International Journal of Molecular Sciences

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13 pages, 1907 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Refinement and Neutralization Evaluation of the F(ab’)₂ Type of Antivenom against the Deadly Jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai Toxins

by Rongfeng Li, Huahua Yu, Aoyu Li, Chunlin Yu and Pengcheng Li

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(23), 12672; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222312672 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1790

Abstract

Jellyfish stings threaten people’s health and even life in coastal areas worldwide. Nemopilema nomurai is one of the most dangerous jellyfish in the East Asian Marginal Seas, which not only stings hundreds of thousands of people every year but also is assumed to [...] Read more.

Jellyfish stings threaten people’s health and even life in coastal areas worldwide. Nemopilema nomurai is one of the most dangerous jellyfish in the East Asian Marginal Seas, which not only stings hundreds of thousands of people every year but also is assumed to be responsible for most deaths by jellyfish stings in China. However, there is no effective first-aid drug, such as antivenoms, for the treatment of severe stings by N. nomurai to date. In this study, we prepared a N. nomurai antiserum from rabbits using inactivated N. nomurai toxins (NnTXs) and isolated the IgG type of antivenom (IgG-AntiNnTXs) from the antiserum. Subsequently, IgG-AntiNnTXs were refined with multiple optimizations to remove Fc fragments. Finally, the F(ab’)₂ type of antivenom (F(ab’)₂-AntiNnTXs) was purified using Superdex 200 and protein A columns. The neutralization efficacy of both types of antivenom was analyzed in vitro and in vivo, and the results showed that both IgG and F(ab’)₂ types of antivenom have some neutralization effect on the metalloproteinase activity of NnTXs in vitro and could also decrease the mortality of mice in the first 4 h after injection. This study provides some useful information for the development of an effective antivenom for N. nomurai stings in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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10 pages, 1632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter, LaABCB11, Contributes to Alkaloid Transport in Lycoris aurea

by Rong Wang, Yantong Liu, Sheng Xu, Jie Li, Jiayu Zhou and Ren Wang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(21), 11458; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111458 - 24 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1691

Abstract

As a kind of Amaryllidaceae alkaloid which is accumulated in the species of Lycoris plants, lycorine has a range of physiological effects. The biosynthesis pathway of lycorine has been partly revealed, but the transport and accumulation mechanisms of lycorine have rarely been studied. [...] Read more.

As a kind of Amaryllidaceae alkaloid which is accumulated in the species of Lycoris plants, lycorine has a range of physiological effects. The biosynthesis pathway of lycorine has been partly revealed, but the transport and accumulation mechanisms of lycorine have rarely been studied. In this study, an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter from Lycoris aurea (L’Hér) Herb., namely LaABCB11, was cloned and functionally characterized. Heterologous expression showed that LaABCB11 transported lycorine in an outward direction, increased the tolerance of yeast cells to lycorine, and caused a lower lycorine accumulation in transformants than control or mutant in yeast. LaABCB11 is associated with the plasma membrane, and in situ hybridization indicated that LaABCB11 was mainly expressed in the phloem of leaves and bulbs, as well as in the cortical cells of roots. These findings suggest that LaABCB11 functions as a lycorine transport and it might be related to the translocation and accumulation of lycorine from the leaves and bulbs to the roots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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20 pages, 25583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production and Characterization of Chitooligosaccharides: Evaluation of Acute Toxicity, Healing, and Anti-Inflammatory Actions

by Rafael Caetano Lisbôa Castro de Andrade, Nathália Kelly de Araújo, Manoela Torres-Rêgo, Allanny Alves Furtado, Alessandra Daniele-Silva, Weslley de Souza Paiva, Julia Maria de Medeiros Dantas, Nayara Sousa da Silva, Arnóbio Antônio da Silva-Júnior, Marcela Abbott Galvão Ururahy, Cristiane Fernandes de Assis, Leandro De Santis Ferreira, Hugo Alexandre Oliveira Rocha and Matheus de Freitas Fernandes-Pedrosa

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(19), 10631; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms221910631 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2408

Abstract

The search for promising biomolecules such as chitooligosaccharides (COS) has increased due to the need for healing products that act efficiently, avoiding complications resulting from exacerbated inflammation. Therefore, this study aimed to produce COS in two stages of hydrolysis using chitosanases derived from [...] Read more.

The search for promising biomolecules such as chitooligosaccharides (COS) has increased due to the need for healing products that act efficiently, avoiding complications resulting from exacerbated inflammation. Therefore, this study aimed to produce COS in two stages of hydrolysis using chitosanases derived from Bacillus toyonensis. Additionally, this study aimed to structurally characterize the COS via mass spectrometry, to analyze their biocompatibility in acute toxicity models in vivo, to evaluate their healing action in a cell migration model in vitro, to analyze the anti-inflammatory activity in in vivo models of xylol-induced ear edema and zymosan-induced air pouch, and to assess the wound repair action in vivo. The structural characterization process pointed out the presence of hexamers. The in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility of COS was reaffirmed. The COS stimulated the fibroblast migration. In the in vivo inflammatory assays, COS showed an antiedematogenic response and significant reductions in leukocyte migration, cytokine release, and protein exudate. The COS healing effect in vivo was confirmed by the significant wound reduction after seven days of the experiment. These results indicated that the presence of hexamers influences the COS biological properties, which have potential uses in the pharmaceutical field due to their healing and anti-inflammatory action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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12 pages, 3754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Established Oximes as Pretreatment before Acute Exposure to Azinphos-Methyl

by Dietrich E. Lorke, Syed M. Nurulain, Mohamed Y. Hasan, Kamil Kuča and Georg A. Petroianu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 3072; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22063072 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1665

Abstract

Poisoning with organophosphorus compounds (OPCs) represents an ongoing threat to civilians and rescue personal. We have previously shown that oximes, when administered prophylactically before exposure to the OPC paraoxon, are able to protect from its toxic effects. In the present study, we have [...] Read more.

Poisoning with organophosphorus compounds (OPCs) represents an ongoing threat to civilians and rescue personal. We have previously shown that oximes, when administered prophylactically before exposure to the OPC paraoxon, are able to protect from its toxic effects. In the present study, we have assessed to what degree experimental (K-27; K-48; K-53; K-74; K-75) or established oximes (pralidoxime, obidoxime), when given as pretreatment at an equitoxic dosage of 25% of LD₀₁, are able to reduce mortality induced by the OPC azinphos-methyl. Their efficacy was compared with that of pyridostigmine, the only FDA-approved substance for such prophylaxis. Efficacy was quantified in rats by Cox analysis, calculating the relative risk of death (RR), with RR=1 for the reference group given only azinphos-methyl, but no prophylaxis. All tested compounds significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced azinphos-methyl-induced mortality. In addition, the efficacy of all tested experimental and established oximes except K-53 was significantly superior to the FDA-approved compound pyridostigmine. Best protection was observed for the oximes K-48 (RR = 0.20), K-27 (RR = 0.23), and obidoxime (RR = 0.21), which were significantly more efficacious than pralidoxime and pyridostigmine. The second-best group of prophylactic compounds consisted of K-74 (RR = 0.26), K-75 (RR = 0.35) and pralidoxime (RR = 0.37), which were significantly more efficacious than pyridostigmine. Pretreatment with K-53 (RR = 0.37) and pyridostigmine (RR = 0.52) was the least efficacious. Our present data, together with previous results on other OPCs, indicate that the experimental oximes K-27 and K-48 are very promising pretreatment compounds. When penetration into the brain is undesirable, obidoxime is the most efficacious prophylactic agent already approved for clinical use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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10 pages, 2050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mass Spectrometry-Based Solid Phase Peptide Reaction Assay for Detecting Allergenicity Using an Immobilized Peptide-Conjugating Photo-Cleavable Linker

by Hiroshi Miyazaki, Yasutaka Samejima, Kazuya Iwata, Yuuki Minamino, Shinya Hikida, Hideto Ariumi, Hidefumi Ikeda, Yoshio Hamada, Kunihiko Yamashita and Kenji Usui

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(21), 8332; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218332 - 06 Nov 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3580

Abstract

The biological process of skin sensitization depends on the ability of a sensitizer to modify endogenous proteins. A direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA), based on the biological process of skin sensitization, was developed as an alternative to controversial animal experiments. Although DPRA has [...] Read more.

The biological process of skin sensitization depends on the ability of a sensitizer to modify endogenous proteins. A direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA), based on the biological process of skin sensitization, was developed as an alternative to controversial animal experiments. Although DPRA has been endorsed by industries and is internationally accepted as promising, it has several drawbacks, such as incompatibility with hydrophobic chemicals, inability to perform detailed reaction analysis, and ability to evaluate only single components. Here, we demonstrated that sensitizers and peptide adducts can be easily identified using a mass spectrometry-based solid-phase peptide reaction assay (M-SPRA). We synthesized peptides with a photo-cleavable linker immobilized on resins. We showed the potential of M-SPRA in predicting skin sensitization by measuring the peptide adducts that were selectively eluted from the resin after cleaving the linker post-reaction. M-SPRA provides more detailed information regarding chemical reactivity and accurate assessment of test samples, including mixtures. M-SPRA may be helpful for understanding the binding mechanism of sensitizers (toxicology), which may assist in further refining reactivity assays and aiding in the interpretation of reactivity data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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17 pages, 6310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptome Sequencing Revealed an Inhibitory Mechanism of Aspergillus flavus Asexual Development and Aflatoxin Metabolism by Soy-Fermenting Non-Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus

by Kunlong Yang, Qingru Geng, Fengqin Song, Xiaona He, Tianran Hu, Shihua Wang and Jun Tian

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(19), 6994; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21196994 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3009

Abstract

Aflatoxins (AFs) have always been regarded as the most effective carcinogens, posing a great threat to agriculture, food safety, and human health. Aspergillus flavus is the major producer of aflatoxin contamination in crops. The prevention and control of A. flavus and aflatoxin continues [...] Read more.

Aflatoxins (AFs) have always been regarded as the most effective carcinogens, posing a great threat to agriculture, food safety, and human health. Aspergillus flavus is the major producer of aflatoxin contamination in crops. The prevention and control of A. flavus and aflatoxin continues to be a global problem. In this study, we demonstrated that the cell-free culture filtrate of Aspergillus oryzae and a non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus can effectively inhibit the production of AFB1 and the growth and reproduction of A. flavus, indicating that both of the non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus strains secrete inhibitory compounds. Further transcriptome sequencing was performed to analyze the inhibitory mechanism of A. flavus treated with fermenting cultures, and the results revealed that genes involved in the AF biosynthesis pathway and other biosynthetic gene clusters were significantly downregulated, which might be caused by the reduced expression of specific regulators, such as AflS, FarB, and MtfA. The WGCNA results further revealed that genes involved in the TCA cycle and glycolysis were potentially involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Our comparative transcriptomics also revealed that two conidia transcriptional factors, brlA and abaA, were found to be significantly downregulated, which might lead to the downregulation of conidiation-specific genes, such as the conidial hydrophobins genes rodA and rodB. In summary, our research provides new insights for the molecular mechanism of controlling AF synthesis to control the proliferation of A. flavus and AF pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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17 pages, 1279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxidative Stress and Analysis of Selected SNPs of ACHE (rs 2571598), BCHE (rs 3495), CAT (rs 7943316), SIRT1 (rs 10823108), GSTP1 (rs 1695), and Gene GSTM1, GSTT1 in Chronic Organophosphates Exposed Groups from Cameroon and Pakistan

by Leonel Javeres Mbah Ntepe, Rabia Habib, Ngondi Judith Laure, Saqlain Raza, Eugenie Nepovimova, Kamil Kuca, Sajida Batool and Syed Muhammad Nurulain

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(17), 6432; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176432 - 03 Sep 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3456

Abstract

The detrimental effects of organophosphates (OPs) on human health are thought to be of systemic, i.e., irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at nerve synapses. However, several studies have shown that AChE inhibition alone cannot explain all the toxicological manifestations in prolonged exposure to [...] Read more.

The detrimental effects of organophosphates (OPs) on human health are thought to be of systemic, i.e., irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at nerve synapses. However, several studies have shown that AChE inhibition alone cannot explain all the toxicological manifestations in prolonged exposure to OPs. The present study aimed to assess the status of antioxidants malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) (reduced), catalase, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) in chronic OP-exposed groups from Cameroon and Pakistan. Molecular analysis of genetic polymorphisms (SNPs) of glutathione transferases (GSTM1, GSTP1, GSTT1), catalase gene (CAT, rs7943316), sirtuin 1 gene (SIRT1, rs10823108), acetylcholinesterase gene (ACHE, rs2571598), and butyrylcholinesterase gene (BCHE, rs3495) were screened in the OP-exposed individuals to find the possible causative association with oxidative stress and toxicity. Cholinesterase and antioxidant activities were measured by colorimetric methods using a spectrophotometer. Salting-out method was employed for DNA extraction from blood followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) for molecular analysis. Cholinergic enzymes were significantly decreased in OP-exposed groups. Catalase and SOD were decreased and MDA and FRAP were increased in OP-exposed groups compared to unexposed groups in both groups. GSH was decreased only in Pakistani OPs-exposed group. Molecular analysis of ACHE, BCHE, Catalase, GSTP1, and GSTM1 SNPs revealed a tentative association with their phenotypic expression that is level of antioxidant and cholinergic enzymes. The study concludes that chronic OPs exposure induces oxidative stress which is associated with the related SNP polymorphism. The toxicogenetics of understudied SNPs were examined for the first time to our understanding. The findings may lead to a newer area of investigation on OPs induced health issues and toxicogenetics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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13 pages, 2754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Individual and Combined Toxicity of Fumonisin Mycotoxins in Human Gastric Epithelial Cells

by Song Yu, Bingxuan Jia, Na Liu, Dianzhen Yu and Aibo Wu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(16), 5917; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21165917 - 18 Aug 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3146

Abstract

Fumonisin contaminates food and feed extensively throughout the world, causing chronic and acute toxicity in human and animals. Currently, studies on the toxicology of fumonisins mainly focus on fumonisin B1 (FB1). Considering that FB1, fumonisin B2 (FB2) and fumonisin B3 (FB3) could coexist [...] Read more.

Fumonisin contaminates food and feed extensively throughout the world, causing chronic and acute toxicity in human and animals. Currently, studies on the toxicology of fumonisins mainly focus on fumonisin B1 (FB1). Considering that FB1, fumonisin B2 (FB2) and fumonisin B3 (FB3) could coexist in food and feed, a study regarding a single toxin, FB1, may not completely reflect the toxicity of fumonisin. The gastrointestinal tract is usually exposed to these dietary toxins. In our study, the human gastric epithelial cell line (GES-1) was used as in vitro model to evaluate the toxicity of fumonisin. Firstly, we found that they could cause a decrease in cell viability, and increase in membrane leakage, cell death and the induction of expression of markers for endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Their toxicity potency rank is FB1 > FB2 >> FB3. The results also showed that the synergistic effect appeared in the combinations of FB1 + FB2 and FB1 + FB3. Nevertheless, the combinations of FB2 + FB3 and FB1 + FB2 + FB3 showed a synergistic effect at low concentration and an antagonistic effect at high concentration. We also found that myriocin (ISP-1) could alleviate the cytotoxicity induced by fumonisin in GES-1 cells. Finally, this study may help to determine or optimize the legal limits and risk assessment method of mycotoxins in food and feed and provide a potential method to block the fumonisin toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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Review

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13 pages, 913 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Overview: The Toxicity of Ageratina adenophora on Animals and Its Possible Interventions

by Zhihua Ren, Samuel Kumi Okyere, Juan Wen, Lei Xie, Yujing Cui, Shu Wang, Jianchen Wang, Suizhong Cao, Liuhong Shen, Xiaoping Ma, Shumin Yu, Junliang Deng and Yanchun Hu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(21), 11581; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111581 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2687

Abstract

Ageratina adenophora is one of the major invasive weeds that causes instability of the ecosystem. Research has reported that A. adenophora produces allelochemicals that inhibit the growth and development of food crops, and also contain some toxic compounds that cause toxicity to animals [...] Read more.

Ageratina adenophora is one of the major invasive weeds that causes instability of the ecosystem. Research has reported that A. adenophora produces allelochemicals that inhibit the growth and development of food crops, and also contain some toxic compounds that cause toxicity to animals that consume it. Over the past decades, studies on the identification of major toxic compounds of A. adenophora and their toxic molecular mechanisms have been reported. In addition, weed control interventions, such as herbicides application, was employed to reduce the spread of A. adenophora. However, the development of therapeutic and prophylactic measures to treat the various A. adenophora—induced toxicities, such as hepatotoxicity, splenotoxicity and other related disorders, have not been established to date. The main toxic pathogenesis of A. adenophora is oxidative stress and inflammation. However, numerous studies have verified that some extracts and secondary metabolites isolated from A. adenophora possess anti-oxidation and anti-inflammation activities, which implies that these extracts can relieve toxicity and aid in the development of drug or feed supplements to treat poisoning-related disorders caused by A. adenophora. Furthermore, beneficial bacteria isolated from rumen microbes and A. adenophora can degrade major toxic compounds in A. adenophora so as to be developed into microbial feed additives to help ameliorate toxicity mediated by A. adenophora. This review presents an overview of the toxic mechanisms of A. adenophora, provides possible therapeutic strategies that are available to mitigate the toxicity of A. adenophora and introduces relevant information on identifying novel prophylactic and therapeutic measures against A. adenophora—induced toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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13 pages, 1433 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chemistry and Toxicology of Major Bioactive Substances in Inocybe Mushrooms

by Jiri Patocka, Ran Wu, Eugenie Nepovimova, Martin Valis, Wenda Wu and Kamil Kuca

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 2218; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042218 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5966

Abstract

Mushroom poisoning has always been a threat to human health. There are a large number of reports about ingestion of poisonous mushrooms every year around the world. It attracts the attention of researchers, especially in the aspects of toxin composition, toxic mechanism and [...] Read more.

Mushroom poisoning has always been a threat to human health. There are a large number of reports about ingestion of poisonous mushrooms every year around the world. It attracts the attention of researchers, especially in the aspects of toxin composition, toxic mechanism and toxin application in poisonous mushroom. Inocybe is a large genus of mushrooms and contains toxic substances including muscarine, psilocybin, psilocin, aeruginascin, lectins and baeocystin. In order to prevent and remedy mushroom poisoning, it is significant to clarify the toxic effects and mechanisms of these bioactive substances. In this review article, we summarize the chemistry, most known toxic effects and mechanisms of major toxic substances in Inocybe mushrooms, especially muscarine, psilocybin and psilocin. Their available toxicity data (different species, different administration routes) published formerly are also summarized. In addition, the treatment and medical application of these toxic substances in Inocybe mushrooms are also discussed. We hope that this review will help understanding of the chemistry and toxicology of Inocybe mushrooms as well as the potential clinical application of its bioactive substances to benefit human beings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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13 pages, 2533 KiB

Open AccessReview

Special Delivery: Potential Mechanisms of Botulinum Neurotoxin Uptake and Trafficking within Motor Nerve Terminals

by Brittany M. Winner, Skylar M. L. Bodt and Patrick M. McNutt

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(22), 8715; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21228715 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3724

Abstract

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are highly potent, neuroparalytic protein toxins that block the release of acetylcholine from motor neurons and autonomic synapses. The unparalleled toxicity of BoNTs results from the highly specific and localized cleavage of presynaptic proteins required for nerve transmission. Currently, the [...] Read more.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are highly potent, neuroparalytic protein toxins that block the release of acetylcholine from motor neurons and autonomic synapses. The unparalleled toxicity of BoNTs results from the highly specific and localized cleavage of presynaptic proteins required for nerve transmission. Currently, the only pharmacotherapy for botulism is prophylaxis with antitoxin, which becomes progressively less effective as symptoms develop. Treatment for symptomatic botulism is limited to supportive care and artificial ventilation until respiratory function spontaneously recovers, which can take weeks or longer. Mechanistic insights into intracellular toxin behavior have progressed significantly since it was shown that toxins exploit synaptic endocytosis for entry into the nerve terminal, but fundamental questions about host-toxin interactions remain unanswered. Chief among these are mechanisms by which BoNT is internalized into neurons and trafficked to sites of molecular toxicity. Elucidating how receptor-bound toxin is internalized and conditions under which the toxin light chain engages with target SNARE proteins is critical for understanding the dynamics of intoxication and identifying novel therapeutics. Here, we discuss the implications of newly discovered modes of synaptic vesicle recycling on BoNT uptake and intraneuronal trafficking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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21 pages, 1902 KiB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Aspects of Mycotoxins—A Serious Problem for Human Health

by Edyta Janik, Marcin Niemcewicz, Michal Ceremuga, Maksymilian Stela, Joanna Saluk-Bijak, Adrian Siadkowski and Michal Bijak

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(21), 8187; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218187 - 31 Oct 2020

Cited by 92 | Viewed by 9048

Abstract

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolities formed by a variety of fungi (moulds) species. Hundreds of potentially toxic mycotoxins have been already identified and are considered a serious problem in agriculture, animal husbandry, and public health. A large number of food-related products and [...] Read more.

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolities formed by a variety of fungi (moulds) species. Hundreds of potentially toxic mycotoxins have been already identified and are considered a serious problem in agriculture, animal husbandry, and public health. A large number of food-related products and beverages are yearly contaminated by mycotoxins, resulting in economic welfare losses. Mycotoxin indoor environment contamination is a global problem especially in less technologically developed countries. There is an ongoing effort in prevention of mould growth in the field and decontamination of contaminated food and feed in order to protect human and animal health. It should be emphasized that the mycotoxins production by fungi (moulds) species is unavoidable and that they are more toxic than pesticides. Human and animals are exposed to mycotoxin via food, inhalation, or contact which can result in many building-related illnesses including kidney and neurological diseases and cancer. In this review, we described in detail the molecular aspects of main representatives of mycotoxins, which are serious problems for global health, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol, patulin, and zearalenone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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14 pages, 590 KiB

Open AccessReview

Flakka: New Dangerous Synthetic Cathinone on the Drug Scene

by Jiri Patocka, Bingshu Zhao, Wenda Wu, Blanka Klimova, Martin Valis, Eugenie Nepovimova and Kamil Kuca

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(21), 8185; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218185 - 31 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7285

Abstract

New psychoactive substances are being used as drugs and appear to be quite popular nowadays. Thanks to their specific properties, these drugs create inimitable experiences for intoxicated people. Synthetic cathinones are the most common compounds in these new drugs. Among them, α-pyrrolidopentadione (α-PVP), [...] Read more.

New psychoactive substances are being used as drugs and appear to be quite popular nowadays. Thanks to their specific properties, these drugs create inimitable experiences for intoxicated people. Synthetic cathinones are the most common compounds in these new drugs. Among them, α-pyrrolidopentadione (α-PVP), or “Flakka” (street name), is one of the most famous cathinone-designed drugs. Similar to other synthetic cathinone drugs, α-PVP can effectively inhibit norepinephrine and dopamine transmitters. The adverse reactions of α-PVP mainly include mania, tachycardia, and hallucinations. An increasing number of people are being admitted to emergency wards due to the consequences of their use. This work mainly summarizes the history, synthesis, pharmacology, toxicology, structure–activity relationship, metabolism, clinical process and health risks, poisoning and death, forensic toxicology, and legal status of α-PVP. We hope this review will help bring more attention to the exploration of this substance in order to raise awareness of its negative impacts on humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Synthetic Toxins: Molecular Aspects and Development Treatment Strategy)

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