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16 pages, 3701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Frequency Magnetic Induction Tomography System and Algorithm for Imaging Metallic Objects

by Gavin Dingley and Manuchehr Soleimani

Sensors 2021, 21(11), 3671; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113671 - 25 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2803

Abstract

Magnetic induction tomography (MIT) is largely focused on applications in biomedical and industrial process engineering. MIT has a great potential for imaging metallic samples; however, there are fewer developments directed toward the testing and monitoring of metal components. Eddy-current non-destructive testing is well [...] Read more.

Magnetic induction tomography (MIT) is largely focused on applications in biomedical and industrial process engineering. MIT has a great potential for imaging metallic samples; however, there are fewer developments directed toward the testing and monitoring of metal components. Eddy-current non-destructive testing is well established, showing that corrosion, fatigue and mechanical loading are detectable in metals. Applying the same principles to MIT would provide a useful imaging tool for determining the condition of metal components. A compact MIT instrument is described, including the design aspects and system performance characterisation, assessing dynamic range and signal quality. The image rendering ability is assessed using both external and internal object inclusions. A multi-frequency MIT system has similar capabilities as transient based pulsed eddy current instruments. The forward model for frequency swap multi-frequency is solved, using a computationally efficient numerical modelling with the edge-based finite elements method. The image reconstruction for spectral imaging is done by adaptation of a spectrally correlative base algorithm, providing whole spectrum data for the conductivity or permeability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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20 pages, 3699 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calculation of Stopping-Power Ratio from Multiple CT Numbers Using Photon-Counting CT System: Two- and Three-Parameter-Fitting Method

by Sung Hyun Lee, Naoki Sunaguchi, Akie Nagao, Yoshiyuki Hirano, Hiroshi Sakurai, Yosuke Kano, Masami Torikoshi, Tatsuaki Kanai and Mutsumi Tashiro

Sensors 2021, 21(4), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21041215 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2501

Abstract

The two-parameter-fitting method (PFM) is commonly used to calculate the stopping-power ratio (SPR). This study proposes a new formalism: a three-PFM, which can be used in multiple spectral computed tomography (CT). Using a photon-counting CT system, seven rod-shaped samples of aluminium, graphite, and [...] Read more.

The two-parameter-fitting method (PFM) is commonly used to calculate the stopping-power ratio (SPR). This study proposes a new formalism: a three-PFM, which can be used in multiple spectral computed tomography (CT). Using a photon-counting CT system, seven rod-shaped samples of aluminium, graphite, and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and four types of biological phantom materials were placed in a water-filled sample holder. The X-ray tube voltage and current were set at 150 kV and 40 μ

μ

A respectively, and four CT images were obtained at four threshold settings. A semi-empirical correction method that corrects the difference between the CT values from the photon-counting CT images and theoretical values in each spectral region was also introduced. Both the two- and three-PFMs were used to calculate the effective atomic number and electron density from multiple CT numbers. The mean excitation energy was calculated via parameterisation with the effective atomic number, and the SPR was then calculated from the calculated electron density and mean excitation energy. Then, the SPRs from both methods were compared with the theoretical values. To estimate the noise level of the CT numbers obtained from the photon-counting CT, CT numbers, including noise, were simulated to evaluate the robustness of the aforementioned PFMs. For the aluminium and graphite, the maximum relative errors for the SPRs calculated using the two-PFM and three-PFM were 17.1% and 7.1%, respectively. For the PMMA and biological phantom materials, the maximum relative errors for the SPRs calculated using the two-PFM and three-PFM were 5.5% and 2.0%, respectively. It was concluded that the three-PFM, compared with the two-PFM, can yield SPRs that are closer to the theoretical values and is less affected by noise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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19 pages, 5423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Computed Tomography for Investigation of Batch Crystallisation Processes

by Panagiotis Koulountzios, Tomasz Rymarczyk and Manuchehr Soleimani

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020639 - 18 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3030

Abstract

Crystallisation is a crucial step in many industrial processes. Many sensors are being investigated for monitoring such processes to enhance the efficiency of them. Ultrasound techniques have been used for particle sizing characterization of liquid suspensions, in crystallisation process. An ultrasound tomography system [...] Read more.

Crystallisation is a crucial step in many industrial processes. Many sensors are being investigated for monitoring such processes to enhance the efficiency of them. Ultrasound techniques have been used for particle sizing characterization of liquid suspensions, in crystallisation process. An ultrasound tomography system with an array of ultrasound sensors can provide spatial information inside the process when compared to single-measurement systems. In this study, the batch crystallisation experiments have been conducted in a lab-scale reactor in calcium carbonate crystallisation. Real-time ultrasound tomographic imaging is done via a contactless ultrasound tomography sensor array. The effect of the injection rate and the stirring speed was considered as two control parameters in these crystallisation functions. Transmission mode ultrasound tomography comprises 32 piezoelectric transducers with central frequency of 40 kHz has been used. The process-based experimental investigation shows the capability of the proposed ultrasound tomography system for crystallisation process monitoring. Information on process dynamics, as well as process malfunction, can be obtained via the ultrasound tomography system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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21 pages, 6648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ant Colony-Based Hyperparameter Optimisation in Total Variation Reconstruction in X-ray Computed Tomography

by Manasavee Lohvithee, Wenjuan Sun, Stephane Chretien and Manuchehr Soleimani

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020591 - 15 Jan 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2881

Abstract

In this paper, a computer-aided training method for hyperparameter selection of limited data X-ray computed tomography (XCT) reconstruction was proposed. The proposed method employed the ant colony optimisation (ACO) approach to assist in hyperparameter selection for the adaptive-weighted projection-controlled steepest descent (AwPCSD) algorithm, [...] Read more.

In this paper, a computer-aided training method for hyperparameter selection of limited data X-ray computed tomography (XCT) reconstruction was proposed. The proposed method employed the ant colony optimisation (ACO) approach to assist in hyperparameter selection for the adaptive-weighted projection-controlled steepest descent (AwPCSD) algorithm, which is a total-variation (TV) based regularisation algorithm. During the implementation, there was a colony of artificial ants that swarm through the AwPCSD algorithm. Each ant chose a set of hyperparameters required for its iterative CT reconstruction and the correlation coefficient (CC) score was given for reconstructed images compared to the reference image. A colony of ants in one generation left a pheromone through its chosen path representing a choice of hyperparameters. Higher score means stronger pheromones/probabilities to attract more ants in the next generations. At the end of the implementation, the hyperparameter configuration with the highest score was chosen as an optimal set of hyperparameters. In the experimental results section, the reconstruction using hyperparameters from the proposed method was compared with results from three other cases: the conjugate gradient least square (CGLS), the AwPCSD algorithm using the set of arbitrary hyperparameters and the cross-validation method.The experiments showed that the results from the proposed method were superior to those of the CGLS algorithm and the AwPCSD algorithm using the set of arbitrary hyperparameters. Although the results of the ACO algorithm were slightly inferior to those of the cross-validation method as measured by the quantitative metrics, the ACO algorithm was over 10 times faster than cross—Validation. The optimal set of hyperparameters from the proposed method was also robust against an increase of noise in the data and can be applicable to different imaging samples with similar context. The ACO approach in the proposed method was able to identify optimal values of hyperparameters for a dataset and, as a result, produced a good quality reconstructed image from limited number of projection data. The proposed method in this work successfully solves a problem of hyperparameters selection, which is a major challenge in an implementation of TV based reconstruction algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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31 pages, 16831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Evaluations with 2d Electrical Resistance Tomography in the Low-Conductivity Solutions Using 3d-Printed Phantoms and Sucrose Crystal Agglomerate Assessments

by Guruprasad Rao, Muhammad Awais Sattar, Radosław Wajman and Lidia Jackowska-Strumiłło

Sensors 2021, 21(2), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020564 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2151

Abstract

Crystallization is a significant procedure in the manufacturing of many pharmaceutical and solid food products. In-situ electrical resistance tomography (ERT) is a novel process analytical tool (PAT) to provide a cheap and quick way to test, visualize, and evaluate the progress of crystallization [...] Read more.

Crystallization is a significant procedure in the manufacturing of many pharmaceutical and solid food products. In-situ electrical resistance tomography (ERT) is a novel process analytical tool (PAT) to provide a cheap and quick way to test, visualize, and evaluate the progress of crystallization processes. In this work, the spatial accuracy of the nonconductive phantoms in low-conductivity solutions was evaluated. Gauss–Newton, linear back projection, and iterative total variation reconstruction algorithms were used to compare the phantom reconstructions for tap water, industrial-grade saturated sucrose solution, and demineralized water. A cylindrical phantom measuring 10 mm in diameter and a cross-section area of 1.5% of the total beaker area was detected at the center of the beaker. Two phantoms with a 10-mm diameter were visualized separately in noncentral locations. The quantitative evaluations were done for the phantoms with radii ranging from 10 mm to 50 mm in demineralized water. Multiple factors, such as ERT device and sensor development, Finite Element Model (FEM) mesh density and simulations, image reconstruction algorithms, number of iterations, segmentation methods, and morphological image processing methods, were discussed and analyzed to achieve spatial accuracy. The development of ERT imaging modality for the purpose of monitoring crystallization in low-conductivity solutions was performed satisfactorily. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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20 pages, 19368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Complete Ring Artifacts Reduction Procedure for Lab-Based X-ray Nano CT Systems

by Jakub Šalplachta, Tomáš Zikmund, Marek Zemek, Adam Břínek, Yoshihiro Takeda, Kazuhiko Omote and Jozef Kaiser

Sensors 2021, 21(1), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21010238 - 1 Jan 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4415

Abstract

In this article, we introduce a new ring artifacts reduction procedure that combines several ideas from existing methods into one complex and robust approach with a goal to overcome their individual weaknesses and limitations. The procedure differentiates two types of ring artifacts according [...] Read more.

In this article, we introduce a new ring artifacts reduction procedure that combines several ideas from existing methods into one complex and robust approach with a goal to overcome their individual weaknesses and limitations. The procedure differentiates two types of ring artifacts according to their cause and character in computed tomography (CT) data. Each type is then addressed separately in the sinogram domain. The novel iterative schemes based on relative total variations (RTV) were integrated to detect the artifacts. The correction process uses the image inpainting, and the intensity deviations smoothing method. The procedure was implemented in scope of lab-based X-ray nano CT with detection systems based on charge-coupled device (CCD) and scientific complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (sCMOS) technologies. The procedure was then further tested and optimized on the simulated data and the real CT data of selected samples with different compositions. The performance of the procedure was quantitatively evaluated in terms of the artifacts’ detection accuracy, the comparison with existing methods, and the ability to preserve spatial resolution. The results show a high efficiency of ring removal and the preservation of the original sample’s structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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18 pages, 6658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flow Control Based on Feature Extraction in Continuous Casting Process

by Shereen Abouelazayem, Ivan Glavinić, Thomas Wondrak and Jaroslav Hlava

Sensors 2020, 20(23), 6880; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20236880 - 1 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2734

Abstract

The flow structure in the mold of a continuous steel caster has a significant impact on the quality of the final product. Conventional sensors used in industry are limited to measuring single variables such as the mold level. These measurements give very indirect [...] Read more.

The flow structure in the mold of a continuous steel caster has a significant impact on the quality of the final product. Conventional sensors used in industry are limited to measuring single variables such as the mold level. These measurements give very indirect information about the flow structure. For this reason, designing control loops to optimize the flow is a huge challenge. A solution for this is to apply non-invasive sensors such as tomographic sensors that are able to visualize the flow structure in the opaque liquid metal and obtain information about the flow structure in the mold. In this paper, ultrasound Doppler velocimetry (UDV) is used to obtain key features of the flow. The preprocessing of the UDV data and feature extraction techniques are described in detail. The extracted flow features are used as the basis for real time feedback control. The model predictive control (MPC) technique is applied, and the results show that the controller is able to achieve optimum flow structures in the mold. The two main actuators that are used by the controller are the electromagnetic brake and the stopper rod. The experiments included in this study were obtained from a laboratory model of a continuous caster located at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf (HZDR). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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18 pages, 35538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Performance of a Capacitively Coupled Electrical Impedance Tomography Sensor with Different Configurations

by Yandan Jiang, Xuekai He, Baoliang Wang, Zhiyao Huang and Manuchehr Soleimani

Sensors 2020, 20(20), 5787; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20205787 - 13 Oct 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2496

Abstract

Capacitively coupled electrical impedance tomography (CCEIT) is a new kind of electrical resistance tomography (ERT) which realizes contactless measurement by capacitive coupling and extends traditional resistance measurement to total impedance measurement. This work investigates the performance of a CCEIT sensor with three different [...] Read more.

Capacitively coupled electrical impedance tomography (CCEIT) is a new kind of electrical resistance tomography (ERT) which realizes contactless measurement by capacitive coupling and extends traditional resistance measurement to total impedance measurement. This work investigates the performance of a CCEIT sensor with three different configurations, including the unshielded configuration, the shielded configuration A (the CCEIT sensor with the external shield) and the shielded configuration B (the CCEIT sensor with both the external shield and the radial screens). The equivalent circuit models of the measurement electrode pair of the CCEIT sensor with different configurations were developed. Additionally, three CCEIT prototypes corresponding to the three configurations were developed. Both the simulation work and experiments were carried out to compare various aspects of the three CCEIT prototypes, including the sensitivity distribution, the impedance measurement and the practical imaging performance. Simulation results show that shielded configurations improve the overall average sensitivity of the sensitivity distributions. Shielded configuration A contributes to improve the uniformity of the sensitivity distributions, while shielded configuration B reduces the uniformity in most cases. Experimental results show that the shielded configurations have no significant influence on the imaging quality of the real part of impedance measurement, but do make sense in improving the imaging performance of the imaginary part and the amplitude of impedance measurement. However, configuration B (with radial screens) has no significant advantage over configuration A (without radial screens). This work provides an insight into how shielding measures influence the performance of the CCEIT sensor, in addition to playing an important role in shielding unwanted noise and disturbances. The research results can provide a useful reference for further development of CCEIT sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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28 pages, 10722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactive Timeline Approach for Contextual Spatio-Temporal ECT Data Investigation

by Andrzej Romanowski, Zbigniew Chaniecki, Aleksandra Koralczyk, Mikołaj Woźniak, Adam Nowak, Przemysław Kucharski, Tomasz Jaworski, Maja Malaya, Paweł Rózga and Krzysztof Grudzień

Sensors 2020, 20(17), 4793; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20174793 - 25 Aug 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2636

Abstract

This paper presents a novel approach to a complex process of electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) measurement data analysis. ECT is frequently employed for non-invasive monitoring of industrial process phenomena. Proposed methodology is based on the premeditated integration of the spatial and temporal relations [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel approach to a complex process of electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) measurement data analysis. ECT is frequently employed for non-invasive monitoring of industrial process phenomena. Proposed methodology is based on the premeditated integration of the spatial and temporal relations inherent in the measurement records into the workflow of the analysis procedure. We propose a concept of interactive timeline that enables arranging data visualization according to the user’s current focus along the process of analysis. We evaluated the proposed method using a prototype system in a task-based user study conducted with a group of domain experts. The evaluation is based on gravitational silo flow measurement datasets. Proposed prototype system enables diverse data manipulation in a more natural way allowing the user to switch back and forth between space and time domains along the data analysis trail. Experiments with the prototype system showed that the accuracy and completion times have significantly improved in comparison to the performance measured in the baseline condition. Additionally, the participants reported decreased physical load with improved efficiency measured with NASA task load index. Finally, a short discussion coupled with directions for the future of interactive spatio-temporal ECT measurement data analysis conclude the paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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28 pages, 23371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact Damage Evaluation in Composite Structures Based on Fusion of Results of Ultrasonic Testing and X-ray Computed Tomography

by Andrzej Katunin, Angelika Wronkowicz-Katunin and Krzysztof Dragan

Sensors 2020, 20(7), 1867; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20071867 - 27 Mar 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 3633

Abstract

Barely visible impact damage (BVID) is one of the most dangerous types of structural damage in composites, since in most practical cases the application of advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) methods is required to detect and identify it. Due to its character of propagation, [...] Read more.

Barely visible impact damage (BVID) is one of the most dangerous types of structural damage in composites, since in most practical cases the application of advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) methods is required to detect and identify it. Due to its character of propagation, there are minor signs of structural damage on a surface, while the internal damage can be broad and complex both in the point of view of fracture mechanisms and resulting geometry of damage. The most common NDT method applied e.g., in aircraft inspections is ultrasonic testing (UT), which enables effective damage detection and localization in various environments. However, the results of such inspections are usually misestimated with respect to the true damage extent, and the quantitative analysis is biased by an error. In order to determine the estimation error a comparative analysis was performed on NDT results obtained for artificially damaged carbon fiber-reinforced composite structures using two UT methods and X-ray computed tomography (CT). The latter method was considered here as the reference one, since it gives the best spatial resolution and estimation accuracy of internal damage among the available NDT methods. Fusing the NDT results for a set of pre-damaged composite structures with various energy values of impact and various types of impactor tips applied for introducing damage, the evaluation of estimation accuracy of UT was possible. The performed analysis allowed for evaluation of relations between UT and X-ray CT NDT results and for proposal of a correcting factor for UT results for BVID in the analyzed composite structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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Review

Jump to: Research

19 pages, 2242 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Electrical Impedance Tomography Spectroscopy

by Juliana Padilha Leitzke and Hubert Zangl

Sensors 2020, 20(18), 5160; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20185160 - 10 Sep 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5197

Abstract

Electrical Impedance Tomography Spectroscopy (EITS) enables the reconstruction of material distributions inside an object based on the frequency-dependent characteristics of different substances. In this paper, we present a review of EITS focusing on physical principles of the technology, sensor geometries, existing measurement systems, [...] Read more.

Electrical Impedance Tomography Spectroscopy (EITS) enables the reconstruction of material distributions inside an object based on the frequency-dependent characteristics of different substances. In this paper, we present a review of EITS focusing on physical principles of the technology, sensor geometries, existing measurement systems, reconstruction algorithms, and image representation methods. In addition, a novel imaging method is proposed which could fill some of the gaps found in the literature. As an example of an application, EITS of ice and water mixtures is used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tomography Sensing Technologies)

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