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Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes

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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Extractive Metallurgy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 36298

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Prof. Dr. Pasquale Cavaliere

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Department of Innovation Engineering, University of Salento, Via per Arnesano 73100 Lecce, Italy
Interests: thermal spray coatings; powder metallurgy; severe plastic deformation; ironmaking and steelmaking
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Dear Colleagues,

Ironmaking and steelmaking involve various processes and technologies that can be operated and organized in different combinations depending on the changing material properties and final required products. Different raw materials, energy requirements, and investments can vary as a function of the different plant configurations and the chosen advanced technologies employed for emissions reductions. In the industrial and scientific fields, it is critical to have a clear idea of the most recent technological innovations for the reduction of hazardous emissions from ironmaking and steelmaking plants with good levels of productivity. Due to the low level of restrictions and international protocols active during the last 15–20 years, innovation has been growing so fast that knowledge of the best available technologies is fundamental for scientists and industrial operators.

Indications from the steel industry are that the breakthrough technologies for decarbonization will be based on hydrogen reduction. Given that the two main routes for primary steel production decarbonization will almost certainly be CCS and hydrogen-based reduction, public and private R&D spending as well as investment in pilot plants should focus on driving down their cost and increasing the efficiency of electrolysis equipment, piloting and driving down the cost of hydrogen-based reduction.

For CO₂-lean process routes, three major ways of solutions have been identified: decarbonizing, whereby coal would be replaced by hydrogen or electricity in hydrogen reduction or electrolysis of iron ore processes; CCS technology introduction; and the use of sustainable biomass.

Through a hydrogen-based steelmaking route, CO₂ emissions would be reduced by more than 80%. Hydrogen steelmaking will depend profoundly on the availability of green hydrogen. It can be generated from natural gas by steam reforming, or from water by electrolysis. Today hydrogen-based steelmaking is a potential low carbon and economically attractive route, especially in those countries where natural gas is cheap. In considering systems for increasing the energy efficiency and reducing the environmental impact of steel production, CO₂ emissions may be greatly reduced by hydrogen-based steel production if the hydrogen is generated by means of carbon-free and renewable sources. Currently, the development of hydrogen economy has received a great deal of attention in that H₂ is considered a promising alternative to replace fossil fuels. If H₂ is utilized as an alternative fuel, not only can the problem of progressively exhausted fossil fuel reserve be solved but the atmospheric greenhouse effect can also be mitigated. The “hydrogen economy”, based on hydrogen, is a promising clean energy carrier for decarbonized energy systems if produced from renewable energy sources or coupled with carbon capture and storage (CCS) or nuclear energy.

This Special Issue aims to focus on those traditional or innovative routes capable of reducing energy consumption and harmful greenhouse emissions. Obviously, discussions of energy will take into account the direct and indirect energy consumption for each analyzed technology. The methods to improve energy efficiency are energy consumption optimization, online monitoring, and energy audits.

The Special Issue will describe the main approaches to produce and synthesize iron and steel through hydrogen-based technologies. The best available techniques and futuristic solutions will be described according to the processing route and energy demand. For this Special Issue, we welcome contributions from both universities and industries toward evaluating the industrial feasibility of each selected technology. Our goal is to describe the most efficient solutions being applied by ironmaking and steelmaking factories all around the world.

The potential contributions will include the following main issues:

-Traditional ironmaking and steel making route

-Direct reduction of iron ores

-Hydrogen ironmaking

Prof. Dr. Pasquale Cavaliere
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

ironmaking
steelmaking
greenhouse gases
energy
direct reduction
carbon capture
electrolysis

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 187 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Primary Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes

by Pasquale Cavaliere

Metals 2023, 13(4), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13040781 - 16 Apr 2023

Viewed by 987

Abstract

In the recent past, ironmaking and steelmaking saw the incorporation of various new processes and technologies that can be operated and organized in different combinations depending on the properties of raw materials and the required quality of the final products [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

12 pages, 1006 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermodynamic Study of H₂-FeO Based on the Principle of Minimum Gibbs Free Energy

by Shuyue Chen, Jianliang Zhang, Yaozu Wang, Tengfei Wang, Yang Li and Zhengjian Liu

Metals 2023, 13(2), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13020225 - 25 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1683

Abstract

Studies have shown that the reduction of wustite is the limiting factor in the ironmaking process, whether in hydrogen-based shaft furnaces, hydrogen-rich blast furnaces or smelting reduction vessels. The study of the thermodynamic conditions for the reduction of molten wustite by hydrogen is of great significance for the optimization of the ironmaking process, energy saving and emission reduction. Previous studies have mostly focused on the thermodynamic study of the reduction at a lower temperature, but the data at high temperatures are different, which makes the calculation of thermodynamics difficult. Moreover, it is difficult to obtain experimental evidence for the data at high temperature, so calculation is needed to verify its feasibility. In this paper, a thermodynamic calculation model for the reduction of molten wustite by hydrogen based on the principle of minimum Gibbs free energy is developed. The enthalpy changes of the reaction at different temperatures and the partial pressure of hydrogen required for the reaction to occur are calculated, and the energy change during the reaction is analyzed. The results show that the partial pressure of hydrogen for the reduction of molten wustite by hydrogen at high temperatures decreases from 0.67 at 1650 K to about 0.65 at 2000 K. The enthalpy changes of reaction at 1873 K are only 1/4 to 1/3 of that at 1173 K compared with that at the corresponding temperature between hydrogen for the reduction of molten wustite (1873 K) and hydrogen-based shaft furnace reaction (1173 K). Interestingly, the thermodynamic calculations show that the effect of energy absorption in the gas–liquid reaction of hydrogen with wustite at high temperatures is much lower than in the gas–solid reaction zone at low temperatures. These results indicate that the energy change of the reduction of molten wustite by hydrogen at high temperatures is better than that of hydrogen reduction at low temperatures, and the thermodynamic conditions are more favorable, with slightly different results from different thermodynamic databases, but the general trend is the same. The results of this study will provide fundamental data to support new hydrogen metallurgy technologies in the future. If its correctness can be verified experimentally in the future, this result will be promoted to the development of a new alternative ironmaking technology, hydrogen-based smelting reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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31 pages, 7349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Valorizing Steelworks Gases by Coupling Novel Methane and Methanol Synthesis Reactors with an Economic Hybrid Model Predictive Controller

by Alexander Hauser, Philipp Wolf-Zoellner, Stéphane Haag, Stefano Dettori, Xiaoliang Tang, Moein Mighani, Ismael Matino, Claudio Mocci, Valentina Colla, Sebastian Kolb, Michael Bampaou, Kyriakos Panopoulos, Nina Kieberger, Katharina Rechberger and Juergen Karl

Metals 2022, 12(6), 1023; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12061023 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2248

Abstract

To achieve the greenhouse gas reduction targets formulated in the European Green Deal, energy- and resource-intensive industries such as the steel industry will have to adapt or convert their production. In the long term, new technologies are promising. However, carbon capture storage and utilization solutions could be considered as short-term retrofitting solutions for existing steelworks. In this context, this paper presents a first experimental demonstration of an approach to the utilization of process off-gases generated in a steelworks by producing methane and methanol in hydrogen-intensified syntheses. Specifically, the integration of two methane synthesis reactors and one methanol synthesis reactor into a steel plant is experimentally simulated. An innovative monitoring and control tool, namely, a dispatch controller, simulates the process off-gas production using a digital twin of the steel plant and optimizes its distribution to existing and new consumers. The operating states/modes of the three reactors resulting from the optimization problem to be solved by the dispatch controller are distributed in real time via an online OPC UA connection to the corresponding experimental plants or their operators and applied there in a decentralized manner. The live coupling test showed that operating values for the different systems can be distributed in parallel from the dispatch controller to the test rigs via the established communication structure without loss. The calculation of a suitable control strategy is performed with a time resolution of one minute, taking into account the three reactors and the relevant steelworks components. Two of each of the methane/methanol synthesis reactors were operated error-free at one time for 10 and 7 h, respectively, with datasets provided by the dispatch controller. All three reactor systems were able to react quickly and stably to dynamic changes in the load or feed gas composition. Consistently high conversions and yields were achieved with low by-product formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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22 pages, 9472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Open Slag Bath Furnace with Direct Reduction Reactors for New-Generation Steelmaking

by Pasquale Cavaliere, Angelo Perrone, Alessio Silvello, Paolo Stagnoli and Pablo Duarte

Metals 2022, 12(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020203 - 21 Jan 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7437

Abstract

The present paper illustrates an innovative steel processing route developed by employing hydrogen direct reduced pellets and an open slag bath furnace. The paper illustrates the direct reduction reactor employing hydrogen as reductant on an industrial scale. The solution allows for the production of steel from blast furnace pellets transformed in the direct reduction reactor. The reduced pellets are then melted in open slag bath furnaces, allowing carburization for further refining. The proposed solution is clean for the decarbonization of the steel industry. The kinetic, chemical and thermodynamic issues are detailed with particular attention paid to the slag conditions. The proposed solution is also supported by the economic evaluation compared to traditional routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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18 pages, 5892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Mold Width on the Flow Field in a Slab Continuous-Casting Mold with High-Temperature Velocity Measurement and Numerical Simulation

by Jian-Qiu Liu, Jian Yang, Chao Ma, Yi Guo, Wen-Yuan He, Chang-Liang Zhao, Ren-Bo Jiang and Yin-Tao Guo

Metals 2021, 11(12), 1943; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11121943 - 01 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1768

Abstract

In this paper, the effects of the width of the mold on the surface velocity, flow field pattern, turbulent kinetic energy distribution, and surface-level fluctuation in the mold were studied with measurement of the flow velocity near the surface of the mold at [...] Read more.

k

ε

model coupled with the discrete-phase model (DPM) model for automobile exposed panel production. Under the conditions of low fixed steel throughput of 2.2 ton/min, a nozzle immersion depth of 140 mm, and an argon gas flow rate of 4 L/min, as the width of the mold increases from 880 mm to 1050 mm and 1300 mm, the flow velocity near the surface of the mold decreases. The flow direction changes from the positive velocity with the mold widths of 880 mm and 1050 mm to the unstable velocity with the mold width of 1300 mm. The calculated results are in good agreement with the measured results. The turbulent kinetic energy near the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) gradually increases, and the risk of slag entrainment increases. Under the conditions of high fixed steel throughput of 3.5 ton/min, the SEN immersion depth of 160 mm, and the argon gas flow rate of 10 L/min, as the width of the mold increases from 1600 mm to 1800 mm and 2000 mm, the velocity near the mold surface decreases. The flow velocity at 1/4 of the surface of the mold is positive with the mold width of 1600 mm, while the velocities are negative with the widths of 1800 mm and 2000 mm. The calculated results are basically consistent with the measured results. The high turbulent kinetic energy area near the nozzle expands to a narrow wall, and the risk of slag entrainment is significantly increased. In both cases of low and high fixed steel throughput, the change rules of the flow field in the mold with the width are basically the same. The argon gas flow rate and the immersion depth of SEN should be adjusted reasonably to optimize the flow field in the mold with different widths under the same fixed steel throughput in the practical production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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17 pages, 2620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Bio-Coal Properties on Carbonization and Bio-Coke Reactivity

by Asmaa A. El-Tawil, Bo Björkman, Maria Lundgren, Astrid Robles and Lena Sundqvist Ökvist

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1752; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111752 - 31 Oct 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

Coke corresponds to 2/3–3/4 of the reducing agents in BF, and by the partial replacement of coking coals with 5–10% of bio-coal, the fossil CO₂ emissions from the BF can be lowered by ~4–8%. Coking coal blends with 5% and 10% additions of bio-coals (pre-treated biomass) of different origins and pre-treatment degrees were carbonized at laboratory scale and with a 5% bio-coal addition at technical scale, aiming to understand the impact on the bio-coal properties (ash amount and composition, volatile matter content) and the addition of bio-coke reactivity. A thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) connected to a quadrupole mass spectroscope monitored the residual mass and off-gases during carbonization. To explore the effect of bio-coal addition on plasticity, optical dilatometer tests were conducted for coking coal blends with 5% and 10% bio-coal addition. The plasticity was lowered with increasing bio-coal addition, but pyrolyzed biomass had a less negative effect on the plasticity compared to torrefied biomasses with a high content of oxygen. The temperature for starting the gasification of coke was in general lowered to a greater extent for bio-cokes produced from coking coal blends containing bio-coals with higher contents of catalyzing oxides. There was no significant difference in the properties of laboratory and technical scale produced coke, in terms of reactivity as measured by TGA. Bio-coke produced with 5% of high temperature torrefied pelletized biomass showed a similar coke strength as reference coke after reaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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16 pages, 6749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of Laboratory Coal Testing with the Blast Furnace Process and Coal Injection

by Julian Steer, Mark Greenslade and Richard Marsh

Metals 2021, 11(9), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091476 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1955 | Correction

Abstract

The injection of coal through tuyeres into a blast furnace is widely adopted throughout the industry to reduce the amount of coke used and to improve the efficiency of the iron making process. Coals are selected depending on their availability, cost, and the physical and chemical properties determined by tests, such as the volatile matter content, fixed carbon, and ash content. This paper describes research comparing the laboratory measured properties of injection coals that were used over a two-month production period compared to the process variables and measurements of the blast furnace during that study period. In addition to the standard tests, a drop tube furnace (DTF) was used to compare the burnout of coals and the char properties against the production data using a range of statistical techniques. Linear regression modelling indicated that the coal type was the most important predictor of the coal rate but that the properties measured using laboratory tests of those coals were a minor feature in the model. However, comparisons of the Spearman’s correlations between different variables indicated that the reverse Boudouard reactivity of the chars, prepared in the DTF from the coals, did appear to be related to some extent to the coal and coke rates on production. It appears that the constant process adjustments made by the process control systems on the furnace make it difficult to identify strong correlations with the laboratory data and that the frequency of coal sampling and the coal blend variability are likely to contribute to this difficulty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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23 pages, 3057 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Dephosphorization in Double Slag Converter Steelmaking Process at Different Temperatures by Industrial Experiments

by Han Sun, Jian Yang, Xinwu Lu, Wanshan Liu, Gefan Ye, Runhao Zhang and Wenkui Yang

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1030; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071030 - 26 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2957

Abstract

In the present work, the effect of dephosphorization endpoint temperature on the dephosphorization of hot metal was studied for the double slag converter steelmaking process under the conditions of low temperature and low basicity by the industrial experiments. In the temperature range of 1350–1450 °C, with an increasing dephosphorization endpoint temperature, the dephosphorization ratio and phosphorus distribution ratio first increase and then decrease. The phosphorus content in hot metal first decreases and then increases at the end of dephosphorization. At the dephosphorization temperature range of 1385–1410 °C, the dephosphorization ratio is higher than 55%, the P₂O₅ content in the dephosphorization slag is 3.93–4.17%, the logL_P value is 1.76–2.09, the value of

P_{CO}^{P - C}

of the selective oxidation reaction of carbon and phosphorus is 53–80 Pa, and the

a_{FeO}

value is 0.284–0.312. The path of phosphorus in hot metal entering the P-rich phase of dephosphorization slag can be reasonably inferred as: hot metal → Fe-rich phase → P-rich phase. Under the present industrial experimental conditions, the dephosphorization and rephosphorization reactions are in dynamic equilibrium at 1413 °C. Considering the experimental results and thermodynamic calculation results of industrial experiments by the double slag dephosphorization process, the optimal temperature range for intermediate deslagging is about 1400–1420 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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17 pages, 777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forecasting Model of Silicon Content in Molten Iron Using Wavelet Decomposition and Artificial Neural Networks

by Ana P. Miranda Diniz, Klaus Fabian Côco, Flávio S. Vitorino Gomes and José L. Félix Salles

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071001 - 23 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1799

Abstract

Silicon content forecasting models have been requested by the operational team to anticipate necessary actions during the blast furnace operation when producing molten iron, to control the quality of the product and reduce costs. This paper proposed a new algorithm to perform the silicon content time series up to 8 h ahead, immediately after the molten iron chemical analysis is delivered by the laboratory. Due to the delay of the laboratory when delivering the silicon content measurement, the proposed algorithm considers a minimum useful forecasting horizon of 3 h ahead. In a first step, it decomposes the silicon content time series into different subseries using the Maximal Overlap Discrete Wavelet Packet Transform (MODWPT). Next, all subseries forecasts were determined through Nonlinear Autoregressive (NAR) networks, and finally, these forecasts were summed to furnish the long-term forecast of silicon content. Using data from a real industry, we showed that the prediction error was within an acceptable range according to the blast furnace technical team. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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17 pages, 2820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Bottom-Blowing Stirring in Different Smelting Stages of Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking

by Hang Hu, Lingzhi Yang, Yufeng Guo, Feng Chen, Shuai Wang, Fuqiang Zheng and Bo Li

Metals 2021, 11(5), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11050799 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2274

Abstract

Electric arc furnace (EAF) steel bottom-blowing can effectively improve the temperature and composition uniformity of the molten pool during smelting process. To explore the effect of molten-steel characteristics on bottom-blowing at various stages of smelting, we divided the smelting process of the EAF into four stages: the melting stage, the early decarburization stage, the intermediate smelting stage, and the ending smelting stage. The numerical simulation software ANSYS Fluent 18.2 was used to simulate the velocity field of molten steel under the condition of bottom-blowing stirring in different stages in EAF steelmaking process. The properties of bottom-blowing and the kinetic conditions of the steel-slag at this interface were investigated. Our results showed that at a bottom-blowing gas flow rate of 100 L/min, the average flow rates of the four stages were v1 = 0.0081 m/s, v2 = 0.0069 m/s, v3 = 0.0063 m/s, and v4 = 0.0053 m/s. The physical model verification confirmed the results, that is, the viscosity of molten steel decreased as the smelting progressed, and the flow velocity of the molten steel caused by the agitation of bottom-blowing also decreased, the effect of bottom-blowing decreased. Based on these results, a theoretical basis was provided for the development of the bottom-blowing process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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Review

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28 pages, 15582 KiB

Open AccessReview

Water Electrolysis for the Production of Hydrogen to Be Employed in the Ironmaking and Steelmaking Industry

by Pasquale Daniele Cavaliere, Angelo Perrone and Alessio Silvello

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1816; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111816 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8481

Abstract

The way to decarbonization will be characterized by the huge production of hydrogen through sustainable routes. Thus, the basic production way is water electrolysis sustained by renewable energy sources allowing for obtaining “green hydrogen”. The present paper reviews the main available technologies for the water electrolysis finalized to the hydrogen production. We describe the fundamental of water electrolysis and the problems related to purification and/or desalinization of water before electrolysis. As a matter of fact, we describe the energy efficiency issues with particular attention to the potential application in the steel industry. The fundamental aspects related to the choice of high-temperature or low-temperature technologies are analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes)

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