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5 pages, 271 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon and Thoron

by Miroslaw Janik

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(15), 9276; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159276 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1360

Abstract

We “bathe” in radiation, which is an integral part of our environment [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

Research

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11 pages, 9095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radon at Kilbourne Hole Maar and Magnetic and Gravimetric Correlations

by Michel E. Luna-Lucero, Laszlo Sajo-Bohus and Jorge A. Lopez

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(6), 5185; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20065185 - 15 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1272

Abstract

Soil radon gas concentrations ranging from the detection limit up to 15 kBq/m³ were measured for the first time at the Kilbourne Hole maar in two selected regions: the first region was located on the western volcanic field, and the second was [...] Read more.

Soil radon gas concentrations ranging from the detection limit up to 15 kBq/m³ were measured for the first time at the Kilbourne Hole maar in two selected regions: the first region was located on the western volcanic field, and the second was located inside the crater, near the southern border. Radioactive anomalies were found in association with the pyroclastic deposit, and the corresponding heat map provided information on the radon diffusion direction by the C_Rn gradient. It was observed for the first time that the anomalies found at the southern border are associated with a known geological fault, in opposition to what was found on the western border. The results provided by a radon activity concentration gradient of above (8 kBq/m³)/15 m suggest the existence of a fault that has not been detected yet. The observation that high levels near a dormant fault are related to tectonically enhanced radon was confirmed. The activity concentrations of Rn-gas were contrasted to existing gravimetric and magnetic data to provide measuring information on radon emanation, suggesting the existence of a high, naturally occurring radioactivity in the soil in the first place or an increased porosity of the locally defined lithology. The results indicated a higher correlation of 85% with magnetic anomalies. This is in opposition to the gravimetric data, which was only 30%. This study is a contribution to the characterization maar of volcanic geology by the soil radon activity index, which was designated as “low” in this case. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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14 pages, 5348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of ²²²Rn Surface Concentrations in the Basque Country (Spain): A Case Study of Heat Waves

by Natalia Alegría, Miguel Ángel Hernández-Ceballos, Giorgia Cinelli, Igor Peñalva and Jose Miguel Muñoz

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(3), 2105; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032105 - 24 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1222

Abstract

The objective of this study was to characterize radon concentrations registered in the Radiological Surveillance Network of the Basque country in relation to local meteorological parameters, and to determine its behaviour under heatwave events. For this purpose, radon measurements and meteorological parameters from [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to characterize radon concentrations registered in the Radiological Surveillance Network of the Basque country in relation to local meteorological parameters, and to determine its behaviour under heatwave events. For this purpose, radon measurements and meteorological parameters from June 2012 to June 2015 were analysed at two sites, Bilbao and Vitoria (northern Spain), in a region characterized by complex orography, causing large temporal and spatial variability in meteorological conditions. Yearly, seasonal, and diurnal cycle differences and similarities were investigated at both sites. The temporal evolution of radon concentration was analysed at both sites during the two heatwave periods officially identified by the State Meteorological Agency (8–11 August 2012 and 17–23 August 2012). The analysis revealed two different patterns of radon concentrations, in terms of both time and intensity, under this synoptic pattern, making it also possible to identify regional transport channels of radon concentrations between the two sites. This set of results evidences the adequate position of both stations to represent the spatial and temporal evolution of radiological variables continuously in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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17 pages, 4723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Meteorological Approach in the Identification of Local and Remote Potential Sources of Radon: An Example in Northern Iberian Peninsula

by Miguel Ángel Hernández-Ceballos, Natalia Alegría, Igor Peñalva, Jose Miguel Muñoz, Alejandro De la Torre, Fernando Legarda and Giorgia Cinelli

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(2), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20020917 - 04 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1196

Abstract

This paper presents a meteorological approach to identify local and remote sources driving the variability of surface daily radon concentrations. To this purpose, hourly ²²²Rn concentration and surface meteorological measurements, and air mass trajectories at Bilbao station (northern Iberian Peninsula) during the [...] Read more.

This paper presents a meteorological approach to identify local and remote sources driving the variability of surface daily radon concentrations. To this purpose, hourly ²²²Rn concentration and surface meteorological measurements, and air mass trajectories at Bilbao station (northern Iberian Peninsula) during the period 2017–2018 have been taken as reference. To investigate the potential transport pathways and potential ²²²Rn sources, the backward trajectory cluster analysis, trajectory sector analysis (TSA), and potential source contribution function (PSCF) are applied. On average, the diurnal ²²²Rn cycle shows the expected behaviour, with larger concentrations during the night and minimum concentrations during the daylight hours, with differences in the seasonal amplitudes. According to daily differences between maximum and baseline values, ²²²Rn daily cycles were grouped into six groups to identify meteorological conditions associated with each amplitude, and potential source areas and transport routes of ²²²Rn over Bilbao. The trajectory cluster and the TSA method show that the main airflow pathways are from the south, with small displacement, and the northeast, while the analysis of surface wind speed and direction indicates that the highest amplitudes of ²²²Rn concentrations are registered under the development of sea-land breezes. The PSCF method identified south-western and north-eastern areas highly contributing to the ²²²Rn concentration. These areas are confirmed by comparing with the radon flux map and the European map of uranium concentration in soil. The results have demonstrated the need in combining the analysis of local and regional/synoptic factors in explaining the origin and variability of ²²²Rn concentrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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17 pages, 6349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detailed Geogenic Radon Potential Mapping Using Geospatial Analysis of Multiple Geo-Variables—A Case Study from a High-Risk Area in SE Ireland

by Mirsina Mousavi Aghdam, Valentina Dentoni, Stefania Da Pelo and Quentin Crowley

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(23), 15910; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315910 - 29 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1543

Abstract

A detailed investigation of geogenic radon potential (GRP) was carried out near Graiguenamanagh town (County Kilkenny, Ireland) by performing a spatial regression analysis on radon-related variables to evaluate the exposure of people to natural radiation (i.e., radon, thoron and gamma radiation). The study [...] Read more.

A detailed investigation of geogenic radon potential (GRP) was carried out near Graiguenamanagh town (County Kilkenny, Ireland) by performing a spatial regression analysis on radon-related variables to evaluate the exposure of people to natural radiation (i.e., radon, thoron and gamma radiation). The study area includes an offshoot of the Caledonian Leinster Granite, which is locally intruded into Ordovician metasediments. To model radon release potential at different points, an ordinary least squared (OLS) regression model was developed in which soil gas radon (SGR) concentrations were considered as the response value. Proxy variables such as radionuclide concentrations obtained from airborne radiometric surveys, soil gas permeability, distance from major faults and a digital terrain model were used as the input predictors. ArcGIS and QGIS software together with XLSTAT statistical software were used to visualise, analyse and validate the data and models. The proposed GRP models were validated through diagnostic tests. Empirical Bayesian kriging (EBK) was used to produce the map of the spatial distribution of predicted GRP values and to estimate the prediction uncertainty. The methodology described here can be extended for larger areas and the models could be utilised to estimate the GRPs of other areas where radon-related proxy values are available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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12 pages, 1558 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radon Exposure in the Underground Tourist Route–Historic Silver Mine in Tarnowskie Góry, Poland

by Agata Grygier, Krystian Skubacz, Małgorzata Wysocka, Michał Bonczyk, Adam Piech and Mirosław Janik

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(23), 15778; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315778 - 27 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1282

Abstract

An assessment of the exposure of workers and tourists to radon in the underground tourist route of the Historic Silver Mine in Tarnowskie Góry was carried out. The study was conducted over a one-year period to capture seasonal variations in radon concentrations. CR-39 [...] Read more.

An assessment of the exposure of workers and tourists to radon in the underground tourist route of the Historic Silver Mine in Tarnowskie Góry was carried out. The study was conducted over a one-year period to capture seasonal variations in radon concentrations. CR-39 track detectors were used to measure radon concentrations, which were exposed in the mine during the following periods: 9 February 2021–19 May 2021, 19 May 2021–26 August 2021, 26 August 2021–25 November 2021 and 25 November 2021–3 March 2022. The annual average radon concentration along the tourist route was 1021 Bq m

^{- 3}

. The highest measured concentration was 2280 Bq m

^{- 3}

and the lowest concentration was 80 Bq m

^{- 3}

. Based on the measured concentrations, effective doses were calculated, assuming that employees spend 1350 h a year in underground areas and that the time of visiting the mine by tourists is ca. 1 h. The average annual effective dose a worker would receive is approximately 2.5 mSv, and a tourist below 2

μ

Sv. The dose limit expressed as the annual effective dose is 1 mSv for members of the general public and 20 mSv for occupational exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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16 pages, 4309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active Monitoring of Residential Radon in Rome: A Pilot Study

by Gaia Soldati, Maria Grazia Ciaccio, Antonio Piersanti, Valentina Cannelli and Gianfranco Galli

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(21), 13917; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192113917 - 26 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1195

Abstract

We present an overview of the potential of active monitoring techniques to investigate the many factors affecting the concentration of radon in houses. We conducted two experiments measuring radon concentration in 25 apartments in Rome and suburban areas for two weeks and in [...] Read more.

We present an overview of the potential of active monitoring techniques to investigate the many factors affecting the concentration of radon in houses. We conducted two experiments measuring radon concentration in 25 apartments in Rome and suburban areas for two weeks and in three apartments in the historic center for several months. The reference levels of 300 and 100 Bq/m³ are overcome in 17% and 60% of the cases, respectively, and these percentages rise to 20% and 76% for average overnight radon (more relevant for residents’ exposure). Active detectors allowed us to identify seasonal radon fluctuations, dependent on indoor-to-outdoor temperature, and how radon travels from the ground to upper floors. High levels of radon are not limited to the lowest floors when the use of heating and ventilation produces massive convection of air. Lifestyle habits also reflect in the different values of gas concentration measured on different floors of the same building or in distinct rooms of the same apartment, which cannot be ascribed to the characteristics of the premises. However, the finding that high residential radon levels tend to concentrate in the historic center proves the influence of factors such as building age, construction materials, and geogenic radon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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10 pages, 1400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radon Progeny Adsorption on Facial Masks

by Annika Hinrichs, Claudia Fournier, Gerhard Kraft and Andreas Maier

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(18), 11337; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811337 - 09 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2285

Abstract

The radioactive noble gas radon and its short-living progeny are inhaled during respiration, depositing their decay energies in the lungs. These progeny are considered responsible for more than 95% of the total effective dose and are, together with radon, classified as carcinogenic for [...] Read more.

The radioactive noble gas radon and its short-living progeny are inhaled during respiration, depositing their decay energies in the lungs. These progeny are considered responsible for more than 95% of the total effective dose and are, together with radon, classified as carcinogenic for lung cancer. Consequently, filtration of the progeny could reduce the dose to the lungs. In our study, we investigated the filtration properties of FFP2 versus surgical masks (II R) for radon and its decay products. The masks were attached to a measurement device, which enabled determination of the size distribution of radon progeny, ranging from unattached to clustered progeny. In parallel, it measured the radon activity concentration during experiments. By comparing background measurements without mask and experiments with masks, the percentage of retained unattached radon progeny was determined for FFP2 (98.8 ± 0.6%) and II R masks (98.4 ± 0.7%). For clustered progeny, the retained fraction was 85.2 ± 18.1% for FFP2 and 79.5 ± 22.1% for II R masks while radon was not filtered. We can show that masks are effective in filtering radon progeny and thus are capable of reducing the total effective dose to the lungs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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7 pages, 787 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

An Innovative Tool to Control Occupational Radon Exposure

by Lucía Martin-Gisbert, Alberto Ruano-Ravina, Juan Miguel Barros-Dios, Leonor Varela-Lema and Mónica Pérez-Ríos

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(18), 11280; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811280 - 08 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1164

Abstract

After smoking, indoor radon is the main contributor to lung cancer in many countries. The European Union (EU) Directive 2013/59/Euratom establishes a maximum reference level of 300 Bq/m³ of radon concentration in the workplace, and an effective dose limit of 20 mSv [...] Read more.

After smoking, indoor radon is the main contributor to lung cancer in many countries. The European Union (EU) Directive 2013/59/Euratom establishes a maximum reference level of 300 Bq/m³ of radon concentration in the workplace, and an effective dose limit of 20 mSv per year for workers. If the radon concentration in a workplace exceeds the reference level, constructive mitigation applies. When constructive mitigation is not feasible, we propose to keep workers’ effective dose below 6 mSv per year (category B of exposed workers) by controlling occupancy time. Setting the maximum annual dose at 6 mSv protects workers’ health and eases the regulatory requirements for employers. If multisite workers are present, each worker has to be monitored individually by tracking the time spent and the radon concentration at each worksite. This paper shows a software tool for employers to perform this complex tracking in an accurate, conservative, and transparent manner, and in compliance with the EU by-laws. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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11 pages, 5067 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Determination of Radon/Thoron Exhalation Rate in an Underground Coal Mine—Preliminary Results

by Michał Bonczyk, Stanisław Chałupnik, Malgorzata Wysocka, Agata Grygier, Robert Hildebrandt and Zornitza Tosheva

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 6038; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106038 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1441

Abstract

The objective of this work was to perform a series of measurements of radon and thoron exhalation in the underground workings of an experimental coal mine. In the years 2012–2015, experiments on underground coal gasification were carried out in a coal mine, which [...] Read more.

The objective of this work was to perform a series of measurements of radon and thoron exhalation in the underground workings of an experimental coal mine. In the years 2012–2015, experiments on underground coal gasification were carried out in a coal mine, which caused, among other effects, damage to rock mass. Afterward, periodic increases in the concentration of potential alpha energy (PAEC) of radon decay products in the air were found, which could pose a hazard to miners. The question posed was whether the gasification experiment resulted in the increased migration of radon and thoron. If so, did it increase the radiation hazard to miners? The adaptation of the existing instrumentation to the specific conditions was conducted, and a series of measurements were made. It was found that the measured values of radon and thoron exhalation rates ranged from 3.0 up to 38 Bq·m⁻²·h⁻¹ for radon and from 500 up to 2000 Bq·m⁻²·h⁻¹ for thoron. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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12 pages, 3286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radon Concentrations in Dwellings in the Mining Area—Are There Observed Effects of the Coal Mine Closure?

by Małgorzata Wysocka, Sandra Nowak, Stanisław Chałupnik and Michał Bonczyk

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5214; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095214 - 25 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1483

Abstract

The article presents the results of radon research, carried out in the area of the mining commune in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB), Poland. Past investigations in the 1990s on radon concentrations in buildings, located within the mining area, showed that the [...] Read more.

The article presents the results of radon research, carried out in the area of the mining commune in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB), Poland. Past investigations in the 1990s on radon concentrations in buildings, located within the mining area, showed that the indoor radon concentrations measured in the area affected by mining were higher than in buildings located outside that area. Currently, all underground hard coal mines within the boundaries of the observed commune have been closed. In 2020, after the closure of the last active mine, radon measurements were started again. The current results of indoor radon concentrations were compared with the archival results from the 1990s. It was found that the radon concentration increased significantly in the basements of buildings where measurements were made in 1990, 2020, and 2021: the maximum values were 260 Bq/m³, 644 Bq/m³, and 1041 Bq/m³, respectively. Therefore, these questions were posed: Do the mine closure processes increase radon migration? How long is the period of the occurrence of changes in radon concentrations in buildings after the cessation of mining operations? Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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9 pages, 752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Residential Radon Exposure in Patients with Advanced Lung Cancer in Lublin Region, Poland

by Anna Grzywa-Celińska, Izabela Chmielewska, Adam Krusiński, Krzysztof Kozak, Jadwiga Mazur, Dominik Grządziel, Katarzyna Dos Santos Szewczyk and Janusz Milanowski

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 4257; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074257 - 02 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1741

Abstract

Exposure to radon is the second most common factor causing lung cancer in smokers and the first among non-smokers. We aimed to measure the impact of the radon exposure on patients with different histological types of advanced lung cancer. The measurement of radon [...] Read more.

Exposure to radon is the second most common factor causing lung cancer in smokers and the first among non-smokers. We aimed to measure the impact of the radon exposure on patients with different histological types of advanced lung cancer. The measurement of radon exposure was performed in 102 patients with lung cancer in stage 3B or higher (Poland). There were 78.4% of patients with non-small cell carcinoma and 21.6% of patients with small cell carcinoma. One month radon exposure measurement was performed with trace detectors in order to control whether high radon concentrations (>800 Bq/m³) were found in the homes of patients with cancer diagnosed. Results of the determinations were then compared with the representation of the most common types of lung cancer in the study population. In the analyzed group, the average concentration of radon during the exposure of the detector in the residential premises of the respondents accounted for 69.0 Bq/m³ [37.0–117.0] and had no statistically significant effect on the type of lung cancer developed in patients. The lack of statistical significance may result from the small study group and the accompanying exposure to other harmful components. As the incidence of lung adenocarcinoma is increasing and exposure to tobacco smoke is decreasing, the search for other modifiable causes of lung cancer should be the task in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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11 pages, 3858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Radon and CO₂ for the Identification and Analysis of Short-Term Fluctuations in the Ventilation of the Polychrome Room Inside the Altamira Cave

by Carlos Sainz, Julia Fábrega, Daniel Rábago, Santiago Celaya, Alicia Fernandez, Ismael Fuente, Enrique Fernandez, Jorge Quindos, Jose Luis Arteche and Luis Quindos

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(6), 3662; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063662 - 19 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1443

Abstract

A study is presented on rapid episodes of air exchange in the Polychrome Room of the Altamira Cave (Cantabria, Spain) using continuous monitoring of radon and CO₂ tracer gases, as well as environmental parameters such as internal and external air temperature. For [...] Read more.

A study is presented on rapid episodes of air exchange in the Polychrome Room of the Altamira Cave (Cantabria, Spain) using continuous monitoring of radon and CO₂ tracer gases, as well as environmental parameters such as internal and external air temperature. For this, criteria have been developed to carry out an inventory of these types of events during the 2015–2020 period. Most of the degassing-recharging events occur over several hours or days, especially during spring and autumn. This means that the room can be significantly ventilated during these short periods of time, posing an exchange of energy and matter with potential impact in the preservation of the rock art present inside. In addition, the hypothesis that temperature gradients between the internal and external atmosphere is one of the main factors that induces degassing has been tested. To this end, correlation analysis has been carried out between the different magnitudes involved in this study, such as radon and CO₂ concentrations, and air temperature gradients. A total of 37 degassing-recharging events have been analyzed for the 5 year studied period. The distribution of the duration of the events have been described, as well as that of the correlations between the degassing and recharge stages of each event, showing significant values of r coefficients for the correlation with temperature gradients between the internal and external atmosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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9 pages, 1348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thoron Interference on Performance of Continuous Radon Monitors: An Experimental Study on Four Devices and a Proposal of an Indirect Method to Estimate Thoron Concentration

by Christian Di Carlo, Marco Ampollini, Sara Antignani, Mario Caprio, Carmela Carpentieri and Francesco Bochicchio

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(4), 2423; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042423 - 19 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1747

Abstract

The performance of continuous radon monitors (CRMs) is usually evaluated under controlled conditions in a radon chamber during calibrations or intercomparison exercises. The impact of thoron on CRMs response is rarely evaluated; in case the evaluation is performed, it is carried out in [...] Read more.

The performance of continuous radon monitors (CRMs) is usually evaluated under controlled conditions in a radon chamber during calibrations or intercomparison exercises. The impact of thoron on CRMs response is rarely evaluated; in case the evaluation is performed, it is carried out in a controlled atmosphere with relatively constant, homogeneous, and generally high thoron concentrations and very low radon levels. In a real indoor environment, both radon and thoron concentrations are extremely variable, so the thoron interference evaluations reported in the literature are generally not applicable to CRMs used to measure radon concentration indoors. For this reason, an experimental study was carried out with four different CRMs in an indoor environment (an office room) where medium-to-high concentrations of both radon and thoron were expected. Thoron concentration has been separately evaluated throughout two different active monitors. Three CRMs resulted in overestimations of radon concentration by about 10% due to thoron interference, whereas such interference results were negligible for the fourth CRM. However, the thoron interference can also be used to assess thoron concentration by using CRM not specifically designed to do so. Based on the results of this study, an indirect method to assess thoron concentration is indeed proposed, relying on the combination of two identical monitors (one placed right close to the wall and the other one far enough from there). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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20 pages, 2585 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Ventilation Efficiency as Simultaneous Control of Radon and Carbon Dioxide Levels in Indoor Air Applying Transient Modelling

by Mateja Dovjak, Ožbej Vene and Janja Vaupotič

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(4), 2125; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042125 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2320

Abstract

The impact of ventilation efficiency on radon (²²²Rn) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations in the indoor air of a residential building was studied by applying transient data analysis within the CONTAM 3.4 program. Continuous measurements of ²²²Rn and [...] Read more.

The impact of ventilation efficiency on radon (²²²Rn) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations in the indoor air of a residential building was studied by applying transient data analysis within the CONTAM 3.4 program. Continuous measurements of ²²²Rn and CO₂ concentrations, together with basic meteorological parameters, were carried out in an apartment (floor area about 27 m²) located in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Throughout the experiment (October 3–15), frequent ventilation (several times per day), poor ventilation (once to twice per day) and no ventilation scenarios were applied, and the exact ventilation and occupancy schedule were recorded. Based on the measurements, a transient simulation of ²²²Rn and CO₂ concentrations was performed for six sets of scenarios, where the design ventilation rate (DVR) varied based on the ventilation requirements and recommendations. On the days of frequent ventilation, a moderate correlation between the measured and simulated concentrations (r = 0.62 for ²²²Rn, r = 0.55 for CO₂) was found. The results of the simulation indicated the following optimal DVRs: (i) 36.6 m³ h⁻¹ (0.5 air changes per hour, ACH) to ensure a CO₂ concentration below 1000 ppm and a ²²²Rn concentration below 100 Bq m⁻³; and (ii) 46.9 m³ h⁻¹ (0.7 ACH) to ensure a CO₂ concentration below 800 ppm. These levels are the most compatible with the 5C_Cat I (category I of indoor environmental quality, defined by EN 16798-1:2019) scenario, which resulted in concentrations of 656 ± 121 ppm for CO₂ and 57 ± 13 Bq m⁻³ for ²²²Rn. The approach presented is applicable to various types of residential buildings with high overcrowding rates, where a sufficient amount of air volume to achieve category I indoor environmental quality has to be provided. Lower CO₂ and ²²²Rn concentrations indoors minimise health risk, which is especially important for protecting sensitive and fragile occupants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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11 pages, 1341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra Concentrations in Spring Water and Their Dose Assessment Due to Ingestion Intake

by Ryohei Yamada, Masahiro Hosoda, Tomomi Tabe, Yuki Tamakuma, Takahito Suzuki, Kevin Kelleher, Takakiyo Tsujiguchi, Yoshiki Tateyama, Eka Djatnika Nugraha, Anna Okano, Yuki Narumi, Chutima Kranrod, Hirofumi Tazoe, Kazuki Iwaoka, Yumi Yasuoka, Naofumi Akata, Tetsuya Sanada and Shinji Tokonami

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(3), 1758; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031758 - 03 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2327

Abstract

²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra concentrations of less than a few to several thousands of Bq L⁻¹ have been observed in several underground bodies of water around the world. Although regulations for these concentrations in water have been implemented internationally, there [...] Read more.

²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra concentrations of less than a few to several thousands of Bq L⁻¹ have been observed in several underground bodies of water around the world. Although regulations for these concentrations in water have been implemented internationally, there are currently no regulations in place in Japan. However, concentrations that exceed these internationally recognized regulatory values have also been observed in Japan. In this study, concentrations in spring water in the northern part of Japan were measured and the effective dose from intake of the water was evaluated. ²²²Rn concentrations were measured using a liquid scintillation counter, and ²²⁶Ra concentrations were measured using a high purity germanium detector after chemical preparation. The measured ²²²Rn concentrations (=12.7 ± 6.1 Bq L⁻¹) and ²²⁶Ra concentrations (<0.019–0.022 Bq L⁻¹) did not exceed the reference values set by international and European/American organizations. A conservative estimate of the annual effective ingestion dose of 8 μSv for ²²²Rn and ²²⁶Ra obtained in this study is much smaller than the estimated overall annual effective dose of 2.2 mSv from natural radiation to the Japanese population. However, this dosage accounts for 8% of the WHO individual dosing criteria of 0.1 mSv/year for drinking water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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22 pages, 4695 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of ²²²Rn Emanation Sources with Integrated Quasi 2π Active Monitoring

by Florian Mertes, Stefan Röttger and Annette Röttger

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(2), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020840 - 12 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

In this work, a novel approach for the standardization of low-level ²²²Rn emanation is presented. The technique is based on the integration of a ²²²Rn source, directly, with an α-particle detector, which allows the residual ²²²Rn to be continuously monitored. [...] Read more.

In this work, a novel approach for the standardization of low-level ²²²Rn emanation is presented. The technique is based on the integration of a ²²²Rn source, directly, with an α-particle detector, which allows the residual ²²²Rn to be continuously monitored. Preparation of the device entails thermal physical vapor deposition of ²²⁶RaCl₂ directly onto the surface of a commercially available ion implanted Si-diode detector, resulting in a thin-layer geometry. This enables continuous collection of well resolved α-particle spectra of the nuclei, decaying within the deposited layer, with a detection efficiency of approximately 0.5 in a quasi 2π geometry. The continuously sampled α-particle spectra are used to derive the emanation by statistical inversion. It is possible to achieve this with high temporal resolution due to the small background and the high counting efficiency of the presented technique. The emanation derived in this way exhibits a dependence on the relative humidity of up to 15% in the range from 20% rH to 90% rH. Traceability to the SI is provided by employing defined solid-angle α-particle spectrometry to characterize the counting efficiency of the modified detectors. The presented technique is demonstrated to apply to a range covering the release of at least 1 to 210 ²²²Rn atoms per second, and it results in SI-traceable emanation values with a combined standard uncertainty not exceeding 2%. This provides a pathway for the realization of reference atmospheres covering typical environmental ²²²Rn levels and thus drastically improves the realization and the dissemination of the derived unit of the activity concentration concerning ²²²Rn in air. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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23 pages, 9990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radon Hazard in Central Italy: Comparison among Areas with Different Geogenic Radon Potential

by Francesca Giustini, Livio Ruggiero, Alessandra Sciarra, Stan Eugene Beaubien, Stefano Graziani, Gianfranco Galli, Luca Pizzino, Maria Chiara Tartarello, Carlo Lucchetti, Pietro Sirianni, Paola Tuccimei, Mario Voltaggio, Sabina Bigi and Giancarlo Ciotoli

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(2), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19020666 - 07 Jan 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2498

Abstract

Radon (²²²Rn) is a natural radioactive gas formed in rocks and soil by the decay of its parent nuclide (238-Uranium). The rate at which radon migrates to the surface, be it along faults or directly emanated from shallow soil, represents the [...] Read more.

Radon (²²²Rn) is a natural radioactive gas formed in rocks and soil by the decay of its parent nuclide (238-Uranium). The rate at which radon migrates to the surface, be it along faults or directly emanated from shallow soil, represents the Geogenic Radon Potential (GRP) of an area. Considering that the GRP is often linked to indoor radon risk levels, we have conducted multi-disciplinary research to: (i) define local GRPs and investigate their relationship with associated indoor Rn levels; (ii) evaluate inhaled radiation dosages and the associated risk to the inhabitants; and (iii) define radon priority areas (RPAs) as required by the Directive 2013/59/Euratom. In the framework of the EU-funded LIFE-Respire project, a large amount of data (radionuclide content, soil gas samples, terrestrial gamma, indoor radon) was collected from three municipalities located in different volcanic districts of the Lazio region (central Italy) that are characterised by low to high GRP. Results highlight the positive correlation between the radionuclide content of the outcropping rocks, the soil Rn concentrations and the presence of high indoor Rn values in areas with medium to high GRP. Data confirm that the Cimini–Vicani area has inhalation dosages that are higher than the reference value of 10 mSv/y. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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15 pages, 1197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Metrological Traceability, Performance and Precision of European Radon Calibration Facilities

by Thomas R. Beck, Andrei Antohe, Francesco Cardellini, Alexandra Cucoş, Eliska Fialova, Claudia Grossi, Kinga Hening, Jens Jensen, Dejan Kastratović, Matej Krivošík, Patrick Lobner, Aurelian Luca, Franz Josef Maringer, Nathalie Michielsen, Petr P. S. Otahal, Luis Quindós, Daniel Rábago, Carlos Sainz, László Szűcs, Constantin Teodorescu, Cathrin Tolinsson, Cornel Liviu Tugulan, Tuukka Turtiainen, Arturo Vargas, Josef Vosahlik, Goran Vukoslavovic, Hannah Wiedner and Katarzyna Wołoszczuk Show full author list Hide full author list

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 12150; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182212150 - 19 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2193

Abstract

An interlaboratory comparison for European radon calibration facilities was conducted to evaluate the establishment of a harmonized quality level for the activity concentration of radon in air and to demonstrate the performance of the facilities when calibrating measurement instruments for radon. Fifteen calibration [...] Read more.

An interlaboratory comparison for European radon calibration facilities was conducted to evaluate the establishment of a harmonized quality level for the activity concentration of radon in air and to demonstrate the performance of the facilities when calibrating measurement instruments for radon. Fifteen calibration facilities from 13 different European countries participated. They represented different levels in the metrological hierarchy: national metrology institutes and designated institutes, national authorities for radiation protection and participants from universities. The interlaboratory comparison was conducted by the German Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) and took place from 2018 to 2020. Participants were requested to measure radon in atmospheres of their own facilities according to their own procedures and requirements for metrological traceability. A measurement device with suitable properties was used to determine the comparison values. The results of the comparison showed that the radon activity concentrations that were determined by European calibration facilities complying with metrological traceability requirements were consistent with each other and had common mean values. The deviations from these values were normally distributed. The range of variation of the common mean value was a measure of the degree of agreement between the participants. For exposures above 1000 Bq/m³, the variation was about 4% for a level of confidence of approximately 95%

(k = 2)

. For lower exposure levels, the variation increased to about 6%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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18 pages, 5892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Storage Time and Pre-Etching Treatment of CR-39 Detectors on Their Response to Alpha Radiation Exposure

by Miroslaw Janik, Md. Mahamudul Hasan, Peter Bossew and Norbert Kavasi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(16), 8346; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168346 - 06 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2030

Abstract

Radon passive monitors based on solid state nuclear track detectors (SSNTD), especially CR-39, are widely used in radon and thoron studies. They may be subjected to the influence of external factors, like changing of temperature, humidity, and pressure, both before and during the [...] Read more.

Radon passive monitors based on solid state nuclear track detectors (SSNTD), especially CR-39, are widely used in radon and thoron studies. They may be subjected to the influence of external factors, like changing of temperature, humidity, and pressure, both before and during the measurement. Evaluation of the exposed detectors involves chemical processing, whose conditions also influence the measurement results. The aim of this study was to check several factors, as to whether they may modify the response of CR-39 detector: concerning the phase before evaluation, storage time, and temperature during storage; and concerning the evaluation procedure, etching time, and pre-etching treatment using hot water and carbon dioxide atmosphere. Two experiments were conducted by irradiation of CR-39 detectors using alpha particles emitted from a mono-energetic ²⁴¹Am source and exposed in radon atmosphere. Track density dependence of the age of production was found to be statistically not significant. On the other hand, pre-etching treatment using hot water and carbon dioxide with different etching times showed statistically significant effects on track area, track sensitivity, and roundness. It was concluded that there are simple methods to increase performance of nuclear track detectors, and that storage time is not a factor of concern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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18 pages, 74987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of Natural Radioactivity Levels and Radon/Thoron Release Potential of Bedrock and Soil in Southeastern Ireland

by Mirsina Mousavi Aghdam, Quentin Crowley, Carlos Rocha, Valentina Dentoni, Stefania Da Pelo, Stephanie Long and Maxime Savatier

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2709; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052709 - 08 Mar 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3348

Abstract

Radon (²²²Rn) and thoron (²²⁰Rn) account for almost two-thirds of the annual average radiation dose received by the Irish population. A detailed study of natural radioactivity levels and radon and thoron exhalation rates was carried out in a legislatively [...] Read more.

Radon (²²²Rn) and thoron (²²⁰Rn) account for almost two-thirds of the annual average radiation dose received by the Irish population. A detailed study of natural radioactivity levels and radon and thoron exhalation rates was carried out in a legislatively designated “high radon” area, as based on existing indoor radon measurements. Indoor radon concentrations, airborne radiometric data and stream sediment geochemistry were collated, and a set of soil samples were taken from the study area. The exhalation rates of radon (E²²²_Rn) and thoron (E²²⁰_Rn) for collected samples were determined in the laboratory. The resultant data were classified based on geological and soil type parameters. Geological boundaries were found to be robust classifiers for radon exhalation rates and radon-related variables, whilst soil type classification better differentiates thoron exhalation rates and correlated variables. Linear models were developed to predict the radon and thoron exhalation rates of the study area. Distribution maps of radon and thoron exhalation rates (range: E²²²_Rn [0.15–1.84] and E²²⁰_Rn [475–3029] Bq m⁻² h⁻¹) and annual effective dose (with a mean value of 0.84 mSv y⁻¹) are presented. For some parts of the study area, the calculated annual effective dose exceeds the recommended level of 1 mSv y⁻¹, illustrating a significant radiation risk. Airborne radiometric data were found to be a powerful and fast tool for the prediction of geogenic radon and thoron risk. This robust method can be used for other areas where airborne radiometric data are available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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8 pages, 1381 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Low-Level Radon Activity Concentration—A MetroRADON International Intercomparison

by Petr P. S. Otahal, Eliska Fialova, Josef Vosahlik, Hannah Wiedner, Claudia Grossi, Arturo Vargas, Nathalie Michielsen, Tuukka Turtiainen, Aurelian Luca, Katarzyna Wołoszczuk and Thomas R. Beck

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 5810; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105810 - 10 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1268

Abstract

An international comparison of continuous monitors measuring radon activity concentration was performed to validate the traceability of the European radon calibration facilities. It was carried out by comparing the secondary standards used by these previous facilities, ranging from 100 Bq·m⁻³ to 300 [...] Read more.

An international comparison of continuous monitors measuring radon activity concentration was performed to validate the traceability of the European radon calibration facilities. It was carried out by comparing the secondary standards used by these previous facilities, ranging from 100 Bq·m⁻³ to 300 Bq·m⁻³. Secondary standards were individually compared to a secondary reference device previously calibrated in a reference radon atmosphere traceable to a primary standard. The intercomparison was organized by the National Institute for Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Protection (SUJCHBO) in the period from October 2019 to April 2020 within the European Metrology Program for Innovation and Research (EMPIR), JRP-Contract 16ENV10 MetroRADON. Eight European laboratories participated in this study. The results of the experiment are presented and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring and Measurements: Radon)

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