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Energies
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Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry
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Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "H1: Petroleum Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (2 April 2022) | Viewed by 21680

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Nediljka Gaurina-Međimurec

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: drilling technology; well cementing; drilling and completion fluids; environmental protection in petroleum engineering; waste management; deep well waste injection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Borivoje Pašić

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: drilling technology; competition and workover; drilling and completion fluids; waste management; deep well waste injection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The two major operations of the upstream petroleum industry, which can potentially impact the environment are drilling and production operations. The wastes generated during drilling are the rock cuttings, the spent drilling fluid, and various additives added intentionally to the drilling fluid to adjust its properties. During production, a variety of chemicals are used and produced water is generated. It contains a variety of contaminants such as dissolved and suspended hydrocarbons and other organic materials, as well as dissolved and suspended solids. In addition, during drilling and production activities, a variety of air pollutants including hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulates are emitted. Materials and waste associated with drilling and production activities can have the potential to impact the environment, and the intensity of this impact depends primarily on the material type, its concentration after release, and the biotic community exposed. In order to protect the environment and optimize the use of resources of the oil industry, a waste management plan, and a contingency plan (to reduce the impact of accidental material releases) are needed. The upstream petroleum industry is turning more and more towards the circular design of products and services to reduce resource utilization and encourage later reuse, recovery, and recyclability of materials.

Potential topics include but are not limited to the types of waste, waste material toxicity, waste hierarchy, zero discharge, best available technology (BAT), onshore and offshore waste management, waste treatment methods, waste disposal methods, remediation of contaminated petroleum industry sites, recycling, circular economy, decommission of offshore platforms and pipelines, environmental risk assessment and waste regulations. Analytical, experimental, and field research are equally welcome.

Prof. Dr. Nediljka Gaurina-Međimurec
Dr. Borivoje Pašić
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • drilling and production waste
  • drilling fluid additives
  • waste material toxicity
  • waste hierarchy
  • zero discharge
  • best available technology (BAT)
  • onshore and offshore waste management
  • waste treatment methods
  • waste disposal methods
  • remediation of contaminated petroleum industry sites
  • recycling
  • circular economy
  • decommission of offshore platforms and pipelines
  • environmental risk assessment
  • waste regulations

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 7438 KiB  
Article
Improved Method for Testing Integrity Loss of Wells with Sustained Casing Pressure
by Mohammad Kazemi and Andrew K. Wojtanowicz
Energies 2022, 15(10), 3632; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103632 - 16 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1653
Abstract
The pressure bleed-down/build-up (B/B) testing is enforced by the Bureau of Safty and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) regulations in the US for gas-leaking wells with recurrent casing head annular pressure dubbed “Sustained Casing Pressure” (SCP). The bleed down test involves bleeding the pressure with [...] Read more.
The pressure bleed-down/build-up (B/B) testing is enforced by the Bureau of Safty and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) regulations in the US for gas-leaking wells with recurrent casing head annular pressure dubbed “Sustained Casing Pressure” (SCP). The bleed down test involves bleeding the pressure with a needle valve. Once the pressure reached to zero or stabilized, the valve is closedand a 24-h pressure monitoring starts. Analysis of the tests mandated by regulations involves merely a qualitative assessment of the low or high level of environmental risk measured by leak size. A quantitative analysis—based on mathematical models—has been already proposed and used for sizing cement leaks but the models give ambiguous results due to oversimplifying assumptions of the cement leak system and disregard for the testing procedure. This work addresses shortcomings of the current B/B testing and analysis methods by approaching the testing procedure as a source of useful information about the system of annular well leakage. We demonstrate that using a mathematical model for globally matching all stages of the B/B test data would prioritize the pressure bleed-down stage over the buildup stage thus making the latter stage mostly irrelevant in providing information on the whole gas migration system. We verify the hypothesis that a stage-wise analysis would improve the results by separately considering three stages of the B/B test: pressure bleed down, constant flow (steady-state), and pressure buildup, and, then, comparatively reconciling values of the system parameters. The stage-by-stage approach is feasible because—as shown by the sensitivity analysis—each stage is controlled mostly by a single parameter. Also presented is the development of an improved procedure for performing the B-B test. The study shows that the operational parameters controlled by the test operator—duration and size of the needle valve opening, and pressure recording time step, might significantly change values of the test output—the minimum bleed down, and the maximum 24-h buildup pressures. It is also found that the zero bleed-down pressure does not necessarily indicate that the leak is small as it also depends upon the length and properties of the annular fluid column above the cement top. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry)
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14 pages, 6233 KiB  
Article
Dandelion-Root Extract as Green Corrosion Inhibitor for Carbon Steel in CO2-Saturated Brine Solution
by Katarina Žbulj, Lidia Hrnčević, Gordana Bilić and Katarina Simon
Energies 2022, 15(9), 3074; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093074 - 22 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1561
Abstract
Recently, due to the corrosion problem in the petroleum industry and the usage of commercial corrosion inhibitors, which, when released untreated into the environment, are considered to be environmentally unfriendly, green corrosion inhibitors are being researched. In this paper, the results of dandelion-root-extract [...] Read more.
Recently, due to the corrosion problem in the petroleum industry and the usage of commercial corrosion inhibitors, which, when released untreated into the environment, are considered to be environmentally unfriendly, green corrosion inhibitors are being researched. In this paper, the results of dandelion-root-extract testing as a green corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel in simulated brine solution saturated with carbon dioxide (CO2) are shown. The extract’s inhibition efficiency in static and flow conditions was determined by using potentiodynamic polarization with Tafel extrapolation and electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy methods. In static conditions, the extract was tested at different concentrations. A maximum inhibition efficiency of 98.37% in static conditions at an extract concentration of 12 mL/L and 82.80% in flow conditions at a concentration of 14 mL/L was achieved. Additionally, for the most efficient dandelion-root-extract concentration (12 mL/L), the biodegradability and toxicity were determined. A biodegradability of 0.96 and a toxicity of 2.38% was achieved. Based on the obtained results of the conducted laboratory measurements, it can be concluded that dandelion-root extract has significant potential in terms of its use as a green corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel in a CO2-saturated brine solution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry)
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18 pages, 3778 KiB  
Article
Waste Mandarin Peel as an Eco-Friendly Water-Based Drilling Fluid Additive
by Igor Medved, Nediljka Gaurina-Međimurec, Karolina Novak Mavar and Petar Mijić
Energies 2022, 15(7), 2591; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072591 - 01 Apr 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3108
Abstract
Drilling fluid represents the most important fluid that must fulfill numerous important assignments during drilling operations. Many commercially available additives for water-based drilling fluid fall into the category of non-degradable and environmentally hazardous materials. Significant development in this area can be made by [...] Read more.
Drilling fluid represents the most important fluid that must fulfill numerous important assignments during drilling operations. Many commercially available additives for water-based drilling fluid fall into the category of non-degradable and environmentally hazardous materials. Significant development in this area can be made by using biodegradable materials as additives in drilling fluids. The objective of this study was to determine whether mandarin peel powder particle size affects the properties of the drilling fluid. In this paper, mandarin peel was used in the form of a dry powder divided into particle sizes smaller than 0.1 mm, and between 0.1 mm and 0.16 mm. Mandarin peel powder was added to a water-based drilling fluid in four different concentrations (0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2% by volume of water). By increasing the mandarin peel powder concentration, the API filtration reduced up to 42%, PPT filtration significantly decreased up to 61.54%, while the rheological parameters generally increased but remained within acceptable limits. It is determined that the optimal concentration of mandarin peel powder is up to 1.5% by volume of water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry)
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22 pages, 2342 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Pressure Increase during Waste Water Injection to Prevent Seismic Events
by Lu Jin, Andrew K. Wojtanowicz and Jun Ge
Energies 2022, 15(6), 2101; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062101 - 13 Mar 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1896
Abstract
A considerable increase of seismicity has occurred in the USA in the last decade (2009–2020) with an annual average of 345 M3+ earthquakes. Numerous field cases have shown that excessive well pressure due to a high injection rate may have triggered seismic events. [...] Read more.
A considerable increase of seismicity has occurred in the USA in the last decade (2009–2020) with an annual average of 345 M3+ earthquakes. Numerous field cases have shown that excessive well pressure due to a high injection rate may have triggered seismic events. This study defines conditions for inducing a seismic event by excessive injection in the well’s pressure that may cause geomechanical damage to the rock. Introduced here is an analytical model and method for predicting pressure increase during injection of produced water contaminated with oil. The model calculates time-dependent advancement of the captured oil saturation causing the well’s injectivity damage and pressure increase. Critical conditions for a seismic event are set by defining rock failure when well pressure exceeds the fracturing pressure of the wellbore or when the increased pore pressure reduces the effective normal stress at the “weak” interface inside the rock, computed with a geomechanical model. This concept is demonstrated in three field case studies using data from geological formations in areas of petroleum operations. The results confirm field observations of the initial rapid increase of oil invasion and injection pressure that could only be controlled by reducing the rate of injection to assure continuing long-time operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry)
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13 pages, 1230 KiB  
Article
Bioremediation of Agriculture Soil Contaminated by Organic Pollutants
by Ivica Kisić, Jasna Hrenović, Željka Zgorelec, Goran Durn, Vladislav Brkić and Domina Delač
Energies 2022, 15(4), 1561; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041561 - 20 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3291
Abstract
Pipeline spills and pollution of the environment by crude oil pose a threat to natural resources, especially soil and water. One such incident occurred on 25 September 2018 in the area of Budrovac (Croatia; 46°00′14.6″ N 17°04′16.8″ E) on agricultural land as a [...] Read more.
Pipeline spills and pollution of the environment by crude oil pose a threat to natural resources, especially soil and water. One such incident occurred on 25 September 2018 in the area of Budrovac (Croatia; 46°00′14.6″ N 17°04′16.8″ E) on agricultural land as a pipeline spill. Bioremediation of the contaminated soil was carried out with organic pollutants using an environmentally safe absorbent Spill-Sorb (Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss) and a mineral fertilizer—nitrogen. The experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, Croatia, during a six-month (October 2018–April 2019) study. Samples of agricultural soils contaminated with total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were taken after the rupture of the local gas condensate pipeline. The experiment was conducted in five treatments in triplicate: I-control (clean soil); II-100% contaminated soil + organic absorbent + nitrogen; III-100% contaminated soil + organic absorbent; IV-50% clean soil + 50% contaminated soil + organic absorbent + nitrogen; and V-50% clean soil + 50% contaminated soil + organic absorbent. The soil properties studied were pH, organic matter content, carbon and nitrogen content and ratio, and changes in the concentration of potential organic contaminants—TPHs and individual PAHs. The results demonstrated that the mixture of organic absorbent and nitrogen efficiently removed organic pollutants from the contaminated soil within six months. However, the application of Spill-Sorb alone was more effective for the degradation of hydrocarbons. The effectiveness of the absorbent studied was dependent on the concentration of organic pollutants and nitrogen application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry)
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14 pages, 30212 KiB  
Article
Alternative Fuel Generation from Dangerous Solid Waste in a Protected Environmental Area
by Pedro Mora, Daniel Barettino, Antonio Ponce, Laura Sánchez-Martín and Bernardo Llamas
Energies 2022, 15(2), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020659 - 17 Jan 2022
Viewed by 1346
Abstract
The present investigation project aims to evaluate the extraction of contaminant material from two settling ponds to be used as alternative fuel in two cement plants. The extraction is carried out through mechanical means, and after that extraction, two options are compared: energy [...] Read more.
The present investigation project aims to evaluate the extraction of contaminant material from two settling ponds to be used as alternative fuel in two cement plants. The extraction is carried out through mechanical means, and after that extraction, two options are compared: energy recovery and incineration. Through energy recovery, a potentially contaminated area is decontaminated and its waste is used; its high calorific value makes this option a viable one. The waste extraction is carried out through mechanical means due to the high density and viscosity of the waste. Because of these characteristics, the waste undergoes an on-site security adaptation to stabilize it, reduce declivity risk and make it suitable to be handled and moved. The second treatment is carried out in external installations where the final product is obtained (alternative fuel), which is to be used at industrial kilns. The entire described process shows a difference on the consumed energy of 6060.42 kWh/twaste between the two options under study: waste incineration and energy recovery. In addition, it also reduces CO2 emissions on 2.178 tCO2/twaste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry)
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Review

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28 pages, 4540 KiB  
Review
Biogas and Biomethane Production and Usage: Technology Development, Advantages and Challenges in Europe
by Josipa Pavičić, Karolina Novak Mavar, Vladislav Brkić and Katarina Simon
Energies 2022, 15(8), 2940; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082940 - 17 Apr 2022
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7572
Abstract
In line with the low-carbon strategy, the EU is expected to be climate-neutral by 2050, which would require a significant increase in renewable energy production. Produced biogas is directly used to produce electricity and heat, or it can be upgraded to reach the [...] Read more.
In line with the low-carbon strategy, the EU is expected to be climate-neutral by 2050, which would require a significant increase in renewable energy production. Produced biogas is directly used to produce electricity and heat, or it can be upgraded to reach the “renewable natural gas”, i.e., biomethane. This paper reviews the applied production technology and current state of biogas and biomethane production in Europe. Germany, UK, Italy and France are the leaders in biogas production in Europe. Biogas from AD processes is most represented in total biogas production (84%). Germany is deserving for the majority (52%) of AD biogas in the EU, while landfill gas production is well represented in the UK (43%). Biogas from sewage sludge is poorly presented by less than 5% in total biogas quantities produced in the EU. Biomethane facilities will reach a production of 32 TWh in 2020 in Europe. There are currently 18 countries producing biomethane (Germany and France with highest share). Most of the European plants use agricultural substrate (28%), while the second position refers to energy crop feedstock (25%). Sewage sludge facilities participate with 14% in the EU, mostly applied in Sweden. Membrane separation is the most used upgrading technology, applied at around 35% of biomethane plants. High energy prices today, and even higher in the future, give space for the wider acceptance of biomethane use. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Economy and Environmental Protection in the Upstream Petroleum Industry)
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