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Aerospace
Volume 5
Issue 4
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Aerospace, Volume 5, Issue 4 (December 2018) – 31 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): A combined numerical and experimental approach was employed to investigate active flow control and its interplay with separation and transition in laminar separation bubbles. Experiments were carried out in a wind tunnel and in free flight using an instrumented 1:5 scale model of the Aeromot 200S, which has a modified NACA 643-618 airfoil. The same airfoil was also employed in simulations and wind tunnel experiments. With the properly chosen actuation amplitudes and frequencies, the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability resulted in a strong disturbance amplification and a “roll-up” of the separated shear layer. As a result, efficient and effective laminar separation control was realized. View this paper.
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19 pages, 4997 KiB  
Article
Practical Approach for Absolute Density Field Measurement Using Background-Oriented Schlieren
by Hidemi Takahashi
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040129 - 17 Dec 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6085
Abstract
A practical approach for deriving the absolute density field based on the background-oriented schlieren method in a high-speed flowfield was implemented. The flowfield of interest was a two-dimensional compressible flowfield created by two supersonic streams to simulate a linear aerospike nozzle operated under [...] Read more.
A practical approach for deriving the absolute density field based on the background-oriented schlieren method in a high-speed flowfield was implemented. The flowfield of interest was a two-dimensional compressible flowfield created by two supersonic streams to simulate a linear aerospike nozzle operated under a supersonic in-flight condition. The linear aerospike nozzle had a two-dimensional cell nozzle with a design Mach number of 3.5, followed by a spike nozzle. The external flow simulating the in-flight condition was 2.0. The wall density distribution used as the wall boundary condition for Poisson’s equation to solve the density field was derived by a simplified isentropic assumption based on the measured wall pressure distribution, and its validity was evaluated by comparing with that predicted by numerical simulation. Unknown coefficients in Poisson’s equation were determined by comparing the wall density distribution with that predicted by the model. By comparing the derived density field based on the background-oriented schlieren method to that predicted by the model and numerical simulation, the absolute density field was derived within an error of 10% on the wall distribution. This practical approach using a simplified isentropic assumption based on measured pressure distribution thus provided density distribution with sufficient accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Analysis of Wind-Tunnel Models and Fluidic Measurements)
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17 pages, 6885 KiB  
Article
Development of an L-Band SAR Microsatellite Antenna for Earth Observation
by Katia Nagamine Urata, Josaphat Tetuko Sri Sumantyo, Cahya E. Santosa and Tor Viscor
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040128 - 17 Dec 2018
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 13336
Abstract
A compact synthetic aperture radar microsatellite antenna operating in the L-band is presented. To reduce size and weight of the small spaceborne SAR, we utilize a lightweight deployable parabolic mesh reflector and operate at low Earth orbital altitudes. The antenna is a wrap-rib [...] Read more.
A compact synthetic aperture radar microsatellite antenna operating in the L-band is presented. To reduce size and weight of the small spaceborne SAR, we utilize a lightweight deployable parabolic mesh reflector and operate at low Earth orbital altitudes. The antenna is a wrap-rib center-fed parabolic reflector with dedicated receiving and transmitting feeds. Antenna requirements are: gain better than 30 dBic, center frequency of 1.275 GHz with bandwidth of 28 MHz and circular polarization with axial ratio better than 3 dB. This work describes the development of a compact Circularly Polarized SAR L-band antenna system and the design considerations suitable for small spacecrafts. Simulation of the parabolic reflector and effects of different structural elements to the main radiation pattern were analyzed, which include ribs, struts, feed blockage, and mesh surface. A research model of the parabolic reflector was constructed, and the reflector surface verification was realized using two different approaches, a laser distance meter along ribs and the other using 3D scanning of the reflector surface. RMS errors wree 1.92 mm and 3.86 mm, respectively, both below required 4.55 mm of surface accuracy. Near-field antenna measurements of the deployable reflector mesh antenna was realized for final antenna validation, presenting good agreement with the simulation results. Future work comprises prototyping and testing of the full polarimetric feed assembly. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Space Mission Analysis and Design for Space Sciences, Earth Observation, Global Change, Space Weather)
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20 pages, 2730 KiB  
Article
Synthesis, Analysis, and Design of a Novel Mechanism for the Trailing Edge of a Morphing Wing
by Harun Levent Şahin and Yavuz Yaman
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040127 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8418
Abstract
In the design and analysis of morphing wings, several sciences need to be integrated. This article tries to answer the question, “What is the most appropriate actuation mechanism to morph the wing profile?” by introducing the synthesis, analysis, and design of a novel [...] Read more.
In the design and analysis of morphing wings, several sciences need to be integrated. This article tries to answer the question, “What is the most appropriate actuation mechanism to morph the wing profile?” by introducing the synthesis, analysis, and design of a novel scissor-structural mechanism (SSM) for the trailing edge of a morphing wing. The SSM, which is deployable, is created via a combination of various scissor-like elements (SLEs). In order to provide mobility requirements, a four-bar linkage (FBL) is assembled with the proposed SSM. The SSM is designed with a novel kinematic synthesis concept, so it follows the airfoil camber with minimum design error. In this concept, assuming a fully-compliant wing skin, various types of SLEs are assembled together, and emergent SSM provide the desired airfoil geometries. In order to provide the required aerodynamic efficiency of newly-created airfoil geometries and obtain pressure distribution over the airfoil, two-dimensional (2D) aerodynamic analyses have been conducted. The analyses show similar aerodynamic behavior with the desired NACA airfoils. By assigning the approximate link masses and mass centers, the dynamic force analysis of the mechanism has also been performed, and the required torque to drive the newly-developed SSM is estimated as feasible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 8th EASN-CEAS Workshop on Manufacturing for Growth and Innovation)
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18 pages, 7499 KiB  
Article
CFD Study of the Impact of Variable Cant Angle Winglets on Total Drag Reduction
by Joel Guerrero, Marco Sanguineti and Kevin Wittkowski
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040126 - 03 Dec 2018
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 13208
Abstract
Winglets are commonly used drag-reduction and fuel-saving technologies in today’s aviation. The primary purpose of the winglets is to reduce the lift-induced drag, therefore improving fuel efficiency and aircraft performance. Traditional winglets are designed as fixed devices attached at the tips of the [...] Read more.
Winglets are commonly used drag-reduction and fuel-saving technologies in today’s aviation. The primary purpose of the winglets is to reduce the lift-induced drag, therefore improving fuel efficiency and aircraft performance. Traditional winglets are designed as fixed devices attached at the tips of the wings. However, because they are fixed surfaces, they give their best lift-induced drag reduction at a single design point. In this work, we propose the use of variable cant angle winglets which could potentially allow aircraft to get the best all-around performance (in terms of lift-induced drag reduction), at different angle-of-attack values. By using computational fluid dynamics, we study the influence of the winglet cant angle and sweep angle in the performance of a benchmark wing at a Mach number of 0.8395. The results obtained demonstrate that by carefully adjusting the cant angle, the aerodynamic performance can be improved at different angles of attack. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Inspired Aerospace System)
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19 pages, 4552 KiB  
Article
A Fast Correction Method of Model Deformation Effects in Wind Tunnel Tests
by Yan Sun, Yuntao Wang, Andrea Da Ronch and Dehong Meng
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040125 - 30 Nov 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5403
Abstract
The influence of model deformation needs to be corrected before the aerodynamic force data measured in the wind tunnel is applied to aircraft design. In order to obtain the aerodynamic forces on rigid model shape, this paper presents a fast correction method by [...] Read more.
The influence of model deformation needs to be corrected before the aerodynamic force data measured in the wind tunnel is applied to aircraft design. In order to obtain the aerodynamic forces on rigid model shape, this paper presents a fast correction method by establishing a mathematical modelling method connecting aerodynamic forces and wing section torsion. The aerodynamic force coefficients on rigid model shape can then be calculated quickly just by setting section torsion to zero. A 25-point simulation dataset of the High Reynolds Number Aero-Structural Dynamics (HIRENASD) model generated by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Static Computational Aeroelasticity (CAE) approach is used to investigate the influence of section locations, basis function type, support radius, and deformation perturbation on the prediction accuracy. Finally, the present correction method is applied to predict the aerodynamic forces on the rigid shape of a NASA common research model. The results of parametric analysis and application show that the present correction method with the Wendland’s C6 function and a support radius of 1.0 can provide a reasonable prediction of aerodynamic forces on the rigid model shape. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroelasticity)
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37 pages, 9508 KiB  
Review
High Reynold Number LES of a Rotating Two-Pass Ribbed Duct
by Danesh Tafti, Cody Dowd and Xiaoming Tan
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040124 - 23 Nov 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6707
Abstract
Cooling of gas turbine blades is critical to long term durability. Accurate prediction of blade metal temperature is a key component in the design of the cooling system. In this design space, spatial distribution of heat transfer coefficients plays a significant role. Large-Eddy [...] Read more.
Cooling of gas turbine blades is critical to long term durability. Accurate prediction of blade metal temperature is a key component in the design of the cooling system. In this design space, spatial distribution of heat transfer coefficients plays a significant role. Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) has been shown to be a robust method for predicting heat transfer. Because of the high computational cost of LES as Reynolds number (Re) increases, most investigations have been performed at low Re of O(104). In this paper, a two-pass duct with a 180° turn is simulated at Re = 100,000 for a stationary and a rotating duct at Ro = 0.2 and Bo = 0.5. The predicted mean and turbulent statistics compare well with experiments in the highly turbulent flow. Rotation-induced secondary flows have a large effect on heat transfer in the first pass. In the second pass, high turbulence intensities exiting the bend dominate heat transfer. Turbulent intensities are highest with the inclusion of centrifugal buoyancy and increase heat transfer. Centrifugal buoyancy increases the duct averaged heat transfer by 10% over a stationary duct while also reducing friction by 10% due to centrifugal pumping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cooling/Heat Transfer)
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21 pages, 4855 KiB  
Article
Modeling and Investigation of a Turboprop Hybrid Electric Propulsion System
by Maria Cristina Cameretti, Andrea Del Pizzo, Luigi Pio Di Noia, Michele Ferrara and Ciro Pascarella
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040123 - 21 Nov 2018
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 8387
Abstract
Hybrid electric propulsion in the aviation field is becoming an effective alternative propulsion technology with potential advantages, including fuel savings, lower pollution, and reduced noise emission. On the one hand, the aeroengine manufacturers are working to improve fuel consumption and reduce pollutant emissions [...] Read more.
Hybrid electric propulsion in the aviation field is becoming an effective alternative propulsion technology with potential advantages, including fuel savings, lower pollution, and reduced noise emission. On the one hand, the aeroengine manufacturers are working to improve fuel consumption and reduce pollutant emissions with new combustion systems; on the other hand, much attention is given to reducing the weight of the batteries increasing the energy density. Hybrid electric propulsion systems (HEPS) can take advantage of the synergy between two technologies by utilizing both internal combustion engines (ICEs) and electric motors (EMs) together, each operating at their respective optimum conditions. In the present work, some numerical investigations were carried out by using a zero-dimensional code able to simulate the flight mission of a turboprop aircraft, comparing fuel consumption and pollutant emissions of the original engine with other two smaller gas turbines working in hybrid configuration. An algorithm has been implemented to calculate the weight of the batteries for the different configurations examined, evaluating the feasibility of the hybrid propulsion system in terms of number of non-revenue passengers. Full article
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23 pages, 9078 KiB  
Article
Exploitation of a Multifunctional Twistable Wing Trailing-Edge for Performance Improvement of a Turboprop 90-Seats Regional Aircraft
by Francesco Rea, Francesco Amoroso, Rosario Pecora and Frederic Moens
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040122 - 16 Nov 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 11513
Abstract
Modern transport aircraft wings have reached near-peak levels of energy-efficiency and there is still margin for further relevant improvements. A promising strategy for improving aircraft efficiency is to change the shape of the aircraft wing in flight in order to maximize its aerodynamic [...] Read more.
Modern transport aircraft wings have reached near-peak levels of energy-efficiency and there is still margin for further relevant improvements. A promising strategy for improving aircraft efficiency is to change the shape of the aircraft wing in flight in order to maximize its aerodynamic performance under all operative conditions. In the present work, this has been developed in the framework of the Clean Sky 2 (REG-IADP) European research project, where the authors focused on the design of a multifunctional twistable trailing-edge for a Natural Laminar Flow (NLF) wing. A multifunctional wing trailing-edge is used to improve aircraft performance during climb and off-design cruise conditions in response to variations in speed, altitude and other flight parameters. The investigation domain of the novel full-scale device covers 5.15 m along the wing span and the 10% of the local wing chord. Concerning the wing trailing-edge, the preliminary structural and kinematic design process of the actuation system is completely addressed: three rotary brushless motors (placed in root, central and tip sections) are required to activate the inner mechanisms enabling different trailing-edge morphing modes. The structural layout of the thin-walled closed-section composite trailing-edge represents a promising concept, meeting both the conflicting requirements of load-carrying capability and shape adaptivity. Actuation system performances and aeroelastic deformations, considering both operative aerodynamic and limit load conditions, prove the potential of the proposed structural concept to be energy efficient and lightweight for real aircraft implementation. Finally, the performance assessment of the outer natural laminar flow (NLF) wing retrofitted with the multifunctional trailing-edge is performed by high-fidelity aerodynamic analyses. For such an NLF wing, this device can improve airplane aerodynamic efficiency during high speed climb conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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24 pages, 2905 KiB  
Article
A Reliability Engineering Approach for Managing Risks in CubeSats
by Alessandro Menchinelli, Francesca Ingiosi, Ludovico Pamphili, Paolo Marzioli, Riccardo Patriarca, Francesco Costantino and Fabrizio Piergentili
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040121 - 15 Nov 2018
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 7883
Abstract
Besides large-scale space missions, the spread of CubeSats for a variety of applications is increasingly requiring the development of systematic approaches for risk management. Being these applications are based on components with low TRL (Technology Readiness Level) or with limited performance data, it [...] Read more.
Besides large-scale space missions, the spread of CubeSats for a variety of applications is increasingly requiring the development of systematic approaches for risk management. Being these applications are based on components with low TRL (Technology Readiness Level) or with limited performance data, it is required to define approaches which ensure a systematic perspective. This paper aims to present a reliability engineering approach based on FMECA (Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis) to manage CubeSat reliability data and prioritize criticalities early in the design phase. The approach firstly proposes an alpha-numeric coding system to support the identification and labeling of failure modes for typical CubeSats’ items. Subsequently, each FMECA coefficient (i.e., Severity, Occurrence, Detectability) has been linked to the CubeSat’s structural properties, reducing subjectivity by means of techno-centric proxy indicators. The approach has been validated in the design phases of a 6-Units university CubeSat for the observation of M-Dwarf stars and binary systems. The performed analysis supported the design process and allowed to identify the major criticalities of the CubeSat design, as demonstrated in the extended case study included in the paper. The formalized method could be applied to design procedures for nano-satellites, as well as being expanded for research and development in a variety of space missions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Verification Approaches for Nano- and Micro-Satellites)
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16 pages, 5935 KiB  
Article
Flexural Properties of Wet-Laid Hybrid Nonwoven Recycled Carbon and Flax Fibre Composites in Poly-Lactic Acid Matrix
by Barbara Tse, Xueli Yu, Hugh Gong and Constantinos Soutis
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040120 - 15 Nov 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6637
Abstract
Recycling carbon fibre is crucial in the reduction of waste from the increasing use of carbon fibre reinforced composites in industry. The reclaimed fibres, however, are usually short and discontinuous as opposed to the continuous virgin carbon fibre. In this work, short recycled [...] Read more.
Recycling carbon fibre is crucial in the reduction of waste from the increasing use of carbon fibre reinforced composites in industry. The reclaimed fibres, however, are usually short and discontinuous as opposed to the continuous virgin carbon fibre. In this work, short recycled carbon fibres (rCF) were mixed with flax and poly-lactic acid (PLA) fibres acting as the matrix to form nonwoven mats through wet-laying. The mats were compression moulded to produce composites with different ratios of rCF and flax fibre in the PLA matrix. Their flexural behaviour was examined through three-point-bending tests, and their morphological properties were characterised with scanning electron and optical microscopes. Experimental data showed that the flexural properties increased with higher rCF content, with the maximum being a flexural modulus of approximately 14 GPa and flexural strength of 203 MPa with a fibre volume fraction of 75% rCF and 25% flax fibre. The intimate mixing of the fibres contributed to a lesser reduction of flexural properties when increasing the flax fibre content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue ECO-COMPASS: Ecological and Multifunctional Composites for Application in Aircraft Interior and Secondary Structures)
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18 pages, 2561 KiB  
Article
A Single-Use Microthruster Concept for Small Satellite Attitude Control in Formation-Flying Applications
by Sandra Romero-Diez, Lydia Hantsche, Jason M. Pearl, Darren L. Hitt, M. Ryan McDevitt and Patrick C. Lee
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040119 - 14 Nov 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7083
Abstract
In recent years, the maturation of small satellite technology has led to their adoption for a variety of space missions. The next generation of small satellite missions, however, will likely have the satellites operating in formations or “constellations” to perform missions that are [...] Read more.
In recent years, the maturation of small satellite technology has led to their adoption for a variety of space missions. The next generation of small satellite missions, however, will likely have the satellites operating in formations or “constellations” to perform missions that are not currently possible. A key enabling technology for constellation-based missions is a miniaturized propulsion system that is capable of delivering the extremely low impulse levels required for maintaining precise relative position and orientation. Existing propulsion solutions for this regime suffer from compromises on power, safety, and cost that have limited their adoption. In this work, we describe a new, low-power micropropulsion concept based on the thermal decomposition of an inert chemical blowing agent (CBA) as the propellant. A meso-scale prototype device is designed, fabricated, and tested. The experimental results indicate that this concept, when appropriately scaled, is capable of providing thrust levels (∼1 μ N) and impulse-bits (∼0.1 μ N·s) that are commensurate with the intended application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro-Propulsion Systems and Components for Small Spacecraft—Current Trends, Innovations and Challenges)
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19 pages, 3832 KiB  
Article
Crack Growth in a Range of Additively Manufactured Aerospace Structural Materials
by Athanasios Iliopoulos, Rhys Jones, John Michopoulos, Nam Phan and R. K. Singh Raman
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040118 - 09 Nov 2018
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 6138
Abstract
The aerospace industry is now beginning to adopt Additive Manufacturing (AM), both for new aircraft design and to help improve aircraft availability (aircraft sustainment). However, MIL-STD 1530 highlights that to certify airworthiness, the operational life of the airframe must be determined by a [...] Read more.
The aerospace industry is now beginning to adopt Additive Manufacturing (AM), both for new aircraft design and to help improve aircraft availability (aircraft sustainment). However, MIL-STD 1530 highlights that to certify airworthiness, the operational life of the airframe must be determined by a damage tolerance analysis. MIL-STD 1530 also states that in this process, the role of testing is merely to validate or correct the analysis. Consequently, if AM-produced parts are to be used as load-carrying members, it is important that the d a / d N versus ΔK curves be determined and, if possible, a valid mathematical representation determined. The present paper demonstrates that for AM Ti-6Al-4V, AM 316L stainless steel, and AM AerMet 100 steel, the d a / d N versus ΔK curves can be represented reasonably well by the Hartman-Schijve variant of the NASGRO crack growth equation. It is also shown that the variability in the various AM d a / d N versus Δ K curves is captured reasonably well by using the curve determined for conventionally manufactured materials and allowing for changes in the threshold and the cyclic fracture toughness terms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Civil and Military Airworthiness: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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14 pages, 414 KiB  
Review
The Regulatory Framework for Safety Management Systems in Airworthiness Organisations
by Eranga Batuwangala, Jose Silva and Graham Wild
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040117 - 07 Nov 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 9798
Abstract
In recent years, a growing emphasis on safety has driven various industries, both in manufacturing and service, to implement a Safety Management System (SMS) in their organisations. SMSs have also been widely implemented in aviation due to both regulatory requirements and voluntary implementation [...] Read more.
In recent years, a growing emphasis on safety has driven various industries, both in manufacturing and service, to implement a Safety Management System (SMS) in their organisations. SMSs have also been widely implemented in aviation due to both regulatory requirements and voluntary implementation with the aim of decreasing incidents and accidents whilst reducing inefficiencies and costs stemming from the repercussions of safety failures. The aviation industry involves various players for the provision of services ranging from airline operations, maintenance, aerodrome operations, air traffic services, aircraft and component design, manufacturing, and training. Not all organisations in the aviation industry have implemented SMSs. Furthermore, SMS is currently not regulated for all aviation organisations. Whilst technology has played a key role in driving down the number of accidents and incidents in aviation, the growth in air traffic demands having programs in place to further drive down accident rates. In this context, this article provides an investigation to the regulatory framework for the implementation of SMSs in aviation, including the requirements stipulated by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and the status of SMS regulation of key National Aviation Authorities (NAA) and Military Aviation Authorities (MAA), with a focus on organisations involved in airworthiness including initial and continuing airworthiness. This article also investigates the challenges of implementing SMSs in organisations involved in Airworthiness, as well as the benefits that could be gained by service providers as well as NAA’s or MAA’s through SMSs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Civil and Military Airworthiness: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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20 pages, 1868 KiB  
Article
Multi-Disciplinary Design Optimisation of the Cooled Squealer Tip for High Pressure Turbines
by Stefano Caloni, Shahrokh Shahpar and Vassili V. Toropov
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040116 - 06 Nov 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4809
Abstract
The turbine tip geometry can significantly alter the performance of the turbine stage; its design represents a challenge for a variety of reasons. Multiple disciplines are involved in its design and their requirements limit the creativity of the designer. Multi-Disciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO) [...] Read more.
The turbine tip geometry can significantly alter the performance of the turbine stage; its design represents a challenge for a variety of reasons. Multiple disciplines are involved in its design and their requirements limit the creativity of the designer. Multi-Disciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO) offers the capability to improve the performance whilst satisfying all the design constraints. This paper presents a novel design of a turbine tip achieved via MDO techniques. A fully parametrised Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model of the turbine rotor is used to create the squealer geometry and to control the location of the cooling and dust holes. A Conjugate Heat Transfer Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis is performed for evaluating the aerothermal performance of the component and the temperature the turbine operates at. A Finite Element (FE) analysis is then performed to find the stress level that the turbine has to withstand. A bi-objective optimisation reduces simultaneously the aerodynamic loss and the stress level. The Multipoint Approximation Method (MAM) recently enhanced for multi-objective problems is chosen to solve this optimisation problem. The paper presents its logic in detail. The novel geometry offers a significant improvement in the aerodynamic performance whilst reducing the maximum stress. The flow associated with the new geometry is analysed in detail to understand the source of the improvement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Design Optimization in Aerospace Engineering)
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27 pages, 13047 KiB  
Article
Robust Full Tracking Control Design of Disturbed Quadrotor UAVs with Unknown Dynamics
by Nabil Nafia, Abdeljalil El Kari, Hassan Ayad and Mostafa Mjahed
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040115 - 30 Oct 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5608
Abstract
In this study, we develop a rigorous tracking control approach for quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with unknown dynamics, unknown physical parameters, and subject to unknown and unpredictable disturbances. In order to better estimate the unknown functions, seven interval type-2-adaptive fuzzy systems (IT2-AFSs) [...] Read more.
In this study, we develop a rigorous tracking control approach for quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with unknown dynamics, unknown physical parameters, and subject to unknown and unpredictable disturbances. In order to better estimate the unknown functions, seven interval type-2-adaptive fuzzy systems (IT2-AFSs) and five adaptive systems are designed. Then, a new IT2 adaptive fuzzy reaching sliding mode system (IT2-AFRSMS) which generates an optimal smooth adaptive fuzzy reaching sliding mode control law (AFRSMCL) using IT2-AFSs is introduced. The AFRSMCL is designed a way that ensures that its gains are efficiently estimated. Thus, the global proposed control law can effectively achieve the predetermined performances of the tracking control while simultaneously avoiding the chattering phenomenon, despite the approximation errors and all disturbances acting on the quadrotor dynamics. The adaptation laws are designed by utilizing the stability analysis of Lyapunov. A simulation example is used to validate the robustness and effectiveness of the proposed method of control. The obtained results confirm the results of the mathematical analysis in guaranteeing the tracking convergence and stability of the closed loop dynamics despite the unknown dynamics, unknown disturbances, and unknown physical parameters of the controlled system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Unmanned Aerial Systems)
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29 pages, 18235 KiB  
Article
Active Control of Laminar Separation: Simulations, Wind Tunnel, and Free-Flight Experiments
by Andreas Gross and Hermann F. Fasel
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040114 - 30 Oct 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6050
Abstract
When a laminar boundary layer is subjected to an adverse pressure gradient, laminar separation bubbles can occur. At low Reynolds numbers, the bubble size can be substantial, and the aerodynamic performance can be reduced considerably. At higher Reynolds numbers, the bubble bursting can [...] Read more.
When a laminar boundary layer is subjected to an adverse pressure gradient, laminar separation bubbles can occur. At low Reynolds numbers, the bubble size can be substantial, and the aerodynamic performance can be reduced considerably. At higher Reynolds numbers, the bubble bursting can determine the stall characteristics. For either setting, an active control that suppresses or delays laminar separation is desirable. A combined numerical and experimental approach was taken for investigating active flow control and its interplay with separation and transition for laminar separation bubbles for chord-based Reynolds numbers of Re ≈ 64,200–320,000. Experiments were carried out both in the wind tunnel and in free flight using an instrumented 1:5 scale model of the Aeromot 200S, which has a modified NACA 643-618 airfoil. The same airfoil was also used in the simulations and wind tunnel experiments. For a wide angle of attack range below stall, the flow separates laminar from the suction surface. Separation control via a dielectric barrier discharge plasma actuator and unsteady blowing through holes were investigated. For a properly chosen actuation amplitude and frequency, the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability results in strong disturbance amplification and a “roll-up” of the separated shear layer. As a result, an efficient and effective laminar separation control is realized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Analysis of Wind-Tunnel Models and Fluidic Measurements)
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13 pages, 16530 KiB  
Article
Experimental Control of Two Connected Fixed Wing Aircraft
by Collin Carithers and Carlos Montalvo
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040113 - 28 Oct 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5490
Abstract
This paper investigates the design and flight test of two fixed wing aircraft connected at the wing tips. Connecting multiple aircraft introduces flexible modes into a typically rigid body system. These flexible modes make manual control of the entire system extremely difficult if [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the design and flight test of two fixed wing aircraft connected at the wing tips. Connecting multiple aircraft introduces flexible modes into a typically rigid body system. These flexible modes make manual control of the entire system extremely difficult if not impossible. An autopilot system that seeks to keep this aircraft system wings level and a constant pitch angle is investigated here. The autopilot system is shown to work in an example simulation for a two body aircraft connected at the wing tips. An experimental aircraft system is also designed, built and flown with reasonable success proving the implementation of said controller on a real system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Unmanned Aerial Systems)
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16 pages, 796 KiB  
Article
Simulation Model to Calculate Bird-Aircraft Collisions and Near Misses in the Airport Vicinity
by Isabel C. Metz, Thorsten Mühlhausen, Joost Ellerbroek, Dirk Kügler, Hans Van Gasteren, Jan Kraemer and Jacco M. Hoekstra
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040112 - 25 Oct 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5735
Abstract
Annually, thousands of birds collide with aircraft. The impact usually has lethal consequences for the bird, the involved aircraft can experience severe damage. The highest bird strike risk occurs at low altitudes. Therefore, aircraft within the airport area as well as the adjacent [...] Read more.
Annually, thousands of birds collide with aircraft. The impact usually has lethal consequences for the bird, the involved aircraft can experience severe damage. The highest bird strike risk occurs at low altitudes. Therefore, aircraft within the airport area as well as the adjacent approach and departure corridors are especially vulnerable to collisions with birds. To analyse risk-reducing measures in these areas, a fast-time bird strike simulation environment was developed. An open-source Air Traffic Management simulator was enhanced with a model to represent bird movements and to recognize bird strikes. To confirm the reproducibility of the outcome, Monte Carlo simulations were performed. They included bird movement data from one year and air traffic flight plans for various air traffic volumes. The number of strikes and near misses showed an expected variance within the individual replications. The results indicate that the predictability of the number of strikes and near misses increases with rising number of birds, and rising air traffic intensity. Thus, by considering simulation scenarios including bird movement information from all seasons and a sufficient air traffic volume, the described set-up leads to stable results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)
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26 pages, 17400 KiB  
Article
Damage Localization in Composite Structures Using a Guided Waves Based Multi-Parameter Approach
by Vittorio Memmolo, Natalino D. Boffa, Leandro Maio, Ernesto Monaco and Fabrizio Ricci
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040111 - 19 Oct 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5929
Abstract
Aerospace vehicles are demanded to withstand harsh conditions with a low weight impact. Composites have been increasingly adopted to meet such performances but they are affected by sudden and barely visible failures when subjected to low velocity impacts. The design criteria and the [...] Read more.
Aerospace vehicles are demanded to withstand harsh conditions with a low weight impact. Composites have been increasingly adopted to meet such performances but they are affected by sudden and barely visible failures when subjected to low velocity impacts. The design criteria and the maintenance tasks in a damage tolerant approach are unavoidably compromised. Structural Health Monitoring is expected to avoid typical accommodations employed during design and lifetime management by achieving a cost-effective and on condition maintenance. This paper describes the use of guided ultrasonic waves excited and sensed by permanently attached piezoelectric transducers for detection and localization of unforeseen and hidden flaws in composite structures. A composite stiffened structures designed for real scale components is investigated to test a multi-parameter detection technique capable of predicting different wave features affected by hidden failures to detect any possible change in the structure. Usually, propagation behavior is exploited to detect changes in the waveguide focusing on the analysis of an intrinsic feature of the propagating wave. Numerical simulations and measurements carried out on a real-scale aircraft structure demonstrate that increasing the observed characteristics improves the result making efficient the diagnosis. Furthermore, it is shown that accounting a multi-parameter analysis of ultrasonic data enhances the localization reliability making use of the same reconstruction algorithm with data fusion approach while facing with different kind of damages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Civil and Military Airworthiness: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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35 pages, 2354 KiB  
Review
A Review of Recent Research on Bio-Based Epoxy Systems for Engineering Applications and Potentialities in the Aviation Sector
by Eric Ramon, Carmen Sguazzo and Pedro M. G. P. Moreira
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040110 - 16 Oct 2018
Cited by 104 | Viewed by 11572
Abstract
Epoxy resins are one of the most widely used thermosets in different engineering fields, due to their chemical resistance and thermo-mechanical properties. Recently, bio-based thermoset resin systems have attracted significant attention given their environmental benefits related to the wide variety of available natural [...] Read more.
Epoxy resins are one of the most widely used thermosets in different engineering fields, due to their chemical resistance and thermo-mechanical properties. Recently, bio-based thermoset resin systems have attracted significant attention given their environmental benefits related to the wide variety of available natural resources, as well as the resulting reduction in the use of petroleum feedstocks. During the last two decades, considerable improvement on the properties of bio-sourced resins has been achieved to obtain performances comparable to petroleum-based systems. This paper reviews recent advances on new bio-based epoxy resins, derived from natural oils, natural polyphenols, saccharides, natural rubber and rosin. Particular focus has been given to novel chemical formulations and resulting mechanical properties of natural derived- epoxies, curing agents or entire systems, constituting an interesting alternative for a large variety of engineering applications, including the aviation sector. The present work is within the scope of the ECO-COMPASS project, where new bio-sourced epoxy matrixes for green composites are under investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue ECO-COMPASS: Ecological and Multifunctional Composites for Application in Aircraft Interior and Secondary Structures)
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19 pages, 1304 KiB  
Article
Weather Impact on Airport Performance
by Michael Schultz, Sandro Lorenz, Reinhard Schmitz and Luis Delgado
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040109 - 15 Oct 2018
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 9345
Abstract
Weather events have a significant impact on airport performance and cause delayed operations if the airport capacity is constrained. We provide quantification of the individual airport performance with regards to an aggregated weather-performance metric. Specific weather phenomena are categorized by the air traffic [...] Read more.
Weather events have a significant impact on airport performance and cause delayed operations if the airport capacity is constrained. We provide quantification of the individual airport performance with regards to an aggregated weather-performance metric. Specific weather phenomena are categorized by the air traffic management airport performance weather algorithm, which aims to quantify weather conditions at airports based on aviation routine meteorological reports. Our results are computed from a data set of 20.5 million European flights of 2013 and local weather data. A methodology is presented to evaluate the impact of weather events on the airport performance and to select the appropriate threshold for significant weather conditions. To provide an efficient method to capture the impact of weather, we modelled departing and arrival delays with probability distributions, which depend on airport size and meteorological impacts. These derived airport performance scores could be used in comprehensive air traffic network simulations to evaluate the network impact caused by weather induced local performance deterioration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)
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43 pages, 8537 KiB  
Article
Free and Forced Vibration of Laminated and Sandwich Plates by Zig-Zag Theories Differently Accounting for Transverse Shear and Normal Deformability
by Ugo Icardi and Andrea Urraci
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040108 - 11 Oct 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4668
Abstract
A number of mixed and displacement-based zig-zag theories are derived from the zig-zag adaptive theory (ZZA). As a consequence of their different assumptions on displacement, strain, and stress fields, and layerwise functions, these theories account for the transverse shear and normal deformability in [...] Read more.
A number of mixed and displacement-based zig-zag theories are derived from the zig-zag adaptive theory (ZZA). As a consequence of their different assumptions on displacement, strain, and stress fields, and layerwise functions, these theories account for the transverse shear and normal deformability in different ways, but their unknowns are independent of the number of layers. Some have features that are reminiscent of ones that have been published in the literature for the sake of comparison. Benchmarks with different length-to-thickness ratios, lay-ups, material properties, and simply supported or clamped edges are studied with the intended aim of contributing toward better understanding the influence of transverse anisotropy on free vibration and the response of blast-loaded, multilayered, and sandwich plates, as well as enhancing the existing database. The results show that only theories whose layerwise contributions identically satisfy interfacial stress constrains and whose displacement fields are redefined for each layer provide results that are in agreement with elasticity solutions and three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis (FEA) (mixed solid elements with displacements and out-of-plane stresses as nodal degrees of freedom (d.o.f.)) with a low expansion order of polynomials in the in-plane and out-of-plane directions. The choice of their layerwise functions is shown to be immaterial, while theories with fixed kinematics are shown to be strongly case-sensitive and often inadequate (even for slender components). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive/Smart Structures and Multifunctional Materials in Aerospace)
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16 pages, 5697 KiB  
Article
Flexural Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Epoxy Composites Reinforced with Nonwoven Made of Flax Fibres and Recycled Carbon Fibres
by Jens Bachmann, Martin Wiedemann and Peter Wierach
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040107 - 10 Oct 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7892
Abstract
Can a hybrid composite made of recycled carbon fibres and natural fibres improve the flexural mechanical properties of epoxy composites compared to pure natural fibre reinforced polymers (NFRP)? Growing environmental concerns have led to an increased interest in the application of bio-based materials [...] Read more.
Can a hybrid composite made of recycled carbon fibres and natural fibres improve the flexural mechanical properties of epoxy composites compared to pure natural fibre reinforced polymers (NFRP)? Growing environmental concerns have led to an increased interest in the application of bio-based materials such as natural fibres in composites. Despite their good specific properties based on their low fibre density, the application of NFRP in load bearing applications such as aviation secondary structures is still limited. Low strength NFRP, compared to composites such as carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP), have significant drawbacks. At the same time, the constantly growing demand for CFRP in aviation and other transport sectors inevitably leads to an increasing amount of waste from manufacturing processes and end-of-life products. Recovering valuable carbon fibres by means of recycling and their corresponding re-application is an important task. However, such recycled carbon fibres (rCF) are usually available in a deteriorated (downcycled) form compared to virgin carbon fibres (vCF), which is limiting their use for high performance applications. Therefore, in this study the combination of natural fibres and rCF in a hybrid composite was assessed for the effect on flexural mechanical properties. Monolithic laminates made of hybrid nonwoven containing flax fibres and recycled carbon fibres were manufactured with a fibre volume fraction of 30% and compared to references with pure flax and rCF reinforcement. Three-point bending tests show a potential increase in flexural mechanical properties by combining rCF and flax fibre in a hybrid nonwoven. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue ECO-COMPASS: Ecological and Multifunctional Composites for Application in Aircraft Interior and Secondary Structures)
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13 pages, 6949 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Scale Modeling Approach for Simulating Crack Sensing in Polymer Fibrous Composites Using Electrically Conductive Carbon Nanotube Networks. Part II: Meso- and Macro-Scale Analyses
by Konstantinos Tserpes and Christos Kora
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040106 - 09 Oct 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4860
Abstract
This is the second of a two-paper series describing a multi-scale modeling approach developed to simulate crack sensing in polymer fibrous composites by exploiting interruption of electrically conductive carbon nanotube (CNT) networks. The approach is based on the finite element (FE) method. Numerical [...] Read more.
This is the second of a two-paper series describing a multi-scale modeling approach developed to simulate crack sensing in polymer fibrous composites by exploiting interruption of electrically conductive carbon nanotube (CNT) networks. The approach is based on the finite element (FE) method. Numerical models at three different scales, namely the micro-scale, the meso-scale and the macro-scale, have been developed using the ANSYS APDL environment. In the present paper, the meso- and macro-scale analyses are described. In the meso-scale, a two-dimensional model of the CNT/polymer matrix reinforced by carbon fibers is used to develop a crack sensing methodology from a parametric study which relates the crack position and length with the reduction of current flow. In the meso-model, the effective electrical conductivity of the CNT/polymer computed from the micro-scale is used as input. In the macro-scale, the final implementation of the crack sensing methodology is performed on a CNT/polymer/carbon fiber composite volume using as input the electrical response of the cracked CNT/polymer derived at the micro-scale and the crack sensing methodology. Analyses have been performed for cracks of two different lengths. In both cases, the numerical model predicts with good accuracy both the length and position of the crack. These results highlight the prospect of conductive CNT networks to be used as a localized structural health monitoring technique. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue ECO-COMPASS: Ecological and Multifunctional Composites for Application in Aircraft Interior and Secondary Structures)
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25 pages, 9547 KiB  
Article
Development of a Lumped Parameter Model for an Aeronautic Hybrid Electric Propulsion System
by Emma Frosina, Adolfo Senatore, Luka Palumbo, Giuseppe Di Lorenzo and Ciro Pascarella
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040105 - 04 Oct 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5843
Abstract
This paper describes a case study for applying a hybrid electric propulsion system for general aviation aircraft. The work was performed by a joint team from the Centro Italiano Ricerche Aerospaziali (CIRA) and the Department of Industrial Engineering of the University of Naples [...] Read more.
This paper describes a case study for applying a hybrid electric propulsion system for general aviation aircraft. The work was performed by a joint team from the Centro Italiano Ricerche Aerospaziali (CIRA) and the Department of Industrial Engineering of the University of Naples Federico II. The use of electric and hybrid electric propulsion for aircraft has gained widespread and significant attention over the past decade. The driver of industry interest has principally been the need to reduce the emissions of combustion engine exhaust products and noise; however, studies have revealed the potential for overall improvement in the energy efficiency and mission flexibility of new aircraft types. The goal of the present study was to demonstrate the feasibility of aeronautic parallel hybrid electric propulsion for light aircraft, varying mission profiles and electric configurations. Through the creation and application of a global model with AMESim® software, in which every aspect of the components chosen by the industrial partners can be represented, some interesting studies were carried out. The numerical model used was more complete and more accurate compared to some others available in the literature. In particular, it was confirmed that, for particular missions, integrating state-of-the-art technologies provides notable advantages for aircraft hybrid electric propulsion for light aircraft. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Mechanics in Aerospace Engineering)
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21 pages, 6011 KiB  
Article
The Development of an Ordinary Least Squares Parametric Model to Estimate the Cost Per Flying Hour of ‘Unknown’ Aircraft Types and a Comparative Application †
by Ilias Lappas and Michail Bozoudis
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040104 - 03 Oct 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 11518
Abstract
The development of a parametric model for the variable portion of the Cost Per Flying Hour (CPFH) of an ‘unknown’ aircraft platform and its application to diverse types of fixed and rotary wing aircraft development programs (F-35A, Su-57, Dassault Rafale, T-X candidates, AW189, [...] Read more.
The development of a parametric model for the variable portion of the Cost Per Flying Hour (CPFH) of an ‘unknown’ aircraft platform and its application to diverse types of fixed and rotary wing aircraft development programs (F-35A, Su-57, Dassault Rafale, T-X candidates, AW189, Airbus RACER among others) is presented. The novelty of this paper lies in the utilization of a diverse sample of aircraft types, aiming to obtain a ‘universal’ Cost Estimating Relationship (CER) applicable to a wide range of platforms. Moreover, the model does not produce absolute cost figures but rather analogy ratios versus the F-16’s CPFH, broadening the model’s applicability. The model will enable an analyst to carry out timely and reliable Operational and Support (O&S) cost estimates for a wide range of ‘unknown’ aircraft platforms at their early stages of conceptual design, despite the lack of actual data from the utilization and support life cycle stages. The statistical analysis is based on Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, conducted with R software (v5.3.1, released on 2 July 2018). The model’s output is validated against officially published CPFH data of several existing ‘mature’ aircraft platforms, including one of the most prolific fighter jet types all over the world, the F-16C/D, which is also used as a reference to compare CPFH estimates of various next generation aircraft platforms. Actual CPFH data of the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) have been used to develop the parametric model, the application of which is expected to significantly inform high level decision making regarding aircraft procurement, budgeting and future force structure planning, including decisions related to large scale aircraft modifications and upgrades. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Civil and Military Airworthiness: Recent Developments and Challenges)
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18 pages, 2839 KiB  
Article
Machine Learning and Cognitive Ergonomics in Air Traffic Management: Recent Developments and Considerations for Certification
by Trevor Kistan, Alessandro Gardi and Roberto Sabatini
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040103 - 01 Oct 2018
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 11615
Abstract
Resurgent interest in artificial intelligence (AI) techniques focused research attention on their application in aviation systems including air traffic management (ATM), air traffic flow management (ATFM), and unmanned aerial systems traffic management (UTM). By considering a novel cognitive human–machine interface (HMI), configured via [...] Read more.
Resurgent interest in artificial intelligence (AI) techniques focused research attention on their application in aviation systems including air traffic management (ATM), air traffic flow management (ATFM), and unmanned aerial systems traffic management (UTM). By considering a novel cognitive human–machine interface (HMI), configured via machine learning, we examined the requirements for such techniques to be deployed operationally in an ATM system, exploring aspects of vendor verification, regulatory certification, and end-user acceptance. We conclude that research into related fields such as explainable AI (XAI) and computer-aided verification needs to keep pace with applied AI research in order to close the research gaps that could hinder operational deployment. Furthermore, we postulate that the increasing levels of automation and autonomy introduced by AI techniques will eventually subject ATM systems to certification requirements, and we propose a means by which ground-based ATM systems can be accommodated into the existing certification framework for aviation systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Multiagent Systems and Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Aviation)
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19 pages, 6543 KiB  
Article
Performance Assessment of Reynolds Stress and Eddy Viscosity Models on a Transitional DCA Compressor Blade
by Zinon Vlahostergios
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040102 - 30 Sep 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6098
Abstract
In the current work a detailed investigation and a performance assessment of two eddy viscosity and two Reynolds stress turbulence models for modelling the transitional flow on a double circular arc (DCA) compressor blade is presented. The investigation is focused on the comparison [...] Read more.
In the current work a detailed investigation and a performance assessment of two eddy viscosity and two Reynolds stress turbulence models for modelling the transitional flow on a double circular arc (DCA) compressor blade is presented. The investigation is focused on the comparison of the obtained computational results with available experimental data for a specific DCA compressor blade cascade which can be found in the European Research Community on Flow, Turbulence and Combustion (ERCOFTAC) experimental database. The examined flow field is very challenging for the performance assessment of the turbulence models. The blade inlet angle departs +5° from the compressor blade design conditions resulting in a complex flow field having large regions of boundary layer transition both on the suction and pressure sides of the blade with the presence of an unsteady wake. The presented results include velocity and turbulence intensity distributions along the pressure, the suction sides, and the wake region of the blade. From the comparison with the available experimental data, it is evident that in order to accurately compute such complex velocity and turbulence fields that are met in aero engine components (compressors and turbines), it is obligatory to use more advanced turbulence models with the Unsteady Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes Equations (URANS) adoption, or other simulation and hybrid methodologies which require unsteady calculations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeroengine)
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14 pages, 1673 KiB  
Article
Consideration of Passenger Interactions for the Prediction of Aircraft Boarding Time
by Michael Schultz and Stefan Reitmann
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040101 - 30 Sep 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4440
Abstract
In this paper we address the prediction of aircraft boarding using a machine learning approach. Reliable process predictions of aircraft turnaround are an important element to further increase the punctuality of airline operations. In this context, aircraft turnaround is mainly controlled by operational [...] Read more.
In this paper we address the prediction of aircraft boarding using a machine learning approach. Reliable process predictions of aircraft turnaround are an important element to further increase the punctuality of airline operations. In this context, aircraft turnaround is mainly controlled by operational experts, but the critical aircraft boarding is driven by the passengers’ experience and willingness or ability to follow the proposed procedures. Thus, we used a developed complexity metric to evaluate the actual boarding progress and a machine learning approach to predict the final boarding time during running operations. A validated passenger boarding model is used to provide reliable aircraft status data, since no operational data are available today. These data are aggregated to a time-based complexity value and used as input for our recurrent neural network approach for predicting the boarding progress. In particular we use a Long Short-Term Memory model to learn the dynamical passenger behavior over time with regards to the given complexity metric. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Multiagent Systems and Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Aviation)
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20 pages, 2293 KiB  
Article
Experimental Validation of an Onboard Transient Luminous Events Observation System for VisionCube via Ground Simulation Environment
by Seho Kim, Taehyung Nam and Dongwon Jung
Aerospace 2018, 5(4), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace5040100 - 21 Sep 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7223
Abstract
The VisionCube is a 2-unit CubeSat developed in house, of which the primary mission is detecting the occurrence of transient luminous events (TLEs) in the upper atmosphere and obtaining corresponding images from a low Earth orbit. An onboard TLE observation system of the [...] Read more.
The VisionCube is a 2-unit CubeSat developed in house, of which the primary mission is detecting the occurrence of transient luminous events (TLEs) in the upper atmosphere and obtaining corresponding images from a low Earth orbit. An onboard TLE observation system of the VisionCube CubeSat is designed and developed by incorporating a photon-sensitive multi-anode photon-multiplier tube (MaPMT) and an image sensor. Also, a distinctive TLE observation software which enables detection of the TLEs and capture of images in a timely manner is devised. By taking into account the limited resources of a small CubeSat in size and power, the onboard observation system is developed employing a system-on-chip device by which both hardware and software can be integrated seamlessly. The purpose of this study is to investigate the functionality of the hardware and the validity of the software algorithm to show that the onboard system will function properly with no human intervention during the operations in space. To this end, a ground simulation facility is constructed to emulate TLEs occurring in space using a set of ultraviolet light-emitting diodes (UV LEDs) inside a darkbox. Based on the analysis of the spectral and temporal properties of the TLEs, the randomly generated UV LED pulses are chosen for verification scenarios for the TLE observation system. The validation results show that the hardware and the software algorithm of the onboard observation systems can effectively detect the TLEs and obtain the images during the in-orbit operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Verification Approaches for Nano- and Micro-Satellites)
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