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Polymers
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Polymer Composites for 3D Printing
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Polymer Composites for 3D Printing

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2022) | Viewed by 61766

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Roland Kuen-Ren Chen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
Interests: additive manufacturing; biomedical manufacturing; drug delivery, medical devices
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Yancheng Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
Interests: robotic sensing; 3D printing and additive manufacturing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Additive manufacturing, commonly known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, is a manufacturing process that builds 3D objects by successively adding materials to the workpiece. Most 3D printing systems are geared toward the fabrication of standardized materials. Polymer composites, a class of multi-phase materials, offer a wide variety of material properties that can be tailored based on the need, such as improved mechanical strength or electrical conductivity. When altering the composition of a polymer composite to achieve the desired properties or functionalities, the processing characteristics, such as rheological properties or curing kinetics, also change, thus presenting new challenges for 3D printing of polymer composites. Moreover, controlling the distribution of the filler materials is often desired but is challenging to accomplish. A synergistic approach considering processing characteristics and resultant properties is needed when working with polymer composites for 3D printing.

The scope of this Special Issue includes but is not limited to the development of polymer composite material systems for 3D printing, advances in 3D printing processes for polymer composites, and the characterization and application of 3D printed polymer composites. This Special Issue is intended to assemble a collection of recent research findings in this field and to inspire future research.

Dr. Roland Kuen-Ren Chen
Dr. Yancheng Wang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • 3D printing
  • additive manufacturing
  • material extrusion
  • vat photopolymerization
  • stereolithography
  • digital light processing
  • material jetting
  • composites
  • functional materials
  • functional graded materials

Published Papers (20 papers)

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19 pages, 20630 KiB  
Article
Compression Performance and Failure Analysis of 3D-Printed Carbon Fiber/PLA Composite TPMS Lattice Structures
by Mustafa Saleh, Saqib Anwar, Abdulrahman M. Al-Ahmari and Abdullah Alfaify
Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4595; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214595 - 29 Oct 2022
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4658
Abstract
Triply periodic minimum surface (TPMS)-based lattice structures have gained interest for their outstanding capacity to absorb energy, their high load-bearing capacity, and their high surface-to-volume ratio. This study considered three TPMS cell topologies, including Diamond, Gyroid, and Primitive. The FDM process was used [...] Read more.
Triply periodic minimum surface (TPMS)-based lattice structures have gained interest for their outstanding capacity to absorb energy, their high load-bearing capacity, and their high surface-to-volume ratio. This study considered three TPMS cell topologies, including Diamond, Gyroid, and Primitive. The FDM process was used to print the lattice structures with two materials: pure polylactic acid (PLA) and carbon fiber-reinforced PLA (PLA + CF). The influence of carbon fiber (CF) incorporation, unit cell type (topologies) and size, and relative density (RD) on mechanical properties and failure patterns were explored comprehensively under uniaxial compression testing. The results demonstrate a change in the compressive modulus (0.09 to 0.47 GPa), compressive strength (2.98 to 13.89 MPa), and specific energy absorption (SEA) (0.14 MJ/m3/g to 0.58 MJ/m3/g) due to the influence of CF incorporation, cell type and size, and RD. Results indicate that the Diamond structure outperformed both Primitive and Gyroid structures in terms of compressive modulus and strength, and SEA. All the CF-based TPMS structures showed a higher compressive modulus. Compressive strength and energy absorption capacity were both slightly enhanced in most PLA + CF-based Diamond structures. On the contrary, Gyroid and Primitive structures showed better performance for pure PLA-based structures in terms of compression strength and specific absorption energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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13 pages, 2084 KiB  
Article
High-Resolution 3D Printing Fabrication of a Microfluidic Platform for Blood Plasma Separation
by Sandra Garcia-Rey, Jacob B. Nielsen, Gregory P. Nordin, Adam T. Woolley, Lourdes Basabe-Desmonts and Fernando Benito-Lopez
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2537; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132537 - 22 Jun 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3366
Abstract
Additive manufacturing technology is an emerging method for rapid prototyping, which enables the creation of complex geometries by one-step fabrication processes through a layer-by-layer approach. The simplified fabrication achieved with this methodology opens the way towards a more efficient industrial production, with applications [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing technology is an emerging method for rapid prototyping, which enables the creation of complex geometries by one-step fabrication processes through a layer-by-layer approach. The simplified fabrication achieved with this methodology opens the way towards a more efficient industrial production, with applications in a great number of fields such as biomedical devices. In biomedicine, blood is the gold-standard biofluid for clinical analysis. However, blood cells generate analytical interferences in many test procedures; hence, it is important to separate plasma from blood cells before analytical testing of blood samples. In this research, a custom-made resin formulation combined with a high-resolution 3D printing methodology were used to achieve a methodology for the fast prototype optimization of an operative plasma separation modular device. Through an iterative process, 17 different prototypes were designed and fabricated with printing times ranging from 5 to 12 min. The final device was evaluated through colorimetric analysis, validating this fabrication approach for the qualitative assessment of plasma separation from whole blood. The 3D printing method used here demonstrates the great contribution that this microfluidic technology will bring to the plasma separation biomedical devices market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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15 pages, 2595 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Optimization of a Free-Radical/Cationic Hybrid Photosensitive UV Curable Resin Using Polyurethane Acrylate and Graphene Oxide
by Lijie Huang, Yanan Wang, Zhehao Wei, Xiaoxue Han, Qi Mo, Xiyue Wang and Yishan Li
Polymers 2022, 14(10), 1959; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14101959 - 12 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2128
Abstract
Cost-effective, practical, and efficiently performing photosensitive resin composite materials are essential, as the current materials are expensive, lack better alternatives, and do not meet 3D printing standards. In this study, based on orthogonal experiments for photosensitive resin curing, we prepared a free-radical/cationic hybrid [...] Read more.
Cost-effective, practical, and efficiently performing photosensitive resin composite materials are essential, as the current materials are expensive, lack better alternatives, and do not meet 3D printing standards. In this study, based on orthogonal experiments for photosensitive resin curing, we prepared a free-radical/cationic hybrid photosensitive UV cured resin (UVR) using acrylic ester and epoxy resin as the prepolymers, tripropylenediol diacrylate (TPGDA) as the active diluent, and triaryl sulfonium salt (I-160) and 2,2-dimethyl-α-hydroxy acetophenone (1173) as the photoinitiators, in the optimized formula of acrylic-ester:epoxy-resin:TPGDA:I-160:1173 = 37.5:37.5:20:2.5:2.5. Further, we investigated the effects of polyurethane acrylates (PUA) and Graphene oxide (GO) on the surface morphology, chemical structure, hydrophobicity, mechanical strength, and gelation rate of the hybrid resin. We observed that 20% PUA improved tensile strength to the maximum of 36.89 MPa from 16.42 MPa of the unmodified hybrid resin, whereas 1% GO reduced volume shrinkage to the minimum of 2.89% from 3.73% of the unmodified hybrid resin. These photosensitive resins with higher tensile strength and lower volume shrinkage can be used to synthesize high performance functional materials in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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19 pages, 4118 KiB  
Article
Partial Biodegradable Blend for Fused Filament Fabrication: In-Process Thermal and Post-Printing Moisture Resistance
by Muhammad Harris, Hammad Mohsin, Rakhshanda Naveed, Johan Potgieter, Kashif Ishfaq, Sudip Ray, Marie-Joo Le Guen, Richard Archer and Khalid Mahmood Arif
Polymers 2022, 14(8), 1527; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14081527 - 09 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1809
Abstract
Despite the extensive research, the moisture-based degradation of the 3D-printed polypropylene and polylactic acid blend is not yet reported. This research is a part of study reported on partial biodegradable blends proposed for large-scale additive manufacturing applications. However, the previous work does not [...] Read more.
Despite the extensive research, the moisture-based degradation of the 3D-printed polypropylene and polylactic acid blend is not yet reported. This research is a part of study reported on partial biodegradable blends proposed for large-scale additive manufacturing applications. However, the previous work does not provide information about the stability of the proposed blend system against moisture-based degradation. Therefore, this research presents a combination of excessive physical interlocking and minimum chemical grafting in a partial biodegradable blend to achieve stability against in-process thermal and moisture-based degradation. In this regard, a blend of polylactic acid and polypropylene compatibilized with polyethylene graft maleic anhydride is presented for fused filament fabrication. The research implements, for the first time, an ANOVA for combined thermal and moisture-based degradation. The results are explained using thermochemical and microscopic techniques. Scanning electron microscopy is used for analyzing the printed blend. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy has allowed studying the intermolecular interactions due to the partial blending and degradation mechanism. Differential scanning calorimetry analyzes the blending (physical interlocking or chemical grafting) and thermochemical effects of the degradation mechanism. The thermogravimetric analysis further validates the physical interlocking and chemical grafting. The novel concept of partial blending with excessive interlocking reports high mechanical stability against moisture-based degradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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19 pages, 2210 KiB  
Article
Rheological Investigation of Hydroxypropyl Cellulose–Based Filaments for Material Extrusion 3D Printing
by Yee Mon Than, Sarisa Suriyarak and Varin Titapiwatanakun
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061108 - 10 Mar 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3537
Abstract
The rheological properties of drug–polymer mixtures have a significant influence on their processability when using transformative techniques, such as hot-melt-extrusion and material-extrusion 3D printing; however, there has been limited data on printable systems. This study investigated the rheological properties of 17 formulations of [...] Read more.
The rheological properties of drug–polymer mixtures have a significant influence on their processability when using transformative techniques, such as hot-melt-extrusion and material-extrusion 3D printing; however, there has been limited data on printable systems. This study investigated the rheological properties of 17 formulations of successful printed tablets for both immediate and controlled release. Hydroxypropyl cellulose was used in various ratios to obtain printable filaments in combination with various drugs (indomethacin or theophylline), polymers and disintegrants. The complex viscosity, shear thinning behavior and viscoelastic properties were affected by the drug load, polymer composite, disintegrant type, temperature and shear rate applied. Larger windows of processing viscosity were revealed. The viscosity of the printable blends could be as low as the range 10–1000 Pa·s at 100 rad/s angular frequency. All formulations showed shear thinning behavior with a broad slope of complex viscosity from −0.28 to −0.74. The addition of 30–60% drug or disintegrant tended to have greater viscosity values. While microcrystalline cellulose was found to be an alternative additive to lower the storage and loss modulus among disintegrants. This rheological data could be useful for the preformulation and further development of material-extrusion 3D-printing medicines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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16 pages, 4168 KiB  
Article
Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Aramid/PETG 3D-Printed Composites with High Fiber Loading through Fused Filament Fabrication
by Sander Rijckaert, Lode Daelemans, Ludwig Cardon, Matthieu Boone, Wim Van Paepegem and Karen De Clerck
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020298 - 12 Jan 2022
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3372
Abstract
Recent development in the field of additive manufacturing, also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, has allowed for the incorporation of continuous fiber reinforcement into 3D-printed polymer parts. These fiber reinforcements allow for the improvement of the mechanical properties, but compared to traditionally produced [...] Read more.
Recent development in the field of additive manufacturing, also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, has allowed for the incorporation of continuous fiber reinforcement into 3D-printed polymer parts. These fiber reinforcements allow for the improvement of the mechanical properties, but compared to traditionally produced composite materials, the fiber volume fraction often remains low. This study aims to evaluate the in-nozzle impregnation of continuous aramid fiber reinforcement with glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate (PETG) using a modified, low-cost, tabletop 3D printer. We analyze how dimensional printing parameters such as layer height and line width affect the fiber volume fraction and fiber dispersion in printed composites. By varying these parameters, unidirectional specimens are printed that have an inner structure going from an array-like to a continuous layered-like structure with fiber loading between 20 and 45 vol%. The inner structure was analyzed by optical microscopy and Computed Tomography (µCT), achieving new insights into the structural composition of printed composites. The printed composites show good fiber alignment and the tensile modulus in the fiber direction increased from 2.2 GPa (non-reinforced) to 33 GPa (45 vol%), while the flexural modulus in the fiber direction increased from 1.6 GPa (non-reinforced) to 27 GPa (45 vol%). The continuous 3D reinforced specimens have quality and properties in the range of traditional composite materials produced by hand lay-up techniques, far exceeding the performance of typical bulk 3D-printed polymers. Hence, this technique has potential for the low-cost additive manufacturing of small, intricate parts with substantial mechanical performance, or parts of which only a small number is needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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12 pages, 3624 KiB  
Article
CaCO3 Polymorphs Used as Additives in Filament Production for 3D Printing
by Lucie Zárybnická, Radek Ševčík, Jaroslav Pokorný, Dita Machová, Eliška Stránská and Jiří Šál
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010199 - 04 Jan 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3173
Abstract
Nowadays, additive manufacturing—also called 3D printing—represents a well-established technology in the field of the processing of various types of materials manufacturing products used in many industrial sectors. The most common type of 3D printing uses the fused filament fabrication (FFF) method, in which [...] Read more.
Nowadays, additive manufacturing—also called 3D printing—represents a well-established technology in the field of the processing of various types of materials manufacturing products used in many industrial sectors. The most common type of 3D printing uses the fused filament fabrication (FFF) method, in which materials based on thermoplastics or elastomers are processed into filaments. Much effort was dedicated to improving the properties and processing of such printed filaments, and various types of inorganic and organic additives have been found to play a beneficial role. One of them, calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is standardly used as filler for the processing of polymeric materials. However, it is well-known from its different applications that CaCO3 crystals may represent particles of different morphologies and shapes that may have a crucial impact on the final properties of the resulting products. For this reason, three different synthetic polymorphs of CaCO3 (aragonite, calcite, and vaterite) and commercially available calcite powders were applied as fillers for the fabrication of polymeric filaments. Analysis of obtained data from different testing techniques has shown significant influence of filament properties depending on the type of applied CaCO3 polymorph. Aragonite particles showed a beneficial impact on the mechanical properties of produced filaments. The obtained results may help to fabricate products with enhanced properties using 3D printing FFF technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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12 pages, 2610 KiB  
Article
Ethanol Phase Change Actuator Based on Thermally Conductive Material for Fast Cycle Actuation
by Zirui Liu, Bo Sun, Jianjun Hu, Yunpeng Zhang, Zhaohua Lin and Yunhong Liang
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4095; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234095 - 24 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2147
Abstract
Artificial muscle actuator has been devoted to replicate the function of biological muscles, playing an important part of an emerging field at inter-section of bionic, mechanical, and material disciplines. Most of these artificial muscles possess their own unique functionality and irreplaceability, but also [...] Read more.
Artificial muscle actuator has been devoted to replicate the function of biological muscles, playing an important part of an emerging field at inter-section of bionic, mechanical, and material disciplines. Most of these artificial muscles possess their own unique functionality and irreplaceability, but also have some disadvantages and shortcomings. Among those, phase change type artificial muscles gain particular attentions, owing to the merits of easy processing, convenient controlling, non-toxic and fast-response. Herein, we prepared a silicon/ethanol/(graphene oxide/gold nanoparticles) composite elastic actuator for soft actuation. The functional properties are discussed in terms of microstructure, mechanical properties, thermal imaging and mechanical actuation characteristics, respectively. The added graphene oxide and Au nanoparticles can effectively accelerate the heating rate of material and improve its mechanical properties, thus increasing the vaporization rate of ethanol, which helps to accelerate the deformation rate and enhance the actuation capability. As part of the study, we also tested the performance of composite elastomers containing different concentrations of graphene oxide to identify GO-15 (15 mg of graphene oxide per 7.2 mL of material) flexible actuators as the best composition with a driving force up to 1.68 N. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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18 pages, 6719 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties and a Constitutive Model of 3D-Printed Copper Powder-Filled PLA Material
by Qing Ji, Zhijun Wang, Jianya Yi and Xuezhi Tang
Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3605; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13203605 - 19 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2973
Abstract
Three-dimensional printing is becoming increasingly popular because of its extensive applicability. However, printing materials remain limited. To determine the mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA) and copper powder-filled polylactic acid (PLA-Cu) materials subjected to static and dynamic loading, stress–strain curves were obtained under [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional printing is becoming increasingly popular because of its extensive applicability. However, printing materials remain limited. To determine the mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA) and copper powder-filled polylactic acid (PLA-Cu) materials subjected to static and dynamic loading, stress–strain curves were obtained under the conditions of different strain rates using a universal material testing machine and a separated Hopkinson pressure bar experimental device. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to analyze the micro-morphology of the quasi-static compression fracture and dynamic impact sections. The results revealed that the yield stress and elastic modulus of the two materials increased with increasing strain rate. When the strain rate reached a critical point of 0.033 s−1, the rate of crack propagation in the PLA samples increased, resulting in the material undergoing a change from ductile to brittle. The strength of the material subjected to dynamic loading was significantly higher than that subjected to quasi-static loading. The SEM image of the PLA-Cu material revealed that copper powder was evenly distributed throughout the 3D-printed sample and that stress initially began to concentrate at the defect site corresponding to the interface between the copper powder and PLA matrix; this resulted in comparatively lower toughness. This finding was consistent with the photographs captured via high-speed photography, which confirmed that the destruction of the specimen was accompanied by an explosive crushing process. Additionally, a Zhu–Wang–Tang constitutive model was used to fit the experimental results and establish a viscoelastic constitutive model of the material. By comparing the dynamic stress–strain curve to the theoretically predicted curve, we found that the established constitutive model could predict the mechanical properties of the PLA-Cu material with reasonable accuracy when the strain was below 7%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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16 pages, 9694 KiB  
Article
Strand-Morphology-Based Process Optimization for Extrusion-Based Silicone Additive Manufacturing
by Dingyifei Ma, Xiaoqing Tian, Shengyi Wang, Haijun Liu, Shan Chen, Jiang Han and Lian Xia
Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3576; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13203576 - 16 Oct 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2288
Abstract
In the silicone material extrusion (MEX) process, product profile error and performance defects are common problems due to changes in strand shape. A process optimization method considering strand morphology, denoted as SMO, which allows adjustment of the strand shape by adjusting process parameters [...] Read more.
In the silicone material extrusion (MEX) process, product profile error and performance defects are common problems due to changes in strand shape. A process optimization method considering strand morphology, denoted as SMO, which allows adjustment of the strand shape by adjusting process parameters during the printing process is presented. The relation between process parameters (extrusion speed, moving speed, nozzle height, and nozzle radius) and the geometric parameters (strand width and strand height) of the cross-section, as well as the relationship between strand spacing, layer height, and process parameters in no void constraint is discussed and verified. SMO was utilized to produce specimens with tunable strand width and strand height. Tensile tests and profile scans were performed to compare SMO with other methods to verify its feasibility. Specimens fabricated using the SMO method have up to a 7% increase in tensile strength, up to a 10% reduction in processing time, and about a 60% reduction in strand height error over unused ones. The results show that the SMO method with adjustable strand width can effectively balance efficiency and mechanical properties compared to uniform infill, and the SMO method with adjustable strand height can provide higher accuracy compared to uniform strand height. The proposed method is validated and improves the efficiency and accuracy of silicone MEX. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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13 pages, 5458 KiB  
Article
Interfacial Transcrystallization and Mechanical Performance of 3D-Printed Fully Recyclable Continuous Fiber Self-Reinforced Composites
by Manyu Zhang, Xiaoyong Tian and Dichen Li
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3176; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183176 - 18 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2807
Abstract
To fully exploit the preponderance of three-dimensional (3D)-printed, continuous, fiber-reinforced, thermoplastic composites (CFRTPCs) and self-reinforced composites (which exhibit excellent interfacial affinity and are fully recyclable), an approach in which continuous fiber self-reinforced composites (CFSRCs) can be fabricated by 3D printing is proposed. The [...] Read more.
To fully exploit the preponderance of three-dimensional (3D)-printed, continuous, fiber-reinforced, thermoplastic composites (CFRTPCs) and self-reinforced composites (which exhibit excellent interfacial affinity and are fully recyclable), an approach in which continuous fiber self-reinforced composites (CFSRCs) can be fabricated by 3D printing is proposed. The influence of 3D-printing temperature on the mechanical performance of 3D-printed CFSRCs based on homogeneous, continuous, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fibers and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) filament, utilized as a reinforcing phase and matrix, respectively, was studied. Experimental results showed a qualitative relationship between the printing temperature and the mechanical properties. The ultimate tensile strength, as well as Young’s modulus, were 300.2 MPa and 8.2 GPa, respectively. Furthermore, transcrystallization that occurred in the process of 3D printing resulted in an interface between fibers and the matrix. Finally, the recyclability of 3D-printed CFSRCs has also been demonstrated in this research for potential applications of green composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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12 pages, 4020 KiB  
Article
Process Behavior of Short Glass Fiber Filled Systems during Powder Bed Fusion and Its Effect on Part Dimensions
by Lydia Lanzl and Dietmar Drummer
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3144; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183144 - 17 Sep 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1402
Abstract
In powder bed fusion of polymers, filled systems can provide a wide range of part properties, which is still a deficit in additive manufacturing, as the material variety is limited. Glass fiber filled polymers provide a higher strength and stiffness in parts; nevertheless, [...] Read more.
In powder bed fusion of polymers, filled systems can provide a wide range of part properties, which is still a deficit in additive manufacturing, as the material variety is limited. Glass fiber filled polymers provide a higher strength and stiffness in parts; nevertheless, the process behavior differs from neat polymer systems. In this study, the optical properties and their effect on the part dimensions are analyzed. A higher glass fiber content leads to an increased absorption of laser energy, while the specific heat capacity decreases. This results in larger part dimensions due to higher energy input into the powder bed. The aim of the study is to gain process understanding in terms of ongoing mechanisms during processing filled systems on the one hand and to derive strategies for filled polymer systems in powder bed fusion on the other hand. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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14 pages, 6796 KiB  
Article
A Dyciandiamine-Based Methacrylate-Epoxy Dual-Cure Blend-System for Stereolithography
by Manuel Romeis and Dietmar Drummer
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3139; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183139 - 17 Sep 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2741
Abstract
In this research, an epoxy-based dual-cure system is developed and characterized for SLA additive manufacturing. Dual-cure systems consist of UV-curable acrylates and thermal active components. The second curing step offers an additional degree of freedom to design specific material properties. In this study, [...] Read more.
In this research, an epoxy-based dual-cure system is developed and characterized for SLA additive manufacturing. Dual-cure systems consist of UV-curable acrylates and thermal active components. The second curing step offers an additional degree of freedom to design specific material properties. In this study, a blend of varying concentrations of an epoxy/curing agent mix, respectively, DGEBA, DICY and photocurable methacrylate, was used to create a material that is printable in the SLA process into a UV-cured or green part and subsequently thermally cured to achieve superior thermal and mechanical properties. Calorimetric measurements were performed to determine the reactivity of the thermal reaction at different concentrations of epoxy. The fully cured specimens were tested in mechanical and dynamic mechanical measurements, and the results showed a significant improvement in tensile stress and glass transition temperature with rising epoxy concentrations. Fractured surfaces from tensile testing were investigated to further characterize the failure of tested samples, and thermal degradation was determined in TGA measurements, which showed no significant changes with an increasing epoxy concentration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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23 pages, 13951 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties of PC-ABS-Based Graphene-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites Fabricated by FDM Process
by Vijay Tambrallimath, R. Keshavamurthy, Saravana D. Bavan, Arun Y. Patil, T. M. Yunus Khan, Irfan Anjum Badruddin and Sarfaraz Kamangar
Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2951; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13172951 - 31 Aug 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4033
Abstract
This experimental study investigates the mechanical properties of polymer matrix composites containing nanofiller developed by fused deposition modelling (FDM). A novel polymer nanocomposite was developed by amalgamating polycarbonate-acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC-ABS) by blending with graphene nanoparticles in the following proportions: 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, [...] Read more.
This experimental study investigates the mechanical properties of polymer matrix composites containing nanofiller developed by fused deposition modelling (FDM). A novel polymer nanocomposite was developed by amalgamating polycarbonate-acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC-ABS) by blending with graphene nanoparticles in the following proportions: 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 wt %. The composite filaments were developed using a twin-screw extrusion method. The mechanical properties such as tensile strength, low-velocity impact strength, and surface roughness of pure PC-ABS and PC-ABS + graphene were compared. It was observed that with the addition of graphene, tensile strength and impact strength improved, and a reduction in surface roughness was observed along the build direction. These properties were analyzed to understand the dispersion of graphene in the PC-ABS matrix and its effects on the parameters of the study. With the 0.8 wt % addition of graphene to PC-ABS, the tensile strength increased by 57%, and the impact resistance increased by 87%. A reduction in surface roughness was noted for every incremental addition of graphene to PC-ABS. The highest decrement was seen for the 0.8 wt % addition of graphene reinforcement that amounted to 40% compared to PC-ABS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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13 pages, 14402 KiB  
Article
Influence of Solid Lubricant Addition on Friction and Wear Response of 3D Printed Polymer Composites
by R. Keshavamurthy, Vijay Tambrallimath, Ali A. Rajhi, Shabbir Ahmed R. M, Arun Y. Patil, T. M. Yunus Khan and R. Makannavar
Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2905; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13172905 - 28 Aug 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3564
Abstract
In this study, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and graphite powder—a solid lubricant—were filled and characterized for friction and wear responses. The fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique was utilized to synthesize ABS–graphite composites. A twin-screw extrusion approach was employed to create the composite filament [...] Read more.
In this study, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and graphite powder—a solid lubricant—were filled and characterized for friction and wear responses. The fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique was utilized to synthesize ABS–graphite composites. A twin-screw extrusion approach was employed to create the composite filament of graphite–ABS that is suitable for the FDM process. Three graphite particle ratios ranging from 0% to 5% were explored in the ABS matrix. The wear and friction properties of ABS composites were examined using a pin on disc tribometer at varied sliding velocities and weights. As a result of the graphite addition in the ABS matrix, weight losses for FDM components as well as a decreased coefficient of friction were demonstrated. Furthermore, as the graphite weight percentage in the ABS matrix grows the value of friction and wear loss decreases. The wear mechanisms in graphite filled ABS composites and ABS were extensively examined using scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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13 pages, 3151 KiB  
Article
Hydrophobic Modification of Chitosan via Reactive Solvent-Free Extrusion
by Tatiana A. Akopova, Tatiana S. Demina, Mukhamed A. Khavpachev, Tatiana N. Popyrina, Andrey V. Grachev, Pavel L. Ivanov and Alexander N. Zelenetskii
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2807; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162807 - 21 Aug 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2697
Abstract
Hydrophobic derivatives of polysaccharides possess an amphiphilic behavior and are widely used as rheological modifiers, selective sorbents, and stabilizers for compositions intended for various applications. In this work, we studied the mechanochemical reactions of chitosan alkylation when interacting with docosylglycidyl and hexadecylglycidyl ethers [...] Read more.
Hydrophobic derivatives of polysaccharides possess an amphiphilic behavior and are widely used as rheological modifiers, selective sorbents, and stabilizers for compositions intended for various applications. In this work, we studied the mechanochemical reactions of chitosan alkylation when interacting with docosylglycidyl and hexadecylglycidyl ethers in the absence of solvents at shear deformation in a pilot twin-screw extruder. The chemical structure and physical properties of the obtained derivatives were characterized by elemental analysis, FT-IR spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy, and mechanical tests. According to calculations for products soluble in aqueous media, it was possible to introduce about 5–12 hydrophobic fragments per chitosan macromolecule with a degree of polymerization of 500–2000. The length of the carbon chain of the alkyl substituent significantly affects its reactivity under the chosen conditions of mechanochemical synthesis. It was shown that modification disturbs the packing ability of the macromolecules, resulting in an increase of plasticity and drop in the elastic modulus of the film made from the hydrophobically modified chitosan samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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18 pages, 5557 KiB  
Article
Estimating the Accuracy of Mandible Anatomical Models Manufactured Using Material Extrusion Methods
by Paweł Turek and Grzegorz Budzik
Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2271; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13142271 - 11 Jul 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2323
Abstract
The development of new solutions in craniofacial surgery brings the need to increase the accuracy of 3D printing models. The accuracy of the manufactured models is most often verified using optical coordinate measuring systems. However, so far, no decision has been taken regarding [...] Read more.
The development of new solutions in craniofacial surgery brings the need to increase the accuracy of 3D printing models. The accuracy of the manufactured models is most often verified using optical coordinate measuring systems. However, so far, no decision has been taken regarding which type of system would allow for a reliable estimation of the geometrical accuracy of the anatomical models. Three types of optical measurement systems (Atos III Triple Scan, articulated arm (MCA-II) with a laser head (MMD × 100), and Benchtop CT160Xi) were used to verify the accuracy of 12 polymer anatomical models of the left side of the mandible. The models were manufactured using fused deposition modeling (FDM), melted and extruded modeling (MEM), and fused filament fabrication (FFF) techniques. The obtained results indicate that the Atos III Triple Scan allows for the most accurate estimation of errors in model manufacturing. Using the FDM technique obtained the best accuracy in models manufactured (0.008 ± 0.118 mm for ABS0-M30 and 0.016 ± 0.178 mm for PC-10 material). A very similar value of the standard deviation of PLA and PET material was observed (about 0.180 mm). The worst results were observed in the MEM technique (0.012 mm ± 0.308 mm). The knowledge regarding the precisely evaluated errors in manufactured models within the mandibular area will help in the controlled preparation of templates regarding the expected accuracy of surgical operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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22 pages, 4364 KiB  
Article
Feasibility Analysis of Bolted Joints with Composite Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastics
by Daniel Tobalina-Baldeon, Felix Sanz-Adán, Marian Martinez-Calvo, Carmelo Gómez, Inigo Sanz-Pena and Francisco Cavas
Polymers 2021, 13(12), 1904; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13121904 - 08 Jun 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2432
Abstract
The use of composite materials has shown steady growth in recent years due to their excellent specific mechanical properties and the possibility to reduce the weight of vehicles without impairing their safety and comfort. Continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTP) show dynamic, acoustic, and [...] Read more.
The use of composite materials has shown steady growth in recent years due to their excellent specific mechanical properties and the possibility to reduce the weight of vehicles without impairing their safety and comfort. Continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTP) show dynamic, acoustic, and damping properties far superior to steel and can be recycled and repaired. Their excellent properties make CFRTP good candidates for anti-vibration and shock absorbing components, however, out-of-plane mechanical properties hinder the anchoring to the vehicle’s body by means of bolted connections. The results obtained in this study show how the maximum torque that can be applied without cracks or breakage phenomena is lower than in standard steel joints. Although the preload’s value is admissible, this one is reduced over time due to relaxation phenomena associated with the viscoelastic behaviour of thermoplastic matrix. The results obtained can be improved with the integration of metal inserts in connections’ areas. In this study, a case study of a gear mount replacing the steel core with CFRTP reinforced with inserts is carried out. The results show a reduction above 50% in weight, opening the possibility of lighter structures in the automotive sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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Review

Jump to: Research

23 pages, 55918 KiB  
Review
A Review on Reinforcement Methods for Polymeric Materials Processed Using Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)
by Juan Pratama, Sukmaji I. Cahyono, Suyitno Suyitno, Muhammad A. Muflikhun, Urip A. Salim, Muslim Mahardika and Budi Arifvianto
Polymers 2021, 13(22), 4022; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13224022 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 2774
Abstract
Over the last few years, fused filament fabrication (FFF) has become one of the most promising and widely used techniques for the rapid prototyping process. A number of studies have also shown the possibility of FFF being used for the fabrication of functional [...] Read more.
Over the last few years, fused filament fabrication (FFF) has become one of the most promising and widely used techniques for the rapid prototyping process. A number of studies have also shown the possibility of FFF being used for the fabrication of functional products, such as biomedical implants and automotive components. However, the poor mechanical properties possessed by FFF-processed products are considered one of the major shortcomings of this technique. Over the last decade, many researchers have attempted to improve the mechanical properties of FFF-processed products using several strategies—for instance, by applying the short fiber reinforcement (SFR), continuous fiber reinforcement (CFR), powder addition reinforcement (PAR), vibration-assisted FFF (VA-FFF) methods, as well as annealing. In this paper, the details of all these reinforcement techniques are reviewed. The abilities of each method in improving tensile, flexural, and compressive strength are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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20 pages, 2952 KiB  
Review
Fused Filament Fabrication Process: A Review of Numerical Simulation Techniques
by Ans Al Rashid and Muammer Koç
Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3534; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13203534 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 4834
Abstract
Three-dimensional printing (3DP), also known as additive manufacturing (AM), has rapidly evolved over the past few decades. Researchers around the globe have been putting their efforts into AM processes improvement and materials development. One of the most widely used extrusion-based technology under AM [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional printing (3DP), also known as additive manufacturing (AM), has rapidly evolved over the past few decades. Researchers around the globe have been putting their efforts into AM processes improvement and materials development. One of the most widely used extrusion-based technology under AM processes is Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), also known as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF). Numerical simulation tools are being employed to predict the FFF process complexities and material behavior. These tools allow exploring candidate materials for their potential use in the FFF process and process improvements. The prime objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive review of state-of-the-art scientific achievements in numerical simulations of the FFF process for polymers and their composites. The first section presents an in-depth discussion of the FFF process’s physical phenomena and highlights the multi-level complexity. The subsequent section discusses the research efforts, specifically on numerical simulation techniques reported in the literature for simulation of the FFF process. Finally, conclusions are drawn based on the reviewed literature, and future research directions are identified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for 3D Printing)
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