Research

Jump to: Review

15 pages, 3263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alternaria alternata Isolated from Infected Pears (Pyrus communis) in Italy Produces Non-Host Toxins and Hydrolytic Enzymes as Infection Mechanisms and Exhibits Competitive Exclusion against Botrytis cinerea in Co-Infected Host Fruits

by Stefany Castaldi, Jesús G. Zorrilla, Claudia Petrillo, Maria Teresa Russo, Patrizia Ambrosino, Marco Masi, Alessio Cimmino and Rachele Isticato

J. Fungi 2023, 9(3), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9030326 - 07 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2177

Abstract

Alternaria alternata is one of the most devastating phytopathogenic fungi. This microorganism causes black spots in many fruits and vegetables worldwide, generating significant post-harvest losses. In this study, an A. alternata strain, isolated from infected pears (Pyrus communis) harvested in Italy, [...] Read more.

Alternaria alternata is one of the most devastating phytopathogenic fungi. This microorganism causes black spots in many fruits and vegetables worldwide, generating significant post-harvest losses. In this study, an A. alternata strain, isolated from infected pears (Pyrus communis) harvested in Italy, was characterized by focusing on its pathogenicity mechanisms and competitive exclusion in the presence of another pathogen, Botrytis cinerea. In in vitro assays, the fungus produces strong enzymatic activities such as amylase, xylanase, and cellulase, potentially involved during the infection. Moreover, it secretes four different toxins purified and identified as altertoxin I, alteichin, alternariol, and alternariol 4-methyl ether. Only alteichin generated necrotic lesions on host-variety pears, while all the compounds showed moderate to slight necrotic activity on non-host pears and other non-host fruit (lemon, Citrus limon), indicating they are non-host toxins. Interestingly, A. alternata has shown competitive exclusion to the competitor fungus Botrytis cinerea when co-inoculated in host and non-host pear fruits, inhibiting its growth by 70 and 65%, respectively, a result not observed in a preliminary characterization in a dual culture assay. Alteichin and alternariol 4-methyl ether tested against B. cinerea had the best inhibition activity, suggesting that the synergism of these toxins and enzymatic activities of A. alternata are probably involved in the competitive exclusion dynamics in host and non-host pear fruits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 1003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production of (10S,11S)-(—)-epi-Pyriculol and Its HPLC Quantification in Liquid Cultures of Pyricularia grisea, a Potential Mycoherbicide for the Control of Buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris)

by Jesús G. Zorrilla, Marco Masi, Suzette Clement, Alessio Cimmino and Susan Meyer

J. Fungi 2023, 9(3), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9030316 - 03 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1120

Abstract

(10S,11S)-(—)-epi-pyriculol is a phytotoxic metabolite produced by Pyricularia grisea, a fungus identified as a foliar pathogen on the invasive weed species buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris) in North America. The effective control of buffelgrass has not [...] Read more.

(10S,11S)-(—)-epi-pyriculol is a phytotoxic metabolite produced by Pyricularia grisea, a fungus identified as a foliar pathogen on the invasive weed species buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris) in North America. The effective control of buffelgrass has not yet been achieved, and there is a need to develop effective and green solutions. Herbicides based on natural products and the use of phytopathogenic organisms could provide the most suitable tools for the control of weeds such as buffelgrass. Thus, one of the most relevant points to study about potential suitable phytotoxins such as (10S,11S)-(—)-epi-pyriculol is its production on a large scale, either by isolation from fungal fermentations or by synthesis. For these purposes, rapid and sensitive methods for the quantification of (10S,11S)-(—)-epi-pyriculol in complex mixtures are required. In this study, a high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for its quantification was developed and applied to organic extracts from twelve P. grisea isolates obtained from diseased buffelgrass leaves and grown in potato dextrose broth (PDB) liquid cultures. The analysis proved that the production of (10S,11S)-(—)-epi-pyriculol is fungal-isolate dependent and strongly correlated with phytotoxic activity, shown by the P. grisea organic extracts in a buffelgrass radicle elongation test. The HPLC method reported herein allowed us to select the best strain for the production of (10S,11S)-(—)-epi-pyriculol and could be useful for selecting the best cultural conditions for its mass production, providing a tool for the use of this promising metabolite as a new bioherbicide for the control of buffelgrass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Fungal Metabolite (+)-Terrein Abrogates Inflammatory Bone Resorption via the Suppression of TNF-α Production in a Ligature-Induced Periodontitis Mouse Model

by Hidefumi Sako, Kazuhiro Omori, Masaaki Nakayama, Hiroki Mandai, Hidetaka Ideguchi, Saki Yoshimura-Nakagawa, Kyosuke Sakaida, Chiaki Nagata-Kamei, Hiroya Kobayashi, Satoki Ishii, Mitsuaki Ono, Soichiro Ibaragi, Tadashi Yamamoto, Seiji Suga and Shogo Takashiba

J. Fungi 2023, 9(3), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9030314 - 03 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1350

Abstract

Current periodontal treatment focuses on the mechanical removal of the source of infection, such as bacteria and their products, and there is no approach to control the host inflammatory response that leads to tissue destruction. In order to control periodontal inflammation, we have [...] Read more.

Current periodontal treatment focuses on the mechanical removal of the source of infection, such as bacteria and their products, and there is no approach to control the host inflammatory response that leads to tissue destruction. In order to control periodontal inflammation, we have previously reported the optimization of (+)-terrein synthesis methods and the inhibitory effect of (+)-terrein on osteoclast differentiation in vitro. However, the pharmacological effect of (+)-terrein in vivo in the periodontitis model is still unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of synthetic (+)-terrein on inflammatory bone resorption using a ligature-induced periodontitis mouse model. Synthetic (+)-terrein (30 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally twice a week to the mouse periodontitis model. The control group was treated with phosphate buffer. One to two weeks after the induction of periodontitis, the periodontal tissues were harvested for radiological evaluation (micro-CT), histological evaluation (HE staining and TRAP staining), and the evaluation of inflammatory cytokine production in the periodontal tissues and serum (quantitative reverse-transcription PCR, ELISA). The synthetic (+)-terrein-treated group suppressed alveolar bone resorption and the number of osteoclasts in the periodontal tissues compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In addition, synthetic (+)-terrein significantly suppressed both mRNA expression of TNF-α in the periodontal tissues and the serum concentration of TNF-α (both p < 0.05). In conclusion, we have demonstrated that synthetic (+)-terrein abrogates alveolar bone resorption via the suppression of TNF-α production and osteoclast differentiation in vivo. Therefore, we could expect potential clinical effects when using (+)-terrein on inflammatory bone resorption, including periodontitis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2424 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Investigation of Endophytic Diaporthe unshiuensis YSP3 Reveals New Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Agents

by Babar Khan, Yu Li, Wei Wei, Guiyou Liu, Cheng Xiao, Bo He, Chen Zhang, Nasir Ahmed Rajput, Yonghao Ye and Wei Yan

J. Fungi 2023, 9(2), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9020136 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1458

Abstract

Chemical investigation of the plant-derived endophytic fungus Diaporthe unshiuensis YSP3 led to the isolation of four new compounds (1–4), including two new xanthones (phomopthane A and B, 1 and 2), one new alternariol methyl ether derivative (3 [...] Read more.

Chemical investigation of the plant-derived endophytic fungus Diaporthe unshiuensis YSP3 led to the isolation of four new compounds (1–4), including two new xanthones (phomopthane A and B, 1 and 2), one new alternariol methyl ether derivative (3) and one α-pyrone derivative (phomopyrone B, 4), together with eight known compounds (5–12). The structures of new compounds were interpreted on the basis of spectroscopic data and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. All new compounds were assessed for their antimicrobial and cytotoxic potential. Compound 1 showed cytotoxic activity against HeLa and MCF-7 cells with IC₅₀ values of 5.92 µM and 7.50 µM, respectively, while compound 3 has an antibacterial effect on Bacillus subtilis (MIC value 16 μg/mL). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 2061 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological, Molecular and Metabolic Characterization of the Pigmented Fungus Subramaniula asteroids

by Heba El-Sayed, Mohamed E. Osman, Asmaa Abdelsalam, Arezue Boroujerdi, Hana Sonbol and Yasmin M. Elsaba

J. Fungi 2022, 8(11), 1149; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8111149 - 29 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1550

Abstract

Chaetomiaceae fungi are ascosporulating fungi whose importance as human pathogens has been frequently ignored. In the current study, a new isolate of the genus Subramaniula was described. The fungus was isolated from the soil of Wadi Om Nefa’a, Hurghada in the Red Sea [...] Read more.

Chaetomiaceae fungi are ascosporulating fungi whose importance as human pathogens has been frequently ignored. In the current study, a new isolate of the genus Subramaniula was described. The fungus was isolated from the soil of Wadi Om Nefa’a, Hurghada in the Red Sea Governorate, Egypt. Previously, Subramaniula were misidentified as Papulaspora spp. According to molecular analysis, the fungus was identified as Subramaniula asteroids OP484336. Remarkably, this species has been found among other fungi responsible for keratitis in humans and has been recorded for the first time in Egypt. Analysing the Subramaniula asteroids’ metabolic profile was one of the objectives of the current study because little is known about this family’s metabolome. The fungal extract’s untargeted metabolic profiling was carried out by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC/MS), ¹H and ¹H-HSQC nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data, and their corresponding databases. In total, fifty-nine metabolites have been reported in the polar and non-polar extracts. The majority of polar metabolites are amino acids and carbohydrates. The non-polar extract’s main components were 1-dodecanamine, N,N-dimethyl-, 1-tetradecanamine, N,N-dimethyl-, and 9-octadecenoic acid ethyl ester. The current study is the first to provide a metabolic profile of Subramaniula asteroids, which can be used in chemotaxonomical classification, antifungal drug development, and biological activity investigation of the studied species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 1255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Recovery of Bioactive Compounds of Soybean Fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus Using Supercritical CO₂: Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Oxidative Proprieties of the Resulting Extract

by Fernanda Guilherme do Prado, Maria Giovana Binder Pagnoncelli, Maria Rosa Machado Prado, Marcos Lucio Corazza, Vanete Thomaz Soccol, Gilberto Vinícius de Melo Pereira and Carlos Ricardo Soccol

J. Fungi 2022, 8(10), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8101065 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1706

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the use of supercritical CO₂ combined with cosolvent for the recovery of bioactive compounds of soybean fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus NRRL 2710. Soxhlet extractions using seven different organic solvents (n-hexane, petroleum [...] Read more.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the use of supercritical CO₂ combined with cosolvent for the recovery of bioactive compounds of soybean fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus NRRL 2710. Soxhlet extractions using seven different organic solvents (n-hexane, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol, methanol, and water) were initially performed for comparative purposes. The extracts obtained were characterized by physicochemical, antioxidant, total phenolic, and oxidative proprieties. For the Soxhlet extractions, the highest and lowest yields obtained were 45.24% and 15.56%, using methanol and hexane, respectively. The extraction using supercritical CO₂ combined with ethanol as a static modifier (scCO₂ + EtOH) presented, at a high pressure (25 MPa) and temperature (80 °C), a phenolic compound content of 1391.9 μg GAE g⁻¹ and scavenging of 0.17 g, reaching a 42.87% yield. The extracts obtained by sCO₂ + EtOH were characterized by high contents of essential fatty acids (linoleic acid and oleic acid) and bioactive compounds (gallic acid, trans-cinnamic acid, daidzein, and genistein). These extracts also showed a great potential for inhibiting hyaluronidase enzymes (i.e., anti-inflammatory activity). Thermogravimetric analyses of the samples showed similar profiles, with oil degradation values in the range from 145 to 540 °C, indicating progressive oil decomposition with a mass loss ranging from 93 to 98.7%. In summary, this study demonstrated the flexibility of scCO₂ + EtOH as a green technology that can be used to obtain high-value-added products from fermented soybean. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Access to Anti-Biofilm Compounds from Endolichenic Fungi Using a Bioguided Networking Screening

by Seinde Toure, Marion Millot, Lucie Ory, Catherine Roullier, Zineb Khaldi, Valentin Pichon, Marion Girardot, Christine Imbert and Lengo Mambu

J. Fungi 2022, 8(10), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8101012 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1722

Abstract

Endolichenic microorganisms represent a new source of bioactive natural compounds. Lichens, resulting from a symbiotic association between algae or cyanobacteria and fungi, constitute an original ecological niche for these microorganisms. Endolichenic fungi inhabiting inside the lichen thallus have been isolated and characterized. By [...] Read more.

Endolichenic microorganisms represent a new source of bioactive natural compounds. Lichens, resulting from a symbiotic association between algae or cyanobacteria and fungi, constitute an original ecological niche for these microorganisms. Endolichenic fungi inhabiting inside the lichen thallus have been isolated and characterized. By cultivation on three different culture media, endolichenic fungi gave rise to a wide diversity of bioactive metabolites. A total of 38 extracts were screened for their anti-maturation effect on Candida albicans biofilms. The 10 most active ones, inducing at least 50% inhibition, were tested against 24 h preformed biofilms of C. albicans, using a reference strain and clinical isolates. The global molecular network was associated to bioactivity data in order to identify and priorize active natural product families. The MS-targeted isolation led to the identification of new oxygenated fatty acid in Preussia persica endowed with an interesting anti-biofilm activity against C. albicans yeasts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 7718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of the Gene ndufs8 Located in Respiratory Complex I from Monascus purpureus in the Cell Growth and Secondary Metabolites Biosynthesis

by Xinru Cai, Song Zhang, Jia Lin, Yaxu Wang, Fanyu Ye, Bo Zhou, Qinlu Lin and Jun Liu

J. Fungi 2022, 8(7), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8070655 - 22 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1766

Abstract

Our previous work revealed that the anabolism of Monascus secondary metabolites is closely related to cofactor metabolism. In this study, we have further investigated the regulation mechanisms of respiratory complex I in response to the cell growth and secondary metabolite biosynthesis of M. [...] Read more.

Our previous work revealed that the anabolism of Monascus secondary metabolites is closely related to cofactor metabolism. In this study, we have further investigated the regulation mechanisms of respiratory complex I in response to the cell growth and secondary metabolite biosynthesis of M. purpureus. The results showed that downregulating the mRNA level of gene ndufs8 in M. purpureus sharply increased the secondary metabolites biosynthesis, cell growth and glucose consumption rates at the fermentation metaphase; slightly increased the colony diameter and biomass, and dramatically changed the mycelia morphology; and decreased the tolerances to environmental factors (especially H₂O₂). It also significantly inhibited the enzymes activities of respiratory complex I, III and superoxide dismutase, but stimulated that of complex II, IV and peroxidase, leading to an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and a decrease in ATP concentration. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis revealed that the mRNA levels of genes involved in respiratory chain, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and fatty acid degradation were downregulated, but those in the citrinin and monascus pigment biosynthesis and related pathways were upregulated. These data revealed that complex I plays a vital role in regulating the cell growth and secondary metabolism of Monascus via changing the intracellular ROS and ATP levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 2212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization through a Box–Behnken Experimental Design of the Microwave-Assisted Extraction of the Psychoactive Compounds in Hallucinogenic Fungi (Psylocibe cubensis)

by Curro Polo-Castellano, José Á. Álvarez, Miguel Palma, Gerardo F. Barbero, Jesús Ayuso and Marta Ferreiro-González

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060598 - 02 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6050

Abstract

Hallucinogenic fungi, mainly those from the Psilocybe genus, are being increasingly consumed even though there is no control on their culture conditions. Due to the therapeutic potential as antidepressants and anxiolytics of the alkaloids that they produce (psilocin and psilocybin), some form of [...] Read more.

Hallucinogenic fungi, mainly those from the Psilocybe genus, are being increasingly consumed even though there is no control on their culture conditions. Due to the therapeutic potential as antidepressants and anxiolytics of the alkaloids that they produce (psilocin and psilocybin), some form of control on their production would be highly recommended. Prior to identifying their optimal culture condition, a methodology that allows their study is required. Microwave-assisted extraction method (MAE) is a technique that has proven its efficiency to extract different compounds from solid matrices. For this reason, this study intends to optimize a MAE method to extract the alkaloids found in Psylocibe cubensis. A surface-response Box–Behnken design has been employed to optimize such extraction method and significantly reduce time and other resources in the extraction process. Based on the Box–Behnken design, 50 °C temperature, 60% methanol as extraction solvent, 0.6 g:10 mL sample mass:solvent ratio and 5 min extraction time, were established as optimal conditions. These mild conditions, combined with a rapid and efficient UHPLC analysis result in a practical and economical methodology for the extraction of psilocin and psilocybin from Psylocibe cubensis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Research

28 pages, 3888 KiB

Open AccessReview

Potential of Secondary Metabolites of Diaporthe Species Associated with Terrestrial and Marine Origins

by Wei Wei, Babar Khan, Qun Dai, Jie Lin, Liqin Kang, Nasir Ahmed Rajput, Wei Yan and Guiyou Liu

J. Fungi 2023, 9(4), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9040453 - 07 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1423

Abstract

Diaporthe species produce versatile secondary metabolites (SMs), including terpenoids, fatty acids, polyketides, steroids, and alkaloids. These structurally diverse SMs exhibit a wide range of biological activities, including cytotoxic, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and phytotoxic activities, which could be exploited in the medical, [...] Read more.

Diaporthe species produce versatile secondary metabolites (SMs), including terpenoids, fatty acids, polyketides, steroids, and alkaloids. These structurally diverse SMs exhibit a wide range of biological activities, including cytotoxic, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and phytotoxic activities, which could be exploited in the medical, agricultural, and other modern industries. This review comprehensively covers the production and biological potencies of isolated natural products from the genus Diaporthe associated with terrestrial and marine origins. A total of 275 SMs have been summarized from terrestrial (153; 55%) and marine (110; 41%) origins during the last twelve years, and 12 (4%) compounds are common to both environments. All secondary metabolites are categorized predominantly on the basis of their bioactivities (cytotoxic, antibacterial, antifungal, and miscellaneous activity). Overall, 134 bioactive compounds were isolated from terrestrial (92; 55%) and marine (42; 34%) origins, but about half the compounds did not report any kind of activity. The antiSMASH results suggested that Diaporthe strains are capable of encoding a wide range of SMs and have tremendous biosynthetic potential for new SMs. This study will be useful for future research on drug discovery from terrestrial and marine natural products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 8303 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polyketides as Secondary Metabolites from the Genus Aspergillus

by Xuelian Bai, Yue Sheng, Zhenxing Tang, Jingyi Pan, Shigui Wang, Bin Tang, Ting Zhou, Lu’e Shi and Huawei Zhang

J. Fungi 2023, 9(2), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9020261 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2947

Abstract

Polyketides are an important class of structurally diverse natural products derived from a precursor molecule consisting of a chain of alternating ketone and methylene groups. These compounds have attracted the worldwide attention of pharmaceutical researchers since they are endowed with a wide array [...] Read more.

Polyketides are an important class of structurally diverse natural products derived from a precursor molecule consisting of a chain of alternating ketone and methylene groups. These compounds have attracted the worldwide attention of pharmaceutical researchers since they are endowed with a wide array of biological properties. As one of the most common filamentous fungi in nature, Aspergillus spp. is well known as an excellent producer of polyketide compounds with therapeutic potential. By extensive literature search and data analysis, this review comprehensively summarizes Aspergillus-derived polyketides for the first time, regarding their occurrences, chemical structures and bioactivities as well as biosynthetic logics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1740 KiB

Open AccessReview

Uniting the Role of Endophytic Fungi against Plant Pathogens and Their Interaction

by Shazia Akram, Ayesha Ahmed, Pengfei He, Pengbo He, Yinglong Liu, Yixin Wu, Shahzad Munir and Yueqiu He

J. Fungi 2023, 9(1), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9010072 - 03 Jan 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7263

Abstract

Endophytic fungi are used as the most common microbial biological control agents (MBCAs) against phytopathogens and are ubiquitous in all plant parts. Most of the fungal species have roles against a variety of plant pathogens. Fungal endophytes provide different services to be used [...] Read more.

Endophytic fungi are used as the most common microbial biological control agents (MBCAs) against phytopathogens and are ubiquitous in all plant parts. Most of the fungal species have roles against a variety of plant pathogens. Fungal endophytes provide different services to be used as pathogen control agents, using an important aspect in the form of enhanced plant growth and induced systemic resistance, produce a variety of antifungal secondary metabolites (lipopeptides, antibiotics and enzymes) through colonization, and compete with other pathogenic microorganisms for growth factors (space and nutrients). The purpose of this review is to highlight the biological control potential of fungal species with antifungal properties against different fungal plant pathogens. We focused on the introduction, biology, isolation, identification of endophytic fungi, and their antifungal activity against fungal plant pathogens. The endosymbionts have developed specific genes that exhibited endophytic behavior and demonstrated defensive responses against pathogens such as antibiosis, parasitism, lytic enzyme and competition, siderophore production, and indirect responses by induced systemic resistance (ISR) in the host plant. Finally, different microscopic detection techniques to study microbial interactions (endophytic and pathogenic fungal interactions) in host plants are briefly discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (12 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI