the motor, the loss of each part wasresearched. On this basis, the loss of the electromagnetic driving part and piezoelectric driving part werecomputed by using the coupling iterative calculation method. The temperature contour map of the motor wasanalyzed by simulation, and the temperature characteristics of each part of the motor werestudied. Finally, the experimental verification of the prototype, the reliability of the theoretical model, and simulation results wereproved. The results showed that the temperature distribution of the motor is reasonable, the winding temperature is relatively high, and the core temperature and piezoelectric stator temperature are relatively low. The analytical and experimental methods are provided for the further study of heat source optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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17 pages, 6669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Design and Analysis of Hybrid Drive Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Motor

by Zheng Li, Hui Zhao, Xuetong Chen, Shenhui Du, Xiaoqiang Guo and Hexu Sun

Micromachines 2022, 13(6), 955; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13060955 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1765

Abstract

Piezoelectric-driven multi-degree-of-freedom motors can turn off self-lock, withstand high and low temperatures, are small in size and compact in structure, and can easily achieve miniaturization. However, they have a short life cycle and limited applications. In addition, high-intensity operation will result in a [...] Read more.

Piezoelectric-driven multi-degree-of-freedom motors can turn off self-lock, withstand high and low temperatures, are small in size and compact in structure, and can easily achieve miniaturization. However, they have a short life cycle and limited applications. In addition, high-intensity operation will result in a decrease in their stability. Electromagnetic-driven multi-degree-of-freedom motors, on the other hand, are simple and highly integrated, but they are large in volume and lack positioning accuracy. Therefore, combining the two drive modes can achieve complementary advantages, such as improving the motor’s torque, accuracy, and output performance. Firstly, the structure of the hybrid drive motor is introduced and its working principle is analyzed. The motor can achieve single and hybrid drive control, which is beneficial to improving the performance of the motor. Secondly, the influence of magnetization mode, permanent magnet thickness, slot torque, and stator mode on the motor is analyzed. Thirdly, the structure of the motor is determined to be 6 poles and 15 slots, the thickness of the permanent magnet is 12 mm, and the radial magnetization mode is used. Finally, the mixed torque and speed of the motor in the multi-degree-of-freedom direction are tested by experiments, which indirectly verifies the rationality of the structure design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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16 pages, 61033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyimide-Based High-Performance Film Bulk Acoustic Resonator Humidity Sensor and Its Application in Real-Time Human Respiration Monitoring

by Yusi Zhu, Pan Xia, Jihang Liu, Zhen Fang, Lidong Du and Zhan Zhao

Micromachines 2022, 13(5), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13050758 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1653

Abstract

Respiration monitoring is vital for human health assessment. Humidity sensing is a promising way to establish a relationship between human respiration and electrical signal. This paper presents a polyimide-based film bulk acoustic resonator (PI-FBAR) humidity sensor operating in resonant frequency and reflection coefficient [...] Read more.

Respiration monitoring is vital for human health assessment. Humidity sensing is a promising way to establish a relationship between human respiration and electrical signal. This paper presents a polyimide-based film bulk acoustic resonator (PI-FBAR) humidity sensor operating in resonant frequency and reflection coefficient S₁₁ dual-parameter with high sensitivity and stability, and it is applied in real-time human respiration monitoring for the first time. Both these two parameters can be used to sense different breathing conditions, such as normal breathing and deep breathing, and breathing with different rates such as normal breathing, slow breathing, apnea, and fast breathing. Experimental results also indicate that the proposed humidity sensor has potential applications in predicting the fitness of individual and in the medical field for detecting body fluids loss and daily water intake warning. The respiratory rates measured by our proposed PI-FBAR humidity sensor operating in frequency mode and S₁₁ mode have Pearson correlation of up to 0.975 and 0.982 with that measured by the clinical monitor, respectively. Bland–Altman method analysis results further revealed that both S₁₁ and frequency response are in good agreement with clinical monitor. The proposed sensor combines the advantages of non-invasiveness, high sensitivity and high stability, and it has great potential in human health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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13 pages, 3662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Process Control Monitor (PCM) for Simultaneous Determination of the Piezoelectric Coefficients d₃₁ and d₃₃ of AlN and AlScN Thin Films

by Hao Zhang, Yang Wang, Lihao Wang, Yichen Liu, Hao Chen and Zhenyu Wu

Micromachines 2022, 13(4), 581; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi13040581 - 07 Apr 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2808

Abstract

Accurate and efficient measurements of the piezoelectric properties of AlN and AlScN films are very important for the design and simulation of micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) sensors and actuator devices. In this study, a process control monitor (PCM) structure compatible with the device manufacturing [...] Read more.

Accurate and efficient measurements of the piezoelectric properties of AlN and AlScN films are very important for the design and simulation of micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) sensors and actuator devices. In this study, a process control monitor (PCM) structure compatible with the device manufacturing process is designed to achieve accurate determination of the piezoelectric coefficients of MEMS devices. Double-beam laser interferometry (DBLI) and laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV) measurements are applied and combined with finite element method (FEM) simulations, and values of the piezoelectric parameters d₃₃ and d₃₁ are simultaneously extracted. The accuracy of d₃₁ is verified directly by using a cantilever structure, and the accuracy of d₃₃ is verified by in situ synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction; the comparisons confirm the viability of the results obtained by the novel combination of LDV, DBLI and FEM techniques in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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Review

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21 pages, 25378 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Flexible Ultrasonic Transducers: From Materials Optimization to Imaging Applications

by Danyang Ren, Yonggang Yin, Chiye Li, Ruimin Chen and Junhui Shi

Micromachines 2023, 14(1), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14010126 - 02 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3182

Abstract

Ultrasonic (US) transducers have been widely used in the field of ultrasonic and photoacoustic imaging system in recent years, to convert acoustic and electrical signals into each other. As the core part of imaging systems, US transducers have been extensively studied and achieved [...] Read more.

Ultrasonic (US) transducers have been widely used in the field of ultrasonic and photoacoustic imaging system in recent years, to convert acoustic and electrical signals into each other. As the core part of imaging systems, US transducers have been extensively studied and achieved remarkable progress recently. Imaging systems employing conventional rigid US transducers impose certain constraints, such as not being able to conform to complex surfaces and comfortably come into contact with skin and the sample, and meet the applications of continuous monitoring and diagnosis. To overcome these drawbacks, significant effort has been made in transforming the rigid US transducers to become flexible and wearable. Flexible US transducers ensure self-alignment to complex surfaces and maximize the transferred US energy, resulting in high quality detection performance. The advancement in flexible US transducers has further extended the application range of imaging systems. This review is intended to summarize the most recent advances in flexible US transducers, including advanced functional materials optimization, representative US transducers designs and practical applications in imaging systems. Additionally, the potential challenges and future directions of the development of flexible US transducers are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications, Volume III)

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