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5 pages, 181 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions

by Su-Chin Chen

Water 2024, 16(2), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020313 - 17 Jan 2024

Viewed by 754

Abstract

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Sixth Assessment Report [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

18 pages, 9597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nature-Based Solutions for Disaster Reduction and Improving Ecosystem Services in the Hutoubi Watershed, Taiwan

by Yen-Yu Chiu, Yi-Hung Wu, Kuei-Lin Fu, Tsung-Cheng Lai, Hung-En Chen and Su-Chin Chen

Water 2023, 15(14), 2527; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142527 - 10 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1329

Abstract

The Hutoubi Reservoir and its mainstream, Huyuan Stream, in the southern mountainous region of Taiwan, have experienced riverbed sedimentation and flood disasters for the past 150 years. In addition to climate change, it is necessary to scientifically consider its regulation for the next [...] Read more.

The Hutoubi Reservoir and its mainstream, Huyuan Stream, in the southern mountainous region of Taiwan, have experienced riverbed sedimentation and flood disasters for the past 150 years. In addition to climate change, it is necessary to scientifically consider its regulation for the next hundred years. This study adopted a collaborative approach, involving industry, government, and academia, using Nature-based Solutions (NbS) to enhance ecosystem services. The solution layout is constructed by widening the channel and constructing additional farm ponds and wetlands. An hydraulic simulation indicated that flood control was addressed. The restoration project would create diverse aquatic habitats by simulating and evaluating the distribution of ecological biotopes, using porous materials as revetments. It provided urban residents with forest leisure and recreational sites and supported the local agricultural and forestry products. The restoration has propagated local culture and created environmental and professional education. Therefore, ecological services are enhanced regarding regulation, support, provision, and culture. This pilot study, led by researchers, aimed to promote comprehensive management concepts considering all stakeholders and their active participation. We integrated NbS into the watershed and its river system as a pathway for facing the challenges of rapid urbanization and climate change and improving ecosystem services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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18 pages, 16764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using the Spatiotemporal Hot Spot Analysis and Multi-Annual Landslide Inventories to Analyze the Evolution and Characteristic of Rainfall-Induced Landslide at the Subwatershed Scale in Taiwan

by Chunhung Wu

Water 2023, 15(7), 1355; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15071355 - 01 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1573

Abstract

This study used rainfall and annual landslide data for the 2003–2017 period in Taiwan to determine the long-term evolution of landslides and conducted a spatiotemporal analysis of landslides at the subwatershed scale. The historically severe landslide induced by Typhoon Morakot in 2009 was [...] Read more.

This study used rainfall and annual landslide data for the 2003–2017 period in Taiwan to determine the long-term evolution of landslides and conducted a spatiotemporal analysis of landslides at the subwatershed scale. The historically severe landslide induced by Typhoon Morakot in 2009 was mainly distributed in the central mountainous region and southern Taiwan. The Mann–Kendall trend test revealed that in 2003–2017, 13.2% of subwatersheds in Taiwan exhibited an upward trend of landslide evolution. Local outlier analysis results revealed that the landslide high–high cluster was concentrated in the central mountainous region and southern Taiwan. Moreover, the spatiotemporal analysis indicated 24.2% of subwatersheds in Taiwan in 2003–2017 as spatiotemporal landslide hot spots. The main patterns of spatiotemporal landslide hot spots in 2003–2017 were consecutive, intensifying, persistent, oscillating, and sporadic hot spots. The recovery rate in the first two years after the extreme rainfall-induced landslide event in Taiwan was 22.2%, and that in the third to eighth years was 31.6%. The recovery rate after extreme rainfall-induced landslides in Taiwan was higher than that after major earthquake-induced landslides in the world, and the new landslides were easily induced in the area of rivers and large landslide cases after Typhoon Morakot in 2009. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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22 pages, 21750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Rainfall-Induced Failure Processes and Characteristics of Wedge Slopes Using Physical Models

by Chia-Ming Lo, Yu-Sen Lai and Chen-Han Chu

Water 2023, 15(6), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15061108 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1373

Abstract

In this study, we conducted small-scale physical modeling tests to consider the impact of the infiltration of rainfall in order to investigate the processes involved in wedge slope deformation and failure. The experiments were conducted under controlled conditions of the intersection angle and [...] Read more.

In this study, we conducted small-scale physical modeling tests to consider the impact of the infiltration of rainfall in order to investigate the processes involved in wedge slope deformation and failure. The experiments were conducted under controlled conditions of the intersection angle and half-wedge angle. The observations obtained during each stage of deformation and failure were used to explain how gravity deformation varies on wedge slopes and infer how rainfall influences slope failure. The results indicated that half-wedge angle is a crucial factor in the deformation failure of slopes. The failure mechanisms of small-intersection angle slopes (sliding model) differ considerably from those of large-intersection angle slopes (free falling or toppling model). The infiltration of surface water can have a significant influence on rock layer deformation and the speed of failure. Details of the failure characteristics of wedge slope models were discussed in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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16 pages, 5755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Sustaining Landslide Mitigation Strategy through Long-Term Monitoring

by Filippo Tommaso Catelan, Giulia Bossi and Gianluca Marcato

Water 2022, 14(23), 3824; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14233824 - 24 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2080

Abstract

In mountain areas, anthropic pressure is growing while, concurrently, landslide frequency in most of the mountain regions of the world is increasing due to a more extreme precipitation pattern and permafrost deglaciation. Because of budget constraints, the need to investigate innovative and low-cost [...] Read more.

In mountain areas, anthropic pressure is growing while, concurrently, landslide frequency in most of the mountain regions of the world is increasing due to a more extreme precipitation pattern and permafrost deglaciation. Because of budget constraints, the need to investigate innovative and low-cost countermeasures for landslide risk is becoming more and more pressing. In this context, the Passo della Morte area (North-East Italy) is a perfect benchmark case. It comprises an extensive, long-term database of monitoring data that allows for testing hypotheses and validating them. Based on this data, a strong correlation between the velocity of a displacement of a landslide and the discharge of the Rio Verde stream was found. According to this evidence, local authorities have started the construction of a completely innovative mitigation strategy. It is focused on the triggering factor by identifying a significant component of the flow rate of the stream that cuts through the landslide. In addition, aiming to reduce the cost of construction and maintenance, this mitigation strategy is coupled with a micro-hydropower plant that can provide economic revenue by exploiting the discharge itself to produce electricity. Considering the active monitoring system that will be used to verify the effectiveness of the countermeasure, the Passo della Morte case study could become a starting point for implementing this pioneering and low-cost mitigation solution in similar morphologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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23 pages, 26967 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Visual Language Translation Analysis and Scenic Beauty Estimation of Mountain Stream Facilities

by Szu-Hsien Peng, Chun-Yu Huang and Su-Chin Chen

Water 2022, 14(22), 3605; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223605 - 09 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1675

Abstract

The aesthetic design of mountain stream facilities has not received much attention in Taiwan. In recent years, in addition to safety concerns, the focus has increasingly been on landscape assessment or the sense of integration with the environment. This research is the first [...] Read more.

The aesthetic design of mountain stream facilities has not received much attention in Taiwan. In recent years, in addition to safety concerns, the focus has increasingly been on landscape assessment or the sense of integration with the environment. This research is the first attempt to use visual language translation in qualitative research analysis for the landscape assessment of mountain stream facilities. This method is different from a traditional qualitative narrative analysis. It also addresses the shortcomings of previous quantitative analysis methods, in which the topic discussions are too limited. First, mountain stream engineering projects are selected as the research objects. This study uses questionnaire analysis and on-site surveys to summarize the elements, representations, and perceptions of the mountain stream facilities of the subjects concerned to examine their preferences for the visual system. Furthermore, we also employ the scenic beauty estimation (SBE) method for a comparison between the qualitative and quantitative analyses. This study proposes a new method using visual language translation and SBE that combines the features of qualitative research and quantitative analysis. However, the potential limitations include an inability to have a large sample number and the biases caused by the cultural, regional, or personal characteristics of the subjects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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23 pages, 5453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Triggering Rainfall of Large-Scale Landslides in Taiwan: Statistical Analysis of Satellite Imagery for Early Warning Systems

by Tsai-Tsung Tsai, Yuan-Jung Tsai, Chjeng-Lun Shieh and John Hsiao-Chung Wang

Water 2022, 14(21), 3358; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213358 - 23 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2124

Abstract

Typhoon Morakot had a serious impact on Taiwan, especially the uncommon type of landslide called large-scale landslide (LSL), not many in number but serious in effect, the origin of which the study induced. To establish a specific relationship between LSL and triggering rainfall [...] Read more.

Typhoon Morakot had a serious impact on Taiwan, especially the uncommon type of landslide called large-scale landslide (LSL), not many in number but serious in effect, the origin of which the study induced. To establish a specific relationship between LSL and triggering rainfall for future applications of LSL early warning predictions, relevant cases from satellite imagery, along with field investigation data, major event reports, and seismic data from 2004 to 2016, were collected. All collected cases are distributed around the mountainous area in Taiwan, and a total of 107 cases which were mainly distributed in the southern part of the mountainous area were finally selected, including 28 occurrence-time-known cases and 79 occurrence-time-unknown cases. In addition, 149 potential areas identified by the Soil and Water Conservation Bureau (SWCB) were used for improving bounding estimates. Based on the concept of safety factor, two dimensionless quantities, rainfall/landslide depth (R/D) and friction angle/slope (ϕ/θ), were analyzed by linear regression. In addition, D was assumed to be nonlinearly dependent on R, θ, and ϕ, and the parameter uncertainties were evaluated by the resampling with bootstrap method. Based on the currently obtained data, there were 8% Type-I errors in the results of the linear regression analysis, and 1% Type-II errors in the results of the nonlinear regression analysis. Through the comparison of statistical indicators, the results of nonlinear regression analysis have a better correlation trend. Based on the needs of early warning operations, more conservative indicators can reduce the risks faced by management operations. Therefore, according to the results of this study, the lower boundary values from nonlinear analysis could be used as the LSL early warning management settings. Incorporated with real-time rainfall forecasts, the variation of statistical indicators will provide the trend information dynamically, and will help to increase the response time for relevant evacuation operations, that will be welcome for the further extended applications to guide the evacuation operations of early warning systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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20 pages, 7561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Deep Learning to Formulate the Landslide Rainfall Threshold of the Potential Large-Scale Landslide

by Jie-Lun Chiang, Chia-Ming Kuo and Leila Fazeldehkordi

Water 2022, 14(20), 3320; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14203320 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2672

Abstract

The complex and extensive mechanism of landslides and their direct connection to climate change have turned these hazards into critical events on a global scale, which can have significant negative influences on the long-term sustainable development of nations. Taiwan experiences numerous landslides on [...] Read more.

The complex and extensive mechanism of landslides and their direct connection to climate change have turned these hazards into critical events on a global scale, which can have significant negative influences on the long-term sustainable development of nations. Taiwan experiences numerous landslides on different scales almost every year. However, Typhoon Morakot (2009), with large-scale landslides that trapped people, demonstrated the importance of an early warning system. The absence of an effective warning system for landslides along with the impossibility of its accurate monitoring highlighted the necessity of landslide rainfall threshold prediction. Accordingly, the prediction of the landslide rainfall threshold as an early warning system could be an effective tool with which to develop an emergency evacuation protocol. The purpose of this study is to present the capability of the deep learning algorithm to determine the distribution of landslide rainfall thresholds in a potential large-scale landslide area and to assess the distribution of recurrence intervals using probability density functions, as well as to assist decision makers in early responses to landslides and reduce the risk of large-scale landslides. Therefore, the algorithm was developed for one of the potential large-scale landslide areas (the Alishan D098 sub-basin), Taiwan, which is classified as a Type II Landslide Priority Area. The historical landslide data, maximum daily rainfall, 11 topographic factors from 2004 to 2017, and the Keras application programming interface (API) python library were used to develop two deep learning models for landslide susceptibility classification and landslide rainfall threshold regression. The predicted result shows the lowest landslide rainfall threshold is located primarily in the northeastern downstream of the Alishan catchment, which poses an extreme risk to the residential area located upstream of the landslide area, particularly if large-scale landslides were to be triggered upstream of Alishan. The landslide rainfall threshold under controlled conditions was estimated at 780 mm/day (20-year recurrence interval), or 820 mm/day (25-year recurrence interval). Since the frequency of extreme rainfall events caused by climate change is expected to rise in the future, the overall landslide rainfall threshold was considered 980 mm/day for the entire area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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17 pages, 4591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perennial Groundwater Zone Formation Processes in Thin Organic Soil Layers Overlying Thick Clayed Mineral Soil Layers in a Small Serpentine Headwater Catchment

by Takahiko Yoshino and Shin’ya Katsura

Water 2022, 14(19), 3122; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14193122 - 03 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1505

Abstract

Groundwater zone formation in the soil layers of a headwater catchment is an important factor that controls volumetric and chemical changes in streamflow; it also induces shallow landslides. Previous studies have suggested that the groundwater zone in soil layers generally forms transiently atop [...] Read more.

Groundwater zone formation in the soil layers of a headwater catchment is an important factor that controls volumetric and chemical changes in streamflow; it also induces shallow landslides. Previous studies have suggested that the groundwater zone in soil layers generally forms transiently atop low-permeability layers in response to rainfall. This study focused on an unchanneled hollow in a serpentine headwater catchment, where a semi-perennial to perennial groundwater zone was observed in thin organic soil layers (OSLs) overlying thick clay mineral soil layers (CMLs), even during dry periods. We conducted detailed observations in this catchment to clarify the formation processes of the semi-perennial to perennial groundwater zone. The results showed that water is supplied from the CMLs to the OSLs as unsaturated upward flow in areas where the OSLs are dry. This water then accumulates in the downslope hollow, which sustains the groundwater zone in the OSLs during dry periods. The frequent and long-term occurrence of upward flow can be attributed to differences in the hydraulic properties of OSLs and CMLs. This process prevents the OSLs in the hollow from drying, presumably causes volumetric and chemical changes in streamflow, and reduces the stability of OSLs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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16 pages, 1838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mobility of Landslides in Pumice: Insights from a Flume Experiment

by Rozaqqa Noviandi, Takashi Gomi, Hefryan S. Kharismalatri, Roy C. Sidle, Rasis P. Ritonga and Katsushige Shiraki

Water 2022, 14(19), 3083; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14193083 - 30 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1929

Abstract

Risk of landslide hazards strongly depends on how far landslide sediment travels, known as landslide mobility. Previous studies mentioned enhanced mobility of earthquake-induced landslides in volcanic deposits compared to those from other geologic/soil settings. A flume apparatus constructed at a 1:300 scale was [...] Read more.

Risk of landslide hazards strongly depends on how far landslide sediment travels, known as landslide mobility. Previous studies mentioned enhanced mobility of earthquake-induced landslides in volcanic deposits compared to those from other geologic/soil settings. A flume apparatus constructed at a 1:300 scale was used to examine the mobility of landslides with pumice. Four pumice samples were collected from landslides induced by the 2018 Eastern Iburi earthquake, Hokkaido, Japan. Laboratory tests confirmed the unique low specific gravity of the pumice (1.29–1.33), indicating numerous voids within pumice particles. These voids allowed pumice to absorb a substantial amount of water (95–143%), about 9–15 times higher than other coarse-grained soils. Our flume experiments using various saturation levels (0–1) confirmed the influence of this inner-particle water absorption on pumice mobility. Because a low value of specific gravity indicates a low strength of soil, grain crushing may occur on the pumice layer, causing water from the internal voids to discharge and fluidize the transported landslide mass. Our findings indicate that such earthquake-induced landslides can be as mobile as those induced by rainfall, depending on the initial water content of the pumice layers. These conditions might be associated with water accumulation from previous rainfall events and the water-holding capability on pumice layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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32 pages, 15654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Engineering Geological Model and Its Applications for a Landslide Site: Combination of Grid- and Vector-Based Methods

by Thanh-Tùng Nguyễn, Jia-Jyun Dong, Chia-Han Tseng, Ivo Baroň, Chao-Wei Chen and Chao-Chin Pai

Water 2022, 14(19), 2941; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14192941 - 20 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2661

Abstract

A three-dimensional engineering geological model (EGM), which provides an approximation of the geological conditions, is a key element in any engineering project. The slope at Huafan University, Mt. Dalun, in the Western Foothills of northern Taiwan, is a dip slope that has been [...] Read more.

A three-dimensional engineering geological model (EGM), which provides an approximation of the geological conditions, is a key element in any engineering project. The slope at Huafan University, Mt. Dalun, in the Western Foothills of northern Taiwan, is a dip slope that has been assumed to be unstable. The bedrock is mainly composed of intercalated sandstone and shale, where the thickness of the sandstone varies from thin to massive, interbedded with shale from the Miocene age. By interpolating the thickness of the colluvium derived from borehole data and analyzing the contours of the interpolation surface result, we find that the landslide material accumulates at the slope foot, towards the southwest in the direction of movement. Due to tectonic control—in particular, considering the two local faults that pass through the study area—the strata’s orientation significantly changes over the studied slope. As a basis for the 3D EGM, polynomial surface fitting is applied for detailed analysis of the sub-surface geological structure, as well as to compute the regressive orientation of the bedding plane derived from the borehole data. Based on the calculated regression plane passing through the elevations of the geological interface (key bed), the results indicate that the regression plane’s direction is consistent with the outcrop measurements. Moreover, several cross-sectional profiles are considered to visualize and clarify the 3D EGM. Finally, surface and sub-surface monitoring data are compared with the result, in order to refine the 3D EGM. The proposed geological model is expected to contribute to the comprehensive understanding of gravitational slope deformation, and may serve as a guideline to minimize potential disasters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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22 pages, 10811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Landslide Statistical Index Technique for Landslide Susceptibility Mapping: Case Study: Ban Khoang Commune, Lao Cai Province, Vietnam

by Long Nguyen Thanh, Yao-Min Fang, Tien-Yin Chou, Thanh-Van Hoang, Quoc Dinh Nguyen, Chen-Yang Lee, Chin-Lun Wang, Hsiao-Yuan Yin and Yi-Chia Lin

Water 2022, 14(18), 2814; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182814 - 09 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2098

Abstract

Ban Khoang is a mountainous commune in Sa Pa district located in the central part of Lao Cai province, Vietnam. Landslides occur frequently in this area and seriously affect the local living conditions. To help the local authority in developing a landslide disaster [...] Read more.

Ban Khoang is a mountainous commune in Sa Pa district located in the central part of Lao Cai province, Vietnam. Landslides occur frequently in this area and seriously affect the local living conditions. To help the local authority in developing a landslide disaster action plan, the statistical index method for landslide susceptibility mapping is applied. As the result, the landslide susceptibility zonation (LSZ) map was created. The LSZ map indicates that areas of low, moderate, high and very high landslide susceptibility zones are, respectively, 20.3 km², 12.4 km², 15.4 km², and 5.2 km²; most of the observed landslide areas that are well predicted belong to high or very high landslide susceptibility classes. In detail, 80% observed landslide areas and 78.57% number of observed landslides were well predicted, and the area (AUC) under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve obtained 80.3%. Hence, the high and very high landslide susceptibility classes in the LSZ map can be considered highly believable, and the LSZ map will be reliable to use in the practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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16 pages, 1901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Socio-Economic Factors That Influence Loss of Life in Sediment-Related Disasters

by Miki Chiba, Hiromichi Furuido, Shigemitsu Shibasaki and Kazuki Haga

Water 2022, 14(15), 2408; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14152408 - 03 Aug 2022

Viewed by 1531

Abstract

Non-structural measures, including relocation from a hazard zone, land development regulations, and evacuation, are important sediment-related countermeasures. Such measures depend on the behaviour of residents and are affected by socio-economic conditions. In Japan, the declining birth rate and ageing population are expected to [...] Read more.

Non-structural measures, including relocation from a hazard zone, land development regulations, and evacuation, are important sediment-related countermeasures. Such measures depend on the behaviour of residents and are affected by socio-economic conditions. In Japan, the declining birth rate and ageing population are expected to result in rapid changes in socio-economic conditions; accordingly, there is a need to evaluate the impact of such changes. However, there is no established methodology for the establishment of non-structural measures that considers the socio-economic conditions of all areas. Therefore, this study analysed the regional characteristics of disaster-affected areas with high numbers of casualties to elucidate the impact of socio-economic conditions. The results imply that severe losses occurred under various topographical and socio-economic conditions, such as in urban areas with high population densities and in mountainous areas with increasing depopulation. More data are needed, especially regarding socio-economic conditions. Importantly, the community-based analytical method used in this study enables a comparative analysis of disasters in different regions at different times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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18 pages, 5916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Approach for Preliminary Landslide Scarp Assessment with Genetic Algorithm (GA)

by Chih-Ling Wang, Chi-Jyun Ko, Hock-Kiet Wong, Pei-Hsin Pai and Yih-Chin Tai

Water 2022, 14(15), 2400; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14152400 - 02 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1404

Abstract

For the investigation of landslide mass movement scenarios through numerical simulation, a well-defined released mass and a precise initial source area are required as prerequisites. In the present study, we present a genetic algorithm-based approach for preliminarily assessing the landslide scarp when the [...] Read more.

For the investigation of landslide mass movement scenarios through numerical simulation, a well-defined released mass and a precise initial source area are required as prerequisites. In the present study, we present a genetic algorithm-based approach for preliminarily assessing the landslide scarp when the local field data are limited, using an ellipse-referenced idealized curved surface (ER-ICS)—a smooth surface constructed with respect to an ellipse. According to a specified depth at the center, there are two distinct curvatures along the major and minor axes, respectively. To search for the most appropriate ICS, the reference ellipse is translated, rotated, and/or side-tilted to achieve the optimal orientation for meeting the best fitness to the assigned condition (delineated area or failure depths). The GA approach may significantly enhance the efficiency, by reducing the number of candidate ICSs and notably relaxing the searching ranges. The proposed GA-ER-ICS method is examined and shown to be feasible, by mimicking the source area of a historical landslide event and through application to a landslide-prone site. In addition to evaluating the fitness of the ICS-covered area with respect to the source scarp, the impacts of various ICSs on the flow paths are investigated as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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15 pages, 4035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Streamflow Measurement Using Mean Surface Velocity

by Yen-Chang Chen, Yung-Chia Hsu and Eben Oktavianus Zai

Water 2022, 14(15), 2370; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14152370 - 31 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6419

Abstract

This study developed an efficient discharge measurement method that can be applied to estimate the streamflow of natural streams and artificial channels. The conventional methods that apply current meters to measure discharge are costly, time-consuming, and labor-intensive. Owing to a shortage of observers [...] Read more.

This study developed an efficient discharge measurement method that can be applied to estimate the streamflow of natural streams and artificial channels. The conventional methods that apply current meters to measure discharge are costly, time-consuming, and labor-intensive. Owing to a shortage of observers in streamflow measurement and for the safety of hydrologists and with advances in measurement techniques, many have strongly suggested the use of non-contact methods when determining streamflow. The non-contact methods that use floats or surface velocity radar to determine the streamflow are becoming more and more popular especially during periods of high water. However, it is not easy to estimate the surface velocity coefficient of each vertical directly for determining the mean velocity in each subsection. As the relationship between the mean surface velocity and mean velocity of a stream cross-section is constant, an efficient and accurate non-contact method of streamflow measurement could be further developed. Thus, streamflow can be estimated by the constant, the mean surface velocity, and cross-sectional area of a stream. The mean velocity of a cross-section, used for parameter calibration, is usually obtained from the discharge made based on the velocity-area principle and cross-sectional area. The surface velocity was measured at the vertical that is then used to estimate mean velocity of a subsection. Once the parameter is determined, streamflow can be obtained from the surface velocity. This approach was further applied to a natural stream and an artificial channel. Measurements were made to verify the reliability and accuracy of the proposed approach. The results show that the relationship between mean channel velocity and mean surface velocity is very stable in both a natural stream and an artificial channel because the streamflow differences, given by the proposed and the conventional method, are relatively insignificant. As a result, mean surface velocity can be used to determine the streamflow quickly and provides for a reliable and accurate measurement of streamflow. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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15 pages, 6234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Citrus Groves in Rainfall-Triggered Landslide Hazards in Uwajima, Japan

by Novia Lusiana and Yoshinori Shinohara

Water 2022, 14(13), 2113; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14132113 - 01 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2477

Abstract

Landslides often cause deaths and severe economic losses. In general, forests play an important role in reducing landslide probability because of the stabilizing effect of the tree roots. Although fruit groves consist of trees, which are similar to forests, practical land management, such [...] Read more.

Landslides often cause deaths and severe economic losses. In general, forests play an important role in reducing landslide probability because of the stabilizing effect of the tree roots. Although fruit groves consist of trees, which are similar to forests, practical land management, such as the frequent trampling of fields by laborers and compression of the terrain, may cause such land to become prone to landslides compared with forests. Fruit groves are widely distributed in hilly regions, but few studies have examined their role in landslide initiation. This study aims at filling this gap evaluating the predisposing and triggering conditions for rainfall-triggering landslides in part of Uwajima City, Japan. A large number of landslides occurred due to a heavy rainfall event in July 2018, where citrus groves occupied about 50% of the study area. In this study, we combined geodata with a regression model to assess the landslide hazard of fruit groves in hilly regions. We developed maps for five conditioning factors: slope gradient, slope aspect, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), land use, and geology. Based on these five maps and a landslide inventory map, we found that the landslide area density in citrus groves was larger than in forests for the categories of slope gradient, slope aspect, NDVI, and geology. Ten logistic regression models along with different rainfall indices (i.e., 1-h, 3-h, 12-h, 24-h maximum rainfall and total rainfall) and different land use (forests or citrus groves) in addition to the other four conditioning factors were produced. The result revealed that “citrus grove” was a significant factor with a positive coefficient for all models, whereas “forest” was a negative coefficient. These results suggest that citrus groves have a higher probability of landslide initiation than forests in this study area. Similar studies targeting different sites with various types of fruit groves and several rainfall events are crucial to generalize the analysis of landslide hazard in fruit groves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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15 pages, 8478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Land-Use and Landslide Assessment: A Case Study in Rize, Türkiye

by Natsuki Kasahara, Yutaka Gonda and Nejan Huvaj

Water 2022, 14(11), 1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14111811 - 04 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2302

Abstract

Currently, many studies have reported that many landslides occur in tea or rubber plantation areas. In these areas, it is important to make a landslide susceptibility map and to take necessary measures to mitigate landslide damage. However, since historical landslide distribution data and [...] Read more.

Currently, many studies have reported that many landslides occur in tea or rubber plantation areas. In these areas, it is important to make a landslide susceptibility map and to take necessary measures to mitigate landslide damage. However, since historical landslide distribution data and land use data are not available, quantitative landslide assessment measurements have not been made in many countries. Therefore, in this study, landslide distribution maps and land use maps are created with worldwide available satellite imagery and Google Earth imagery, and the relationship between landslides and land use is analyzed in Rize, Türkiye. The results show that landslides are 1.75 to 5 times more likely to occur in tea gardens than in forests. It was also found that land use has the highest contribution to landslides among the landslide conditioning factors. The landslide assessment, using a simple landslide detection method and land use classification method with worldwide available data, enabled us to quantitatively reveal the characteristics of landslides. The results of this study reveal that quantitative landslide assessments can be applied in any location, where relatively high resolution satellite imagery and Google Earth imagery, or its alternatives, are available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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18 pages, 4246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transition Indices of Sediment-Transport Modes on a Debris Flow Resulting from Changing Streambed Gradients

by Takashi Wada, Hirotada Mishima, Jin Takemura, Kazuki Kobayashi and Hiroshi Miwa

Water 2022, 14(11), 1810; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14111810 - 04 Jun 2022

Viewed by 1939

Abstract

We conducted experiments using an experimental flume with two variable streambed gradients in the upstream and downstream parts with various debris flows, composition sizes, and supply flow rates. We investigated the transition processes of sediment transport modes along the longitudinal distances from the [...] Read more.

We conducted experiments using an experimental flume with two variable streambed gradients in the upstream and downstream parts with various debris flows, composition sizes, and supply flow rates. We investigated the transition processes of sediment transport modes along the longitudinal distances from the gradient change point using the transition mode indices,

I_{\bar{C s} x}

,

I_{\bar{h} x}

, and

I_{\bar{U} x}

; these indices were calculated based on measurements of sediment transport concentrations, flow depths, and gravel migration velocities in the debris flow’s front in the downstream part. Using these indices, we postulated that after the debris flow passed the gradient change point, the transition of the sediment transport modes progressed by changing the measured parameters to those in the steady-state condition on the gradient of the downstream parts. In addition, these indices suggested that the gravel migration velocities in the flow front interior changed most rapidly after passing the gradient change point, and that flow depths tended to change most slowly. Finally, the indices suggested that as the debris flow material became finer and the supplied flow rates became larger, the longitudinal transition sections tended to be longer because the momentum needed to transport the material was less than the total debris flow momentum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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24 pages, 10544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disaster-Resilient Communities on Flood Plains and Their Agricultural Regeneration: A Case Study in Meinong Plain, Taiwan

by Shu-Chen Tsai and Su-Hsin Lee

Water 2022, 14(11), 1736; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14111736 - 28 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2203

Abstract

Taiwan’s near-mountain alluvial plain is a high-risk area with frequent disasters, and residents have become more tolerant of the compound disasters that occur with overall environmental changes associated with the development of urbanization in recent years. This paper presents a case study of [...] Read more.

Taiwan’s near-mountain alluvial plain is a high-risk area with frequent disasters, and residents have become more tolerant of the compound disasters that occur with overall environmental changes associated with the development of urbanization in recent years. This paper presents a case study of a near-mountainous alluvial plain in Southern Taiwan. The Hakka ethnic group is the main community in the study area and also the main research object. This case study illustrates the disaster resilience of the community to natural and artificial disasters. This study adopted two research approaches, namely historical geography and political economic geography, as well as community resilience theory. Research methods including case study, secondary literature analysis, fieldwork, and interviews were used. Through text analysis, it was found that (1) the community’s awareness of disaster avoidance was rooted in the experience of reclamation in the early 17th century; (2) communities have experienced artificial disasters caused by political and economic intervention, which have been transformed into disaster awareness and community resilience; (3) cumulative artificial disasters have a greater impact on communities than unpredictable natural disasters; and (4) the energy of community resilience and agricultural regeneration is based on the duality of disasters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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13 pages, 4366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Robust Study of Deep Learning Recursive Neural Network for Predicting of Turbidity of Water

by Shiuan Wan, Mei-Ling Yeh, Hong-Lin Ma and Tein-Yin Chou

Water 2022, 14(5), 761; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14050761 - 28 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2976

Abstract

Water treatment is an important process, as it improves water quality and makes it better for any end use, whether it be drinking, industrial use, irrigation, water recreation, or any other kind of use. Turbidity is one of the fundamental measurements of the [...] Read more.

Water treatment is an important process, as it improves water quality and makes it better for any end use, whether it be drinking, industrial use, irrigation, water recreation, or any other kind of use. Turbidity is one of the fundamental measurements of the clarity of water in water treatment. Specifically, this component is an optical feature of the amount of light on scatter particles when light is shined on a water sample. It is crucial in water reservoirs to provide clean water, which is difficult to manage and predict. Hence, this study focuses on the use of robust deep learning models to analyze time-series data in order to predict the water quality of turbidity in a reservoir area. Deep learning models may become an alternative solution in predicting water quality because of their accuracy. This study is divided into two parts: (a) the first part uses the optical bands of blue (B), green (G), red (R), and infrared (IR) to build a regression function to monitor turbidity in water, and (b) the second part uses a hybrid model to analyze time-series turbidity data with the recursive neural network (RNN2) model. The selected models’ accuracies are compared based on the accuracy using the input data, forecasting level, and training time. The analysis shows that these models have their strengths and limitations under different analyzed conditions. Generally, RNN2 shows the performance regarding the root-mean-square error (RMSE) evaluation metric. The most significant finding is that the RNN2 model is suitable for the accurate prediction of water quality. The RMSE is used to facilitate a comparison of the accuracy of the sampling data. In the training model, the training data have an RMSE of 20.89, and the testing data have an RMSE of 30.11. The predicted R-squared values in the RNN2 model are 0.993 (training data) and 0.941 (testing data). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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25 pages, 7726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Assessment of Event-Based Ensemble Landslide Susceptibility Models in Shihmen Watershed, Taiwan

by Chun-Yi Wu and Sheng-Yu Lin

Water 2022, 14(5), 717; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14050717 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1786

Abstract

While multi-year and event-based landslide inventories are both commonly used in landslide susceptibility analysis, most areas lack multi-year landslide inventories, and the analysis results obtained from the use of event-based landslide inventories are very sensitive to the choice of event. Based on 24 [...] Read more.

While multi-year and event-based landslide inventories are both commonly used in landslide susceptibility analysis, most areas lack multi-year landslide inventories, and the analysis results obtained from the use of event-based landslide inventories are very sensitive to the choice of event. Based on 24 event-based landslide inventories for the Shihmen watershed from 1996 to 2015, this study established five event-based single landslide susceptibility models employing logistic regression, random forest, support vector machine, kernel logistic regression, and gradient boosting decision tree methods. The ensemble methods, involving calculating the mean of the susceptibility indexes (PM), median of the susceptibility indexes (PME), weighted mean of the susceptibility indexes (PMW), and committee average of binary susceptibility values (CA) of the five single models were then used to establish four event-based ensemble landslide susceptibility models. After establishing nine landslide susceptibility models, using each inventory from the 24 event-based landslide inventories or a multi-year landslide inventory, we identified the differences in landslide susceptibility maps attributable to the different landslide inventories and modeling methods, and used the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve to assess the accuracy of the models. The results indicated that an ensemble model based on a multi-year inventory can obtain excellent predictive accuracy. The predictive accuracy of multi-year landslide susceptibility models is found to be superior to that of event-based models. In addition, the higher predictive accuracy of ensemble landslide susceptibility models than that of single models implied that these ensemble methods were robust for enhancing the model’s predictive performance in the study area. When employing event-based landslide inventories in modeling, PM ensemble models offer the best predictive ability, according to the Kruskal–Wallis test results. Areas with a high mean susceptibility index and low standard deviation, identified using the 24 PM ensemble models based on different event-based landslide inventories, constitute places where landslide mitigation measures should be prioritized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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19 pages, 4397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Landslide Stability and Vegetation Recovery: Case Studies in the Tsengwen Reservoir Watershed in Taiwan

by Chun-Hung Wu

Water 2021, 13(24), 3479; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243479 - 07 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2514

Abstract

The sediment yield from numerous landslides triggered in Taiwan’s mountainous regions by 2009 Typhoon Morakot have had substantial long-term impacts on the evolution of rivers. This study evaluated the long-term evolution of landslides induced by 2001 Typhoon Nari and 2009 Typhoon Morakot in [...] Read more.

The sediment yield from numerous landslides triggered in Taiwan’s mountainous regions by 2009 Typhoon Morakot have had substantial long-term impacts on the evolution of rivers. This study evaluated the long-term evolution of landslides induced by 2001 Typhoon Nari and 2009 Typhoon Morakot in the Tsengwen Reservoir Watershed by using multiannual landslide inventories and rainfall records for the 2001–2017 period. The landslide activity, vegetation recovery time, and the landslide spatiotemporal hotspot analyses were used in the study. Severe landslides most commonly occurred on 35–45° slopes at elevations of 1400–2000 m located within 500 m of the rivers. The average vegetation recovery time was 2.29 years, and landslides with vegetation recovery times exceeding 10 years were most frequently retrogressive landslide, riverbank landslides in sinuous reaches, and the core area of large landslides. The annual landslide area decline ratios after 2009 Typhoon Morakot in Southern Taiwan was 4.75% to 7.45%, and the time of landslide recovery in the Tsengwen reservoir watershed was predicted to be 28.48 years. Oscillating hotspots and coldspots occupied 95.8% of spatiotemporal patterns in the watershed area. The results indicate that landslides moved from hillslopes to rivers in the 2001–2017 period because the enormous amount of sediment deposited in rivers resulted in the change of river geomorphology and the riverbank landslides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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15 pages, 82774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Temporal Characteristics on Developing a Practical Rainfall-Induced Landslide Potential Evaluation Model Using Random Forest Method

by Yi-Min Huang and Shao-Wei Lu

Water 2021, 13(23), 3348; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13233348 - 25 Nov 2021

Viewed by 1579

Abstract

With the unique rainfall patterns of typhoons, plum rains, and short-term heavy rainfalls, the frequent landslide and debris flow disasters have caused severe loss to people in Taiwan. In the studies of landslide susceptibility, the information of factors used for analysis was usually [...] Read more.

With the unique rainfall patterns of typhoons, plum rains, and short-term heavy rainfalls, the frequent landslide and debris flow disasters have caused severe loss to people in Taiwan. In the studies of landslide susceptibility, the information of factors used for analysis was usually annual-based content, and it was assumed that the same elements from different years were independent between each year. However, the occurrence of landslides was usually not simply due to the changes within a year. Instead, landslides were triggered because the factors that affected the potential of landslides reached critical conditions after a cumulative change with time. Therefore, this study had well evaluated the influence of temporal characteristics and the ratios of antecedent landslide areas in the past five years in the landslide potential evaluation model. The analysis was conducted through the random forest (RF) algorithm. Additional rainfall events of 2017 were used to test the proposed model’s performance to understand its practicality. The analysis results show that in the study area, the RF model had considerably acceptable performance. The results have also demonstrated that the antecedent landslide ratios in the past five years were essential to describe the significance of cumulative change with time when conducting potential landslide evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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21 pages, 135810 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Visual Harmony of Engineering Structures in a Mountain Stream

by Jinn-Chyi Chen, Chia-Ling Huang, Su-Chin Chen and Samkele S. Tfwala

Water 2021, 13(23), 3324; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13233324 - 23 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2051

Abstract

This study uses the cognitive factor of “visual harmony” to assess the visual quality of stream engineering in a mountainous region. Images of engineering structures such as revetments and submerged dams in the mountain streams of Taiwan were collected. Three image groups with [...] Read more.

This study uses the cognitive factor of “visual harmony” to assess the visual quality of stream engineering in a mountainous region. Images of engineering structures such as revetments and submerged dams in the mountain streams of Taiwan were collected. Three image groups with different structures invaded by vegetation were used for a questionnaire survey, which yielded 154 valid samples. We used statistical analysis to develop a model of visual harmony H with respect to the percentage of visible greenery G_R, that is, the perceived curve of vegetation change. A comparison of our data with the literature determined the upper and lower bound curves of the relationship between H and G_R. We found that the physical elements of “softscape” and “hardscape”—namely, percentage of visible water W_R, visible structure I_R, and visible natural material on the structure N_R—affected this relationship. Results show that H is equivalent to visual preference P, and both can be improved by better green visibility (increasing G_R and G_R < 50%), avoiding low water visibility (W_R < 10%), or increasing the amount of visible natural material (N_R > 0.9). High visibility of the structures (I_R > 0.3) may decrease H and P. We ultimately propose a visual harmony or preference model concerning a combined physical indicator that comprises G_R, W_R, I_R and N_R. Results of this study could be helpful to improve or access the aesthetics of stream engineering design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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19 pages, 83180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extreme Droughts Change in the Mekong River Basin: A Multidisciplinary Analysis Based on Satellite Data

by Vo Tuong, Thanh-Van Hoang, Tien-Yin Chou, Yao-Min Fang, Chun-Tse Wang, Thanh-Danh Tran and Dung Duc Tran

Water 2021, 13(19), 2682; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13192682 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2314

Abstract

This study evaluates droughts in the Mekong River Basin (MKB) based on a multidisciplinary method, mainly using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Mann–Kendall (MK) test. Precipitation data corresponding to the seasonality of the regional climate were retrieved from Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for [...] Read more.

This study evaluates droughts in the Mekong River Basin (MKB) based on a multidisciplinary method, mainly using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Mann–Kendall (MK) test. Precipitation data corresponding to the seasonality of the regional climate were retrieved from Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement from 2001 to 2020, at a monthly temporal scale and 0.1 degree spatial resolution. Drought events and their average interval, duration, and severity were determined based on Run theory. Our results revealed the most extreme drought period was in January 2014, at the time the lowest precipitation occurred. Spatial extreme drought results indicated that Zone 2 in the upstream MKB has the highest frequency of drought, with 44 events observed during 19 years, and experiences the most severe droughts, whereas Zone 24 in the downstream MKB has the most prolonged drought duration of seven months. The periods and locations of extreme drought were identified using the SPI, corresponding to historic droughts of the MKB. Furthermore, the MK test shows an increasing trend of droughts in the lower MKB and the cluster analysis identified six clusters of times series. Overall, our study provides essential findings for international and national water resource stakeholders in identifying trends of extreme drought in the MKB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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18 pages, 5924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Rainfall-Triggered Debris Flows under the Impact of Extreme Events: A Chenyulan Watershed Case Study, Taiwan

by Jinn-Chyi Chen and Wen-Shun Huang

Water 2021, 13(16), 2201; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162201 - 12 Aug 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1824

Abstract

This study examined the conditions that lead to debris flows, and their association with the rainfall return period (T) and the probability of debris flow occurrence (P) in the Chenyulan watershed, central Taiwan. Several extreme events have occurred in the Chenyulan watershed in [...] Read more.

This study examined the conditions that lead to debris flows, and their association with the rainfall return period (T) and the probability of debris flow occurrence (P) in the Chenyulan watershed, central Taiwan. Several extreme events have occurred in the Chenyulan watershed in the past, including the Chi-Chi earthquake and extreme rainfall events. The T for three rainfall indexes (i.e., the maximum hourly rainfall depth (I_m), the maximum 24-h rainfall amount (R_d), and RI (RI = I_m

\times

R_d)) were analyzed, and the T associated with the triggering of debris flows is presented. The P–T relationship can be determined using three indexes, I_m, R_d, and RI; how it is affected and unaffected by extreme events was developed. Models for evaluating P using the three rainfall indexes were proposed and used to evaluate P between 2009 and 2020 (i.e., after the extreme rainfall event of Typhoon Morakot in 2009). The results of this study showed that the P‒T relationship, using the RI or R_d index, was reasonable for predicting the probability of debris flow occurrence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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Review

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14 pages, 3219 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent and Historical Background and Current Challenges for Sediment Disaster Measures against Climate Change in Japan

by Shin-ichiro Hayashi, Masaru Kunitomo, Koso Mikami and Keisuke Suzuki

Water 2022, 14(15), 2285; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14152285 - 22 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2528

Abstract

Japan is a country with one of the highest incidences of sediment disasters, which will become more severe and more frequent as a result of climate change. This paper reviews the recent occurrence of sediment disasters caused by heavy rainfall affected by climate [...] Read more.

Japan is a country with one of the highest incidences of sediment disasters, which will become more severe and more frequent as a result of climate change. This paper reviews the recent occurrence of sediment disasters caused by heavy rainfall affected by climate change in recent years, challenges in adaptation measures, and recent policies targeting such sediment disasters in Japan. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) has been conducting non-structural and structural measures based on legislation. Recently, climate change has resulted in more severe and frequent disasters along with damage caused by sediment movement phenomena that are not covered by the present system for warning and evacuation. Efforts to establish assessment methods concerning the risk of these phenomena are shown as examples of current challenges of climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters Occurrence, Reduction, and Restoration in Mountain Regions)

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