Plants

13 pages, 304 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Horizontal Gene Transfer and Endophytes: An Implication for the Acquisition of Novel Traits

by Pragya Tiwari and Hanhong Bae

Plants 2020, 9(3), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9030305 - 1 Mar 2020

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 8755

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), an important evolutionary mechanism observed in prokaryotes, is the transmission of genetic material across phylogenetically distant species. In recent years, the availability of complete genomes has facilitated the comprehensive analysis of HGT and highlighted its emerging role in the [...] Read more.

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), an important evolutionary mechanism observed in prokaryotes, is the transmission of genetic material across phylogenetically distant species. In recent years, the availability of complete genomes has facilitated the comprehensive analysis of HGT and highlighted its emerging role in the adaptation and evolution of eukaryotes. Endophytes represent an ecologically favored association, which highlights its beneficial attributes to the environment, in agriculture and in healthcare. The HGT phenomenon in endophytes, which features an important biological mechanism for their evolutionary adaptation within the host plant and simultaneously confers “novel traits” to the associated microbes, is not yet completely understood. With a focus on the emerging implications of HGT events in the evolution of biological species, the present review discusses the occurrence of HGT in endophytes and its socio-economic importance in the current perspective. To our knowledge, this review is the first report that provides a comprehensive insight into the impact of HGT in the adaptation and evolution of endophytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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11 pages, 1115 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Shedding the Last Layer: Mechanisms of Root Cap Cell Release

by Narender Kumar and Anjali S. Iyer-Pascuzzi

Plants 2020, 9(3), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9030308 - 1 Mar 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 10350

Abstract

The root cap, a small tissue at the tip of the root, protects the root from environmental stress and functions in gravity perception. To perform its functions, the position and size of the root cap remains stable throughout root growth. This occurs due [...] Read more.

The root cap, a small tissue at the tip of the root, protects the root from environmental stress and functions in gravity perception. To perform its functions, the position and size of the root cap remains stable throughout root growth. This occurs due to constant root cap cell turnover, in which the last layer of the root cap is released, and new root cap cells are produced. Cells in the last root cap layer are known as border cells or border-like cells, and have important functions in root protection against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Despite the importance of root cap cell release to root health and plant growth, the mechanisms regulating this phenomenon are not well understood. Recent work identified several factors including transcription factors, auxin, and small peptides with roles in the production and release of root cap cells. Here, we review the involvement of the known players in root cap cell release, compare the release of border-like cells and border cells, and discuss the importance of root cap cell release to root health and survival. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cell Separation Processes in Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation)

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18 pages, 2411 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Study of Growth, Cadmium Accumulation and Tolerance of Three Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Cultivars

by Shakir Ullah, Jafar Khan, Khizar Hayat, Ahmed Abdelfattah Elateeq, Uzma Salam, Bofan Yu, Yuehua Ma, Hongzheng Wang and Zhong-Hua Tang

Plants 2020, 9(3), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9030310 - 1 Mar 2020

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 5154

Abstract

Trace metals (TM) contamination is a severe problem in the environment and produced an adverse effect on the productivity of crops. Cadmium (Cd) is a TM ranked seven among the top 20 pollutants due to its high toxicity and solubility in water, taken [...] Read more.

Trace metals (TM) contamination is a severe problem in the environment and produced an adverse effect on the productivity of crops. Cadmium (Cd) is a TM ranked seven among the top 20 pollutants due to its high toxicity and solubility in water, taken up by the plants and affects their growth and metabolism. In this study, we evaluated the growth, Cd accumulation and tolerance capacities of three chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars (NC234 (NC2), ICCV89310 (IC8) and ICCV89323-B (IC8-B)), subjected to two Cd concentrations (25 and 50 µM) in hydroponic culture. The toxicity of Cd reduced the plant height and fresh and dry biomass in all cultivars. The maximum reduction was observed at 50 µM of Cd. Compared with IC8-B, cultivars IC8 and NC2 exhibited better performance with high growth, biomass, root to shoot (R/S) ratio and water content under high Cd stress. To measure the accumulation of Cd in root and shoot, an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) was used. IC8 and NC2 had comparatively high Cd tolerance and accumulation ability (> 100 µg g⁻¹ dry weight), with IC8 being more tolerant and accumulated higher Cd in shoot than NC2, while cultivar IC8-B was sensitive. Root accumulated more Cd than shoot in a dose-dependent manner. The bioconcentration factors (BCF) and bioaccumulation coefficients (BAC) were far higher than one (> 1) and increased with an increase in Cd concentrations, while the translocation factor (TF) was less than one (< 1), suggesting that all the three cultivars were unable to transfer Cd from the root to the shoot efficiently. Our results indicated that IC8 and NC2 proved to be resistant, while IC8-B showed sensitivity when exposed to high Cd stress (50 µM). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanism and Genes for Heavy Metal Tolerance and Accumulation in Plants)

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40 pages, 2223 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Isatis tinctoria L. (Woad): A Review of Its Botany, Ethnobotanical Uses, Phytochemistry, Biological Activities, and Biotechnological Studies

by Jasmine Speranza, Natalizia Miceli, Maria Fernanda Taviano, Salvatore Ragusa, Inga Kwiecień, Agnieszka Szopa and Halina Ekiert

Plants 2020, 9(3), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9030298 - 1 Mar 2020

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 12833

Abstract

Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae), which is commonly known as woad, is a species with an ancient and well-documented history as an indigo dye and medicinal plant. Currently, I. tinctoria is utilized more often as medicinal remedy and also as a cosmetic ingredient. In [...] Read more.

Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae), which is commonly known as woad, is a species with an ancient and well-documented history as an indigo dye and medicinal plant. Currently, I. tinctoria is utilized more often as medicinal remedy and also as a cosmetic ingredient. In 2011, I. tinctoria root was accepted in the official European phytotherapy by introducing its monograph in the European Pharmacopoeia. The biological properties of raw material have been known from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Over recent decades, I. tinctoria has been investigated both from a phytochemical and a biological point of view. The modern in vitro and in vivo scientific studies proved anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, antimicrobial, antiviral, analgesic, and antioxidant activities. The phytochemical composition of I. tinctoria has been thoroughly investigated and the plant was proven to contain many valuable biologically active compounds, including several alkaloids, among which tryptanthrin, indirubin, indolinone, phenolic compounds, and polysaccharides as well as glucosinolates, carotenoids, volatile constituents, and fatty acids. This article provides a general botanical and ethnobotanical overview that summarizes the up-to-date knowledge on the phytochemistry and biological properties of this valuable plant in order to support its therapeutic potential. Moreover, the biotechnological studies on I. tinctoria, which mainly focused on hairy root cultures for the enhanced production of flavonoids and alkaloids as well as on the establishment of shoot cultures and micropropagation protocols, were reviewed. They provide input for future research prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanisms of Plant Antioxidants Action)

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22 pages, 1255 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoicePerspective

Flexibility in the Energy Balancing Network of Photosynthesis Enables Safe Operation under Changing Environmental Conditions

by Berkley J. Walker, David M. Kramer, Nicholas Fisher and Xinyu Fu

Plants 2020, 9(3), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9030301 - 1 Mar 2020

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6340

Abstract

Given their ability to harness chemical energy from the sun and generate the organic compounds necessary for life, photosynthetic organisms have the unique capacity to act simultaneously as their own power and manufacturing plant. This dual capacity presents many unique challenges, chiefly that [...] Read more.

Given their ability to harness chemical energy from the sun and generate the organic compounds necessary for life, photosynthetic organisms have the unique capacity to act simultaneously as their own power and manufacturing plant. This dual capacity presents many unique challenges, chiefly that energy supply must be perfectly balanced with energy demand to prevent photodamage and allow for optimal growth. From this perspective, we discuss the energy balancing network using recent studies and a quantitative framework for calculating metabolic ATP and NAD(P)H demand using measured leaf gas exchange and assumptions of metabolic demand. We focus on exploring how the energy balancing network itself is structured to allow safe and flexible energy supply. We discuss when the energy balancing network appears to operate optimally and when it favors high capacity instead. We also present the hypothesis that the energy balancing network itself can adapt over longer time scales to a given metabolic demand and how metabolism itself may participate in this energy balancing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulation of Central Carbon and Amino Acid Metabolism in Plants)

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23 pages, 1691 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Citrus Flavones: An Update on Sources, Biological Functions, and Health Promoting Properties

by Davide Barreca, Giuseppina Mandalari, Antonella Calderaro, Antonella Smeriglio, Domenico Trombetta, Maria Rosa Felice and Giuseppe Gattuso

Plants 2020, 9(3), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9030288 - 26 Feb 2020

Cited by 87 | Viewed by 6878

Abstract

Citrus spp. are among the most widespread plants cultivated worldwide and every year millions of tons of fruit, juices, or processed compounds are produced and consumed, representing one of the main sources of nutrients in human diet. Among these, the flavonoids play a [...] Read more.

Citrus spp. are among the most widespread plants cultivated worldwide and every year millions of tons of fruit, juices, or processed compounds are produced and consumed, representing one of the main sources of nutrients in human diet. Among these, the flavonoids play a key role in providing a wide range of health beneficial effects. Apigenin, diosmetin, luteolin, acacetin, chrysoeriol, and their respective glycosides, that occur in concentrations up to 60 mg/L, are the most common flavones found in Citrus fruits and juices. The unique characteristics of their basic skeleton and the nature and position of the substituents have attracted and stimulated vigorous investigations as a consequence of an enormous biological potential, that manifests itself as (among other properties) antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. This review analyzes the biochemical, pharmacological, and biological properties of Citrus flavones, emphasizing their occurrence in Citrus spp. fruits and juices, on their bioavailability, and their ability to modulate signal cascades and key metabolic enzymes both in vitro and in vivo. Electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and SciFinder were used to investigate recent published articles on Citrus spp. in terms of components and bioactivity potentials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2019 Feature Papers by Plants’ Editorial Board Members)

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13 pages, 377 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comprehensive Real-Time RT-PCR Assays for the Detection of Fifteen Viruses Infecting Prunus spp.

by Alfredo Diaz-Lara, Kristian Stevens, Vicki Klaassen, Deborah Golino and Maher Al Rwahnih

Plants 2020, 9(2), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020273 - 19 Feb 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4194

Abstract

Viruses can cause economic losses in fruit trees, including Prunus spp., by reducing yield and marketable fruit. Given the genetic diversity of viruses, reliable diagnostic methods relying on PCR are critical in determining viral infection in fruit trees. This study evaluated the broad-range [...] Read more.

Viruses can cause economic losses in fruit trees, including Prunus spp., by reducing yield and marketable fruit. Given the genetic diversity of viruses, reliable diagnostic methods relying on PCR are critical in determining viral infection in fruit trees. This study evaluated the broad-range detection capacity of currently available real-time RT-PCR assays for Prunus-infecting viruses and developed new assays when current tests were inadequate or absent. Available assays for 15 different viruses were exhaustively evaluated in silico to determine their capacity to detect virus isolates deposited in GenBank. During this evaluation, several isolates deposited since the assay was designed exhibited nucleotide mismatches in relation to the existing assay’s primer sequences. In cases where updating an existing assay was impractical, we performed a redesign with the dual goals of assay compactness and comprehensive inclusion of genetic diversity. The efficiency of each developed assay was determined by a standard curve. To validate the assay designs, we tested them against a comprehensive set of 87 positive and negative Prunus samples independently analyzed by high throughput sequencing. As a result, all the real-time RT-PCR assays described herein successfully detected the different viruses and their corresponding isolates. To further validate the new and updated assays a Prunus germplasm collection was surveyed. The sensitive and reliable detection methods described here will be used for the large-scale pathogen testing required to maintain the highest quality nursery stock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosis and Control of Plant Viral Diseases)

11 pages, 1852 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

In Vitro Anti-HSV-1 Activity of Polyphenol-Rich Extracts and Pure Polyphenol Compounds Derived from Pistachios Kernels (Pistacia vera L.)

by Maria Musarra-Pizzo, Rosamaria Pennisi, Ichrak Ben-Amor, Antonella Smeriglio, Giuseppina Mandalari and Maria Teresa Sciortino

Plants 2020, 9(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020267 - 18 Feb 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5120

Abstract

Natural compounds are a prominent source of novel antiviral drugs. Several reports have previously shown the antimicrobial activity of pistachio polyphenol extracts. Therefore, the aim of our research was to investigate the activity of polyphenol-rich extracts of natural shelled (NPRE) pistachios kernels ( [...] Read more.

Natural compounds are a prominent source of novel antiviral drugs. Several reports have previously shown the antimicrobial activity of pistachio polyphenol extracts. Therefore, the aim of our research was to investigate the activity of polyphenol-rich extracts of natural shelled (NPRE) pistachios kernels (Pistacia vera L.) on herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) replication. The Vero cell line was used to assess the cytotoxicity and antiviral activity. The cell viability was calculated by detection of cellular ATP after treatment with various concentrations of NPRE. For antiviral studies, five nontoxic-concentrations (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 mg/mL) were tested. Our study demonstrated that treatment with NPRE (0.4, 0.6, 0.8 mg/mL) reduced the expression of the viral proteins ICP8 (infected cell polypeptide 8), UL42 (unique long UL42 DNA polymerase processivity factor), and US11 (unique short US11 protein), and resulted in a decrease of viral DNA synthesis. The 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀), 50% inhibitory concentration (EC₅₀), and the selectivity index (SI) values for NPRE were 1.2 mg/mL, 0.4mg/mL, and 3, respectively. Furthermore, we assessed the anti-herpetic effect of a mix of pure polyphenol compounds (NS MIX) present in NPRE. In conclusion, our findings indicate that natural shelled pistachio kernels have remarkable inhibitory activity against HSV-1. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanisms of Plant Antioxidants Action)

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23 pages, 3083 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis of Gene Expression Provides New Insights into Waterlogging Responses in Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

by Ana Borrego-Benjumea, Adam Carter, James R. Tucker, Zhen Yao, Wayne Xu and Ana Badea

Plants 2020, 9(2), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020240 - 13 Feb 2020

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 5206

Abstract

Waterlogging is a major abiotic stress causing oxygen depletion and carbon dioxide accumulation in the rhizosphere. Barley is more susceptible to waterlogging stress than other cereals. To gain a better understanding, the genome-wide gene expression responses in roots of waterlogged barley seedlings of [...] Read more.

Waterlogging is a major abiotic stress causing oxygen depletion and carbon dioxide accumulation in the rhizosphere. Barley is more susceptible to waterlogging stress than other cereals. To gain a better understanding, the genome-wide gene expression responses in roots of waterlogged barley seedlings of Yerong and Deder2 were analyzed by RNA-Sequencing. A total of 6736, 5482, and 4538 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in waterlogged roots of Yerong at 72 h and Deder2 at 72 and 120 h, respectively, compared with the non-waterlogged control. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analyses showed that the most significant changes in GO terms, resulted from these DEGs observed under waterlogging stress, were related to primary and secondary metabolism, regulation, and oxygen carrier activity. In addition, more than 297 transcription factors, including members of MYB, AP2/EREBP, NAC, WRKY, bHLH, bZIP, and G2-like families, were identified as waterlogging responsive. Tentative important contributors to waterlogging tolerance in Deder2 might be the highest up-regulated DEGs: Trichome birefringence, α/β-Hydrolases, Xylanase inhibitor, MATE efflux, serine carboxypeptidase, and SAUR-like auxin-responsive protein. The study provides insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the response to waterlogging in barley, which will be of benefit for future studies of molecular responses to waterlogging and will greatly assist barley genetic research and breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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18 pages, 1262 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Soybean Resistance to Soybean Mosaic Virus

by Kristin Widyasari, Mazen Alazem and Kook-Hyung Kim

Plants 2020, 9(2), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020219 - 8 Feb 2020

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 10110

Abstract

Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) occurs in all soybean-growing areas in the world and causes huge losses in soybean yields and seed quality. During early viral infection, molecular interactions between SMV effector proteins and the soybean resistance (R) protein, if present, determine the development [...] Read more.

Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) occurs in all soybean-growing areas in the world and causes huge losses in soybean yields and seed quality. During early viral infection, molecular interactions between SMV effector proteins and the soybean resistance (R) protein, if present, determine the development of resistance/disease in soybean plants. Depending on the interacting strain and cultivar, R-protein in resistant soybean perceives a specific SMV effector, which triggers either the extreme silent resistance or the typical resistance manifested by hypersensitive responses and induction of salicylic acid and reactive oxygen species. In this review, we consider the major advances that have been made in understanding the soybean–SMV arms race. We also focus on dissecting mechanisms SMV employs to establish infection and how soybean perceives and then responds to SMV attack. In addition, progress on soybean R-genes studies, as well as those addressing independent resistance genes, are also addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2019 Feature Papers by Plants’ Editorial Board Members)

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15 pages, 1550 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Co-Translational Protein Folding and Sorting in Chloroplasts

by Fabian Ries, Claudia Herkt and Felix Willmund

Plants 2020, 9(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020214 - 7 Feb 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4995

Abstract

Cells depend on the continuous renewal of their proteome composition during the cell cycle and in order to replace aberrant proteins or to react to changing environmental conditions. In higher eukaryotes, protein synthesis is achieved by up to five million ribosomes per cell. [...] Read more.

Cells depend on the continuous renewal of their proteome composition during the cell cycle and in order to replace aberrant proteins or to react to changing environmental conditions. In higher eukaryotes, protein synthesis is achieved by up to five million ribosomes per cell. With the fast kinetics of translation, the large number of newly made proteins generates a substantial burden for protein homeostasis and requires a highly orchestrated cascade of factors promoting folding, sorting and final maturation. Several of the involved factors directly bind to translating ribosomes for the early processing of emerging nascent polypeptides and the translocation of ribosome nascent chain complexes to target membranes. In plant cells, protein synthesis also occurs in chloroplasts serving the expression of a relatively small set of 60–100 protein-coding genes. However, most of these proteins, together with nucleus-derived subunits, form central complexes majorly involved in the essential processes of photosynthetic light reaction, carbon fixation, metabolism and gene expression. Biogenesis of these heterogenic complexes adds an additional level of complexity for protein biogenesis. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about co-translationally binding factors in chloroplasts and discuss their role in protein folding and ribosome translocation to thylakoid membranes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chloroplast RNA Metabolism and Biology)

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23 pages, 2425 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cytokinins Are Abundant and Widespread among Insect Species

by Peter Andreas, Anna Kisiala, R. J. Neil Emery, Rosemarie De Clerck-Floate, John F. Tooker, Peter W. Price, Donald G. Miller III, Ming-Shun Chen and Edward F. Connor

Plants 2020, 9(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020208 - 6 Feb 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 7235

Abstract

Cytokinins (CKs) are a class of compounds that have long been thought to be exclusively plant growth regulators. Interestingly, some species of phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi have been shown to, and gall-inducing insects have been hypothesized to, produce CKs and use them to [...] Read more.

Cytokinins (CKs) are a class of compounds that have long been thought to be exclusively plant growth regulators. Interestingly, some species of phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi have been shown to, and gall-inducing insects have been hypothesized to, produce CKs and use them to manipulate their host plants. We used high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) to examine concentrations of a wide range of CKs in 17 species of phytophagous insects, including gall- and non-gall-inducing species from all six orders of Insecta that contain species known to induce galls: Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. We found CKs in all six orders of insects, and they were not associated exclusively with gall-inducing species. We detected 24 different CK analytes, varying in their chemical structure and biological activity. Isoprenoid precursor nucleotide and riboside forms of trans-zeatin (tZ) and isopentenyladenine (iP) were most abundant and widespread across the surveyed insect species. Notably, the observed concentrations of CKs often markedly exceeded those reported in plants suggesting that insects are synthesizing CKs rather than obtaining them from the host plant via tissue consumption, compound sequestration, and bioaccumulation. These findings support insect-derived CKs as means for gall-inducing insects to manipulate their host plant to facilitate cell proliferation, and for both gall- and non-gall-inducing insects to modify nutrient flux and plant defenses during herbivory. Furthermore, wide distribution of CKs across phytophagous insects, including non-gall-inducing species, suggests that insect-borne CKs could be involved in manipulation of source-sink mechanisms of nutrient allocation to sustain the feeding site and altering plant defensive responses, rather than solely gall induction. Given the absence of any evidence for genes in the de novo CK biosynthesis pathway in insects, we postulate that the tRNA-ipt pathway is responsible for CK production. However, the unusually high concentrations of CKs in insects, and the tendency toward dominance of their CK profiles by tZ and iP suggest that the tRNA-ipt pathway functions differently and substantially more efficiently in insects than in plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Roles of Cytokinins in Plants and Their Response to Environmental Stimuli)

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26 pages, 1490 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Plant Cell Walls Tackling Climate Change: Biotechnological Strategies to Improve Crop Adaptations and Photosynthesis in Response to Global Warming

by Ignacio Ezquer, Ilige Salameh, Lucia Colombo and Panagiotis Kalaitzis

Plants 2020, 9(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020212 - 6 Feb 2020

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 9217

Abstract

Plant cell wall (CW) is a complex and intricate structure that performs several functions throughout the plant life cycle. The CW of plants is critical to the maintenance of cells’ structural integrity by resisting internal hydrostatic pressures, providing flexibility to support cell division [...] Read more.

Plant cell wall (CW) is a complex and intricate structure that performs several functions throughout the plant life cycle. The CW of plants is critical to the maintenance of cells’ structural integrity by resisting internal hydrostatic pressures, providing flexibility to support cell division and expansion during tissue differentiation, and acting as an environmental barrier that protects the cells in response to abiotic stress. Plant CW, comprised primarily of polysaccharides, represents the largest sink for photosynthetically fixed carbon, both in plants and in the biosphere. The CW structure is highly varied, not only between plant species but also among different organs, tissues, and cell types in the same organism. During the developmental processes, the main CW components, i.e., cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses, and different types of CW-glycoproteins, interact constantly with each other and with the environment to maintain cell homeostasis. Differentiation processes are altered by positional effect and are also tightly linked to environmental changes, affecting CW both at the molecular and biochemical levels. The negative effect of climate change on the environment is multifaceted, from high temperatures, altered concentrations of greenhouse gases such as increasing CO₂ in the atmosphere, soil salinity, and drought, to increasing frequency of extreme weather events taking place concomitantly, therefore, climate change affects crop productivity in multiple ways. Rising CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere is expected to increase photosynthetic rates, especially at high temperatures and under water-limited conditions. This review aims to synthesize current knowledge regarding the effects of climate change on CW biogenesis and modification. We discuss specific cases in crops of interest carrying cell wall modifications that enhance tolerance to climate change-related stresses; from cereals such as rice, wheat, barley, or maize to dicots of interest such as brassica oilseed, cotton, soybean, tomato, or potato. This information could be used for the rational design of genetic engineering traits that aim to increase the stress tolerance in key crops. Future growing conditions expose plants to variable and extreme climate change factors, which negatively impact global agriculture, and therefore further research in this area is critical. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthetic Metabolism under Stressful Growth Conditions)

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18 pages, 4673 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Profiling of Flavonoid and Antioxidant Activity of Fruit Tissues from 27 Chinese Local Citrus Cultivars

by Qiyang Chen, Dan Wang, Chun Tan, Yan Hu, Balasubramani Sundararajan and Zhiqin Zhou

Plants 2020, 9(2), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020196 - 5 Feb 2020

Cited by 77 | Viewed by 6075

Abstract

Flavonoid profile and antioxidant activity of citrus peels, pulps, and juices from 27 local citrus cultivars in China were investigated. Flavonoid composition and content were determined using UPLC-PDA. Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were measured using a Folin–Ciocalteau reagent [...] Read more.

Flavonoid profile and antioxidant activity of citrus peels, pulps, and juices from 27 local citrus cultivars in China were investigated. Flavonoid composition and content were determined using UPLC-PDA. Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) were measured using a Folin–Ciocalteau reagent and Al(NO₃)-NaNO₂ complexometry, respectively. The antioxidant capacities of the extracts were evaluated by DPPH, ABTS and FRAP method, respectively. Citrus peel not only exhibited better antioxidant potential, but also presented more composition diversity and contained higher concentrations of flavonoids than pulp and juice. Different citrus species were characterized by their individual predominant flavonoids, contributing largely to the antioxidant activity, such as mandarin was characterized by hesperidin, nobiletin and tangeretin, while pummelo and papeda were characterized by naringin. The peel of Guihuadinanfeng (Citrus reticulata) had the highest TPC of 23.46 mg equivalent gallic acid/g DW (dry weight) and TFC of 21.37 mg equivalent rutin/g DW. Shiyueju (C. reticulata) peel showed the highest antioxidant capacity based on the antioxidant potency composite (APC) analysis. Overall, mandarin (C. reticulata) fruits peel contained more TPC and TFC, exhibiting higher antioxidant capacities than other species, and were good natural sources of flavonoids and antioxidants. Full article

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20 pages, 2883 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Transgenerational Effects of Water-Deficit and Heat Stress on Germination and Seedling Vigour—New Insights from Durum Wheat microRNAs

by Haipei Liu, Amanda J. Able and Jason A. Able

Plants 2020, 9(2), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020189 - 4 Feb 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4660

Abstract

Water deficiency and heat stress can severely limit crop production and quality. Stress imposed on the parents during reproduction could have transgenerational effects on their progeny. Seeds with different origins can vary significantly in their germination and early growth. Here, we investigated how [...] Read more.

Water deficiency and heat stress can severely limit crop production and quality. Stress imposed on the parents during reproduction could have transgenerational effects on their progeny. Seeds with different origins can vary significantly in their germination and early growth. Here, we investigated how water-deficit and heat stress on parental durum wheat plants affected seedling establishment of the subsequent generation. One stress-tolerant and one stress-sensitive Australian durum genotype were used. Seeds were collected from parents with or without exposure to stress during reproduction. Generally, stress on the previous generation negatively affected seed germination and seedling vigour, but to a lesser extent in the tolerant variety. Small RNA sequencing utilising the new durum genome assembly revealed significant differences in microRNA (miRNA) expression in the two genotypes. A bioinformatics approach was used to identify multiple miRNA targets which have critical molecular functions in stress adaptation and plant development and could therefore contribute to the phenotypic differences observed. Our data provide the first confirmation of the transgenerational effects of reproductive-stage stress on germination and seedling establishment in durum wheat. New insights gained on the epigenetic level indicate that durum miRNAs could be key factors in optimising seed vigour for breeding superior germplasm and/or varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Small RNAs in Crop Improvement and Breeding)

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19 pages, 3602 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cultivar Resistance against Colletotrichum asianum in the World Collection of Mango Germplasm in Southeastern Brazil

by Alessandro Vitale, Acelino Couto Alfenas, Dalmo Lopes de Siqueira, Donato Magistà, Giancarlo Perrone and Giancarlo Polizzi

Plants 2020, 9(2), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020182 - 2 Feb 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5272

Abstract

During the spring of 2014, a wide survey was conducted in one of the most important mango (Mangifera indica) cultivating areas located in Minas Gerais State (Brazil) to ascertain the causal agent of severe anthracnose infections and to evaluate disease susceptibility [...] Read more.

During the spring of 2014, a wide survey was conducted in one of the most important mango (Mangifera indica) cultivating areas located in Minas Gerais State (Brazil) to ascertain the causal agent of severe anthracnose infections and to evaluate disease susceptibility within a world collection of mango germplasm. Overall, 86 cultivars were monitored and 152 fungal isolates recovered from infected samples were identified by morphological characterization, DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analyses. All isolates were identified as Colletotrichum asianum. Under natural disease pressure, it has been possible to ascertain a variable tolerance degree within the germplasm collection. By applying a categorized classification, cultivars were classified as follows: 10 highly sensitive (11.6%), 13 sensitive (15.1%), 18 moderately sensitive (20.9%), 23 moderately tolerant (26.7%), 11 tolerant (12.8%), and 11 highly tolerant (10.4%). The most susceptible cultivars to anthracnose were Ubà, Quinzenga, Amarelinha da Sementeira followed by Aroeira and Correjo, whereas Mallika followed by Ourinho and Lita resulted in the least susceptible cultivars. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first large-scale evaluation of mango susceptibility to C. asianum infections within a wide number of cultivars. Anthracnose is a serious threat to mango production and assessment of cultivar response to disease could be useful in breeding programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Protection and Biotic Interactions)

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14 pages, 1130 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Additive Effect of Botanical Insecticide and Entomopathogenic Fungi on Pest Mortality and the Behavioral Response of Its Natural Enemy

by G. Mandela Fernández-Grandon, Steven J. Harte, Jaspher Ewany, Daniel Bray and Philip C. Stevenson

Plants 2020, 9(2), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020173 - 1 Feb 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4947

Abstract

Sustainable agricultural intensification employs alternatives to synthetic insecticides for pest management, but these are not always a direct replacement. Botanical insecticides, for example, have rapid knockdown but are highly labile and while biological pesticides are more persistent, they are slow acting. To mitigate [...] Read more.

Sustainable agricultural intensification employs alternatives to synthetic insecticides for pest management, but these are not always a direct replacement. Botanical insecticides, for example, have rapid knockdown but are highly labile and while biological pesticides are more persistent, they are slow acting. To mitigate these shortcomings, we combined the entomopathogenic fungus (EPF) Metarhizium anisopliae with pyrethrum and evaluated their efficacy against the bean aphid, Aphis fabae. To ascertain higher trophic effects, we presented these treatments to the parasitoid, Aphidius colemani, on an aphid infested plant in a Y-tube olfactometer and measured their preferences. Aphid mortality was significantly higher than controls when exposed to EPF or pyrethrum but was greater still when exposed to a combination of both treatments, indicating an additive effect. This highlights the potential for applications of pyrethrum at lower doses, or the use of less refined products with lower production costs to achieve control. While parasitoids were deterred by aphid infested plants treated with EPF, no preference was observed with the combination pesticide, which provides insight into the importance that both application technique and timing may play in the success of this new technology. These results indicate the potential for biorational pesticides that combine botanicals with EPF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)

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18 pages, 2427 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Role of the Cytokinin-Activated Type-B Response Regulators in Hormone Crosstalk

by Yan O. Zubo and G. Eric Schaller

Plants 2020, 9(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020166 - 30 Jan 2020

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 6370

Abstract

Cytokinin is an important phytohormone that employs a multistep phosphorelay to transduce the signal from receptors to the nucleus, culminating in activation of type-B response regulators which function as transcription factors. Recent chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIP-seq) studies have identified targets of type-B ARABIDOPSIS RESPONSE [...] Read more.

Cytokinin is an important phytohormone that employs a multistep phosphorelay to transduce the signal from receptors to the nucleus, culminating in activation of type-B response regulators which function as transcription factors. Recent chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIP-seq) studies have identified targets of type-B ARABIDOPSIS RESPONSE REGULATORs (ARRs) and integrated these into the cytokinin-activated transcriptional network. Primary targets of the type-B ARRs are enriched for genes involved in hormonal regulation, emphasizing the extensive crosstalk that can occur between cytokinin, auxin, abscisic acid, brassinosteroids, gibberellic acid, ethylene, jasmonic acid, and salicylic acid. Examination of hormone-related targets reveals multiple regulatory points including biosynthesis, degradation/inactivation, transport, and signal transduction. Here, we consider this early response to cytokinin in terms of the hormones involved, points of regulatory crosstalk, and physiological significance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Plant Two-Component System)

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11 pages, 2535 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Seed Morphology of Tropical and Temperate Orchid Species with Different Growth Habits

by Surya Diantina, Craig McGill, James Millner, Jayanthi Nadarajan, Hugh W. Pritchard and Andrea Clavijo McCormick

Plants 2020, 9(2), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020161 - 29 Jan 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8548

Abstract

Seed morphology underpins many critical biological and ecological processes, such as seed dormancy and germination, dispersal, and persistence. It is also a valuable taxonomic trait that can provide information about plant evolution and adaptations to different ecological niches. This study characterised and compared [...] Read more.

Seed morphology underpins many critical biological and ecological processes, such as seed dormancy and germination, dispersal, and persistence. It is also a valuable taxonomic trait that can provide information about plant evolution and adaptations to different ecological niches. This study characterised and compared various seed morphological traits, i.e., seed and pod shape, seed colour and size, embryo size, and air volume for six orchid species; and explored whether taxonomy, biogeographical origin, or growth habit are important determinants of seed morphology. We investigated this on two tropical epiphytic orchid species from Indonesia (Dendrobium strebloceras and D. lineale), and four temperate species from New Zealand, terrestrial Gastrodia cunnninghamii, Pterostylis banksii and Thelymitra nervosa, and epiphytic D. cunninghamii. Our results show some similarities among related species in their pod shape and colour, and seed colouration. All the species studied have scobiform or fusiform seeds and prolate-spheroid embryos. Specifically, D. strebloceras, G. cunninghamii, and P. banksii have an elongated seed shape, while T. nervosa has truncated seeds. Interestingly, we observed high variability in the micro-morphological seed characteristics of these orchid species, unrelated to their taxonomy, biogeographical origin, or growth habit, suggesting different ecological adaptations possibly reflecting their modes of dispersal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Linking Seed Biology to Plant Preservation: New Advances and Perspectives)

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14 pages, 1990 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Application of Deep Eutectic Solvents for the Extraction of Rutin and Rosmarinic Acid from Satureja montana L. and Evaluation of the Extracts Antiradical Activity

by Martina Jakovljević, Jelena Vladić, Senka Vidović, Kristian Pastor, Stela Jokić, Maja Molnar and Igor Jerković

Plants 2020, 9(2), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020153 - 26 Jan 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4732

Abstract

Satureja montana L. was used in the current research as the plant exhibits numerous health-promoting benefits due to its specific chemical composition. The extraction method based on deep eutectic solvents (DESs) was used for the extraction of rutin and rosmarinic acid from this [...] Read more.

Satureja montana L. was used in the current research as the plant exhibits numerous health-promoting benefits due to its specific chemical composition. The extraction method based on deep eutectic solvents (DESs) was used for the extraction of rutin and rosmarinic acid from this plant. Five different choline chloride-based DESs with different volumes of water (10%, 30%, and 50% (v/v)) were used for the extraction at different temperatures (30, 50, and 70 °C) to investigate the influence on rosmarinic acid and rutin content obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detector (HPLC-DAD) in the obtained extracts. A principal component analysis was employed to explore and visualize the influence of applied parameters on the efficiency of the extraction procedure of rutin and rosmarinic acid. Among the tested DESs, choline chloride:lactic acid (mole ratio 1:2) and choline chloride:levulinic acid (mole ratio 1:2) were the most suitable for the extraction of rutin, while for rosmarinic acid choline chloride:urea (mole ratio 1:2) was the most effective solvent. The extract showing the best antiradical activity was obtained with choline chloride:urea (mole ratio 1:1) at 30 °C and 50% H₂O (v/v). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2019 Feature Papers by Plants’ Editorial Board Members)

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21 pages, 648 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Transgenesis as a Tool for the Efficient Production of Selected Secondary Metabolites from Plant in Vitro Cultures

by Tomasz Kowalczyk, Joanna Wieczfinska, Ewa Skała, Tomasz Śliwiński and Przemysław Sitarek

Plants 2020, 9(2), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9020132 - 21 Jan 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7941

Abstract

The plant kingdom abounds in countless species with potential medical uses. Many of them contain valuable secondary metabolites belonging to different classes and demonstrating anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial or antidiabetic properties. Many of these metabolites, e.g., paclitaxel, vinblastine, betulinic acid, chlorogenic acid or [...] Read more.

The plant kingdom abounds in countless species with potential medical uses. Many of them contain valuable secondary metabolites belonging to different classes and demonstrating anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial or antidiabetic properties. Many of these metabolites, e.g., paclitaxel, vinblastine, betulinic acid, chlorogenic acid or ferrulic acid, have potential applications in medicine. Additionally, these compounds have many therapeutic and health-promoting properties. The growing demand for these plant secondary metabolites forces the use of new green biotechnology tools to create new, more productive in vitro transgenic plant cultures. These procedures have yielded many promising results, and transgenic cultures have been found to be safe, efficient and cost-effective sources of valuable secondary metabolites for medicine and industry. This review focuses on the use of various in vitro plant culture systems for the production of secondary metabolites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biotechnological Approaches for the Production of Bioactives)

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13 pages, 1424 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Biostimulant Effect and Biochemical Response in Lettuce Seedlings Treated with A Scenedesmus quadricauda Extract

by Ivana Puglisi, Emanuele La Bella, Ermes Ivan Rovetto, Angela Roberta Lo Piero and Andrea Baglieri

Plants 2020, 9(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010123 - 18 Jan 2020

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 5742

Abstract

The use of natural biostimulants is becoming an attractive option in order to reduce the use of fertilizer and increase the yield of crops. In particular, algal extracts are suitable candidates as they positively affect plant physiology. Among crops, lettuce often requires the [...] Read more.

The use of natural biostimulants is becoming an attractive option in order to reduce the use of fertilizer and increase the yield of crops. In particular, algal extracts are suitable candidates as they positively affect plant physiology. Among crops, lettuce often requires the use of biostimulants to improve both the quality and quantity of production. The aim of this work is to investigate the potential use of a Scenedesmus quadricauda extract as a biostimulant in order to obtain sustainable cultivation and a reduction in the cost of chemical fertilizers in lettuce cultivation. Therefore, the effect of S. quadricauda extract on lettuce seedlings was explored by evaluating the physiological parameters, chlorophyll, carotenoid, and total protein contents as well as several plant enzymatic activities involved in primary and secondary metabolisms. The experiment was performed by growing plants on inert substrate (pumice) with a 16-h photoperiod, by carrying out two consecutive radical treatments, one week apart, using a concentration of the extract corresponding to 1 mg Corg L⁻¹. Lettuce plants were sampled at 1, 4, and 7 days from the first treatment and 7 days from the second treatment. The results showed that the S. quadricauda extract positively affected the growth of lettuce seedlings, mainly acting at the shoot level, determining an increase in dry matter, chlorophylls, carotenoids, proteins, and influencing the activities of several enzymes involved in the primary metabolism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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11 pages, 1419 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Can Inositol Pyrophosphates Inform Strategies for Developing Low Phytate Crops?

by Catherine Freed, Olusegun Adepoju and Glenda Gillaspy

Plants 2020, 9(1), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010115 - 17 Jan 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5922

Abstract

Inositol pyrophosphates (PP-InsPs) are an emerging class of “high-energy” intracellular signaling molecules, containing one or two diphosphate groups attached to an inositol ring, that are connected with phosphate sensing, jasmonate signaling, and inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP₆) storage in plants. While information regarding [...] Read more.

Inositol pyrophosphates (PP-InsPs) are an emerging class of “high-energy” intracellular signaling molecules, containing one or two diphosphate groups attached to an inositol ring, that are connected with phosphate sensing, jasmonate signaling, and inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP₆) storage in plants. While information regarding this new class of signaling molecules in plants is scarce, the enzymes responsible for their synthesis have recently been elucidated. This review focuses on InsP₆ synthesis and its conversion into PP-InsPs, containing seven and eight phosphate groups (InsP₇ and InsP₈). These steps involve two types of enzymes: the ITPKs that phosphorylate InsP₆ to InsP₇, and the PPIP5Ks that phosphorylate InsP₇ to InsP₈. This review also considers the potential roles of PP-InsPs in plant hormone and inorganic phosphate (Pi) signaling, along with an emerging role in bioenergetic homeostasis. PP-InsP synthesis and signaling are important for plant breeders to consider when developing strategies that reduce InsP₆ in plants, as this will likely also reduce PP-InsPs. Thus, this review is primarily intended to bridge the gap between the basic science aspects of PP-InsP synthesis/signaling and breeding/engineering strategies to fortify foods by reducing InsP₆. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytic Acid and Mineral Biofortification Strategies: From Plant Science to Breeding and Biotechnological Approaches)

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24 pages, 867 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon—A Review of the Chemistry, Pharmacological Properties, Applications in the Modern Pharmaceutical, Food, and Cosmetics Industries, and Biotechnological Studies

by Marta Klimek-Szczykutowicz, Agnieszka Szopa and Halina Ekiert

Plants 2020, 9(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010119 - 17 Jan 2020

Cited by 225 | Viewed by 41388

Abstract

This review presents important botanical, chemical and pharmacological characteristics of Citrus limon (lemon)—a species with valuable pharmaceutical, cosmetic and culinary (healthy food) properties. A short description of the genus Citrus is followed by information on the chemical composition, metabolomic studies and biological activities [...] Read more.

This review presents important botanical, chemical and pharmacological characteristics of Citrus limon (lemon)—a species with valuable pharmaceutical, cosmetic and culinary (healthy food) properties. A short description of the genus Citrus is followed by information on the chemical composition, metabolomic studies and biological activities of the main raw materials obtained from C. limon (fruit extract, juice, essential oil). The valuable biological activity of C. limon is determined by its high content of phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids (e.g., diosmin, hesperidin, limocitrin) and phenolic acids (e.g., ferulic, synapic, p-hydroxybenzoic acids). The essential oil is rich in bioactive monoterpenoids such as D-limonene, β-pinene, γ-terpinene. Recently scientifically proven therapeutic activities of C. limon include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer and antiparasitic activities. The review pays particular attention, with references to published scientific research, to the use of C. limon in the food industry and cosmetology. It also addresses the safety of use and potential phototoxicity of the raw materials. Lastly, the review emphasizes the significance of biotechnological studies on C. limon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Citrus Research)

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18 pages, 1379 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Plant Mitochondrial Carriers: Molecular Gatekeepers That Help to Regulate Plant Central Carbon Metabolism

by M. Rey Toleco, Thomas Naake, Youjun Zhang, Joshua L. Heazlewood and Alisdair R. Fernie

Plants 2020, 9(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010117 - 17 Jan 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5461

Abstract

The evolution of membrane-bound organelles among eukaryotes led to a highly compartmentalized metabolism. As a compartment of the central carbon metabolism, mitochondria must be connected to the cytosol by molecular gates that facilitate a myriad of cellular processes. Members of the mitochondrial carrier [...] Read more.

The evolution of membrane-bound organelles among eukaryotes led to a highly compartmentalized metabolism. As a compartment of the central carbon metabolism, mitochondria must be connected to the cytosol by molecular gates that facilitate a myriad of cellular processes. Members of the mitochondrial carrier family function to mediate the transport of metabolites across the impermeable inner mitochondrial membrane and, thus, are potentially crucial for metabolic control and regulation. Here, we focus on members of this family that might impact intracellular central plant carbon metabolism. We summarize and review what is currently known about these transporters from in vitro transport assays and in planta physiological functions, whenever available. From the biochemical and molecular data, we hypothesize how these relevant transporters might play a role in the shuttling of organic acids in the various flux modes of the TCA cycle. Furthermore, we also review relevant mitochondrial carriers that may be vital in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Lastly, we survey novel experimental approaches that could possibly extend and/or complement the widely accepted proteoliposome reconstitution approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulation of Central Carbon and Amino Acid Metabolism in Plants)

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20 pages, 1565 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Silicification of Root Tissues

by Alexander Lux, Zuzana Lukačová, Marek Vaculík, Renáta Švubová, Jana Kohanová, Milan Soukup, Michal Martinka and Boris Bokor

Plants 2020, 9(1), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010111 - 15 Jan 2020

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 7031

Abstract

Silicon (Si) is not considered an essential element, however, its tissue concentration can exceed that of many essential elements in several evolutionary distant plant species. Roots take up Si using Si transporters and then translocate it to aboveground organs. In some plant species, [...] Read more.

Silicon (Si) is not considered an essential element, however, its tissue concentration can exceed that of many essential elements in several evolutionary distant plant species. Roots take up Si using Si transporters and then translocate it to aboveground organs. In some plant species, root tissues are also places where a high accumulation of Si can be found. Three basic modes of Si deposition in roots have been identified so far: (1) impregnation of endodermal cell walls (e.g., in cereals, such as Triticum (wheat)); (2) formation of Si-aggregates associated with endodermal cell walls (in the Andropogoneae family, which includes Sorghum and Saccharum (sugarcane)); (3) formation of Si aggregates in “stegmata” cells, which form a sheath around sclerenchyma fibers e.g., in some palm species (Phoenix (date palm)). In addition to these three major and most studied modes of Si deposition in roots, there are also less-known locations, such as deposits in xylem cells and intercellular deposits. In our research, the ontogenesis of individual root cells that accumulate Si is discussed. The documented and expected roles of Si deposition in the root is outlined mostly as a reaction of plants to abiotic and biotic stresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Root Development)

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19 pages, 2753 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Toxic Effects of Single Antibiotics and Antibiotics in Combination on Germination and Growth of Sinapis alba L.

by Ulrike Timmerer, Lennart Lehmann, Ewald Schnug and Elke Bloem

Plants 2020, 9(1), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010107 - 15 Jan 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7190

Abstract

Antibiotics enter agro-ecosystems via the application of farmyard manure, sewage sludge, animal by-products, or digestates. There are many open questions regarding the behavior of such compounds in the soil like their adsorption, degradation, half-life, and their effects on soil organisms and plants. The [...] Read more.

Antibiotics enter agro-ecosystems via the application of farmyard manure, sewage sludge, animal by-products, or digestates. There are many open questions regarding the behavior of such compounds in the soil like their adsorption, degradation, half-life, and their effects on soil organisms and plants. The impact of antibiotics on the development of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment is regarded as the most important effect that endangers the environment as well as human health. Nevertheless, direct plant toxicity, especially of different antibiotics and heavy metals at the same time, can be of importance as well. In the current study, commercially available phytotoxkits were tested with regard to the toxicity of single antibiotics and antibiotics in combination with the root growth of Sinapis alba L. Additionally, a pot trial was conducted to study the transfer of the observed phytotoxkits results in more complex systems. The phytotoxkits revealed direct toxicity of antibiotics on root development only at high concentrations. The highest toxicity was determined for sulfadiazine, followed by tetracycline and enrofloxacin, showing the least toxicity. When two antibiotics were tested at the same time in the phytotoxkit, synergistic effects were detected. The pot trial indicated lower effect concentrations for enrofloxacin than determined in the phytotoxkit and, therefore, to higher toxicity on plant growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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10 pages, 1539 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bioactivity of Common Pesticidal Plants on Fall Armyworm Larvae (Spodoptera frugiperda)

by Kelita Phambala, Yolice Tembo, Trust Kasambala, Vernon H. Kabambe, Philip C. Stevenson and Steven R. Belmain

Plants 2020, 9(1), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010112 - 15 Jan 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 7704

Abstract

The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a recent invasive pest species that has successfully established across sub-Saharan Africa where it continues to disrupt agriculture, particularly smallholder cereal production. Management of FAW in its native range in the Americas has led [...] Read more.

The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a recent invasive pest species that has successfully established across sub-Saharan Africa where it continues to disrupt agriculture, particularly smallholder cereal production. Management of FAW in its native range in the Americas has led to the development of resistance to many commercial pesticides before its arrival in Africa. Pesticide use may therefore be ineffective for FAW control in Africa, so new and more sustainable approaches to pest management are required that can help reduce the impact of this exotic pest. Pesticidal plants provide an effective and established approach to pest management in African smallholder farming and recent research has shown that their use can be cost-beneficial and sustainable. In order to optimize the use of botanical extracts for FAW control, we initially screened ten commonly used plant species. In laboratory trials, contact toxicity and feeding bioassays showed differential effects. Some plant species had little to no effect when compared to untreated controls; thus, only the five most promising plant species were selected for more detailed study. In contact toxicity tests, the highest larval mortality was obtained from Nicotiana tabacum (66%) and Lippia javanica (66%). Similarly, in a feeding bioassay L. javanica (62%) and N. tabacum (60%) exhibited high larval mortality at the highest concentration evaluated (10% w/v). Feeding deterrence was evaluated using glass-fibre discs treated with plant extracts, which showed that Cymbopogon citratus (36%) and Azadirachta indica (20%) were the most potent feeding deterrents among the pesticidal plants evaluated. In a screenhouse experiment where living maize plants infested with fall armyworm larvae were treated with plant extracts, N. tabacum and L. javanica were the most potent species at reducing foliar damage compared to the untreated control whilst the synthetic pesticide chlorpyrifos was the most effective in reducing fall armyworm foliar damage. Further field trial evaluation is recommended, particularly involving smallholder maize fields to assess effectiveness across a range of contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)

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12 pages, 2547 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Phytotoxic Activity and Identification of Phytotoxic Substances from Schumannianthus dichotomus

by Md. Mahfuzur Rob, Kawsar Hossen, Arihiro Iwasaki, Kiyotake Suenaga and Hisashi Kato-Noguchi

Plants 2020, 9(1), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010102 - 14 Jan 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 5988

Abstract

The phytotoxic potential of plants and their constituents against other plants is being increasingly investigated as a possible alternative to synthetic herbicides to control weeds in crop fields. In this study, we explored the phytotoxicity and phytotoxic substances of Schumannianthus dichotomus, a [...] Read more.

The phytotoxic potential of plants and their constituents against other plants is being increasingly investigated as a possible alternative to synthetic herbicides to control weeds in crop fields. In this study, we explored the phytotoxicity and phytotoxic substances of Schumannianthus dichotomus, a perennial wetland shrub native to Bangladesh, India, and Myanmar. Leaf extracts of S. dichotomus exerted strong phytotoxicity against two dicot species, alfalfa and cress, and two monocot species, barnyard grass and Italian ryegrass. A bioassay-driven purification process yielded two phenolic derivatives, syringic acid and methyl syringate. Both constituents significantly inhibited the growth of cress and Italian ryegrass in a concentration-dependent manner. The concentrations required for 50% growth inhibition (I₅₀ value) of the shoot and root growth of cress were 75.8 and 61.3 μM, respectively, for syringic acid, compared with 43.2 and 31.5 μM, respectively, for methyl syringate. Similarly, to suppress the shoot and root growth of Italian rye grass, a greater amount of syringic acid (I₅₀ = 213.7 and 175.9 μM) was needed than methyl syringate (I₅₀ = 140.4 to 130.8 μM). Methyl syringate showed higher phytotoxic potential than syringic acid, and cress showed higher sensitivity to both substances. This study is the first to report on the phytotoxic potential of S. dichotomus and to identify phytotoxic substances from this plant material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Allelopathy and Allelochemicals)

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17 pages, 290 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Current Progress in Nitrogen Fixing Plants and Microbiome Research

by Kishan Mahmud, Shiva Makaju, Razi Ibrahim and Ali Missaoui

Plants 2020, 9(1), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010097 - 13 Jan 2020

Cited by 175 | Viewed by 18908

Abstract

In agroecosystems, nitrogen is one of the major nutrients limiting plant growth. To meet the increased nitrogen demand in agriculture, synthetic fertilizers have been used extensively in the latter part of the twentieth century, which have led to environmental challenges such as nitrate [...] Read more.

In agroecosystems, nitrogen is one of the major nutrients limiting plant growth. To meet the increased nitrogen demand in agriculture, synthetic fertilizers have been used extensively in the latter part of the twentieth century, which have led to environmental challenges such as nitrate pollution. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in plants is an essential mechanism for sustainable agricultural production and healthy ecosystem functioning. BNF by legumes and associative, endosymbiotic, and endophytic nitrogen fixation in non-legumes play major roles in reducing the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer in agriculture, increased plant nutrient content, and soil health reclamation. This review discusses the process of nitrogen-fixation in plants, nodule formation, the genes involved in plant-rhizobia interaction, and nitrogen-fixing legume and non-legume plants. This review also elaborates on current research efforts involved in transferring nitrogen-fixing mechanisms from legumes to non-legumes, especially to economically important crops such as rice, maize, and wheat at the molecular level and relevant other techniques involving the manipulation of soil microbiome for plant benefits in the non-legume root environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

16 pages, 1436 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparison of Organosulfur and Amino Acid Composition between Triploid Onion Allium cornutum Clementi ex Visiani, 1842, and Common Onion Allium cepa L., and Evidences for Antiproliferative Activity of Their Extracts

by Željana Fredotović, Barbara Soldo, Matilda Šprung, Zvonimir Marijanović, Igor Jerković and Jasna Puizina

Plants 2020, 9(1), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010098 - 13 Jan 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3975

Abstract

Species that belong to the genus Allium have been widely used for human food and traditional medicine. Their beneficial health effects, as well as the specific aroma, are associated with their bioactive chemical compounds, such as sulfur compounds and flavonoids. Gas chromatography and [...] Read more.

Species that belong to the genus Allium have been widely used for human food and traditional medicine. Their beneficial health effects, as well as the specific aroma, are associated with their bioactive chemical compounds, such as sulfur compounds and flavonoids. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (reverse-phase HPLC) were used to identify organosulfur and amino acid content of triploid hybrid onion, Allium cornutum Clement ex Visiani, 1842, and common onion, Allium cepa L. Allium extracts were tested for their antiproliferative activity in three human cancer cell lines (HeLa, HCT116, and U2OS). DNA fragmentation and DAPI staining analysis were performed on HeLa cells to evaluate the effect of extracts on DNA damage and cell morphology. The mRNA expression of p53, Bax, and Caspase-3 genes involved in apoptosis were analyzed by real-time PCR. Using GC–MS, 27 compounds were found in two Allium species headspaces. Differences were noted among the main compound abundance in the headspace (although the major thiols and disulfides were qualitatively identic in both Allium species) and dipropyl disulfide, diisopropyl trisulfide, and (Z)-prop-1-enyl propyl trisulfide were predominant sulfides. Identification of amino acids and their quantities were determined by reverse-phase HPLC. Most abundant amino acids in both onions were arginine (Arg) and glutamic acid (Glu). The results of cytotoxicity testing confirmed antiproliferative effects of both species. The DNA fragmentation assay, DAPI staining and real time PCR analysis confirmed that A. cornutum and A. cepa extracts induced apoptosis in HeLa cells. This study presents the evidence for possible therapeutic use of A. cornutum and A. cepa extracts against human cervical carcinoma cell line. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal Plants)

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15 pages, 457 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Farming without Glyphosate?

by Hugh J. Beckie, Ken C. Flower and Michael B. Ashworth

Plants 2020, 9(1), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010096 - 11 Jan 2020

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 12906

Abstract

Recent statements from scientific organisations and court decisions have resulted in widespread public interest and concern over the safety of glyphosate, the most popular and effective herbicide used worldwide. Consequently, glyphosate-based products are under intense scrutiny from governments at all levels. Some jurisdictions [...] Read more.

Recent statements from scientific organisations and court decisions have resulted in widespread public interest and concern over the safety of glyphosate, the most popular and effective herbicide used worldwide. Consequently, glyphosate-based products are under intense scrutiny from governments at all levels. Some jurisdictions have already banned or restricted its use, which will adversely impact international trade in bulk grain commmodities if glyphosate residues are detected. The possibility of farming without glyphosate is becoming an important issue facing the agri-food research and development sector. Contingency plans need to be formulated if that scenario becomes a reality. In this review, we briefly summarize international events that have led to this possible situation, describe current glyphosate usage in major agronomic field crops worldwide, outline possible alternatives to glyphosate in two agroregions and perform bioeconomic model scenarios of southern Australian broadacre cropping systems without the herbicide. Model predictions suggest that we can farm profitably without glyphosate by consistently utilizing key non-herbicidal weed management practices combined with robust pre-emergence soil residual herbicide treatments. However, maintaining low weed seed banks will be challenging. If the social license to use glyphosate is revoked, what other pesticides will soon follow? Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2019 Feature Papers by Plants’ Editorial Board Members)

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23 pages, 2054 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Photosynthetic Metabolism under Stressful Growth Conditions as a Bases for Crop Breeding and Yield Improvement

by Fermín Morales, María Ancín, Dorra Fakhet, Jon González-Torralba, Angie L. Gámez, Amaia Seminario, David Soba, Sinda Ben Mariem, Miguel Garriga and Iker Aranjuelo

Plants 2020, 9(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010088 - 10 Jan 2020

Cited by 94 | Viewed by 14246

Abstract

Increased periods of water shortage and higher temperatures, together with a reduction in nutrient availability, have been proposed as major factors that negatively impact plant development. Photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation is the basis of crop production for animal and human food, and for [...] Read more.

Increased periods of water shortage and higher temperatures, together with a reduction in nutrient availability, have been proposed as major factors that negatively impact plant development. Photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation is the basis of crop production for animal and human food, and for this reason, it has been selected as a primary target for crop phenotyping/breeding studies. Within this context, knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the response and acclimation of photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation to multiple changing environmental conditions (including nutrients, water availability, and rising temperature) is a matter of great concern for the understanding of plant behavior under stress conditions, and for the development of new strategies and tools for enhancing plant growth in the future. The current review aims to analyze, from a multi-perspective approach (ranging across breeding, gas exchange, genomics, etc.) the impact of changing environmental conditions on the performance of the photosynthetic apparatus and, consequently, plant growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthetic Metabolism under Stressful Growth Conditions)

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63 pages, 5275 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Oxygen and ROS in Photosynthesis

by Sergey Khorobrykh, Vesa Havurinne, Heta Mattila and Esa Tyystjärvi

Plants 2020, 9(1), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010091 - 10 Jan 2020

Cited by 143 | Viewed by 13134

Abstract

Oxygen is a natural acceptor of electrons in the respiratory pathway of aerobic organisms and in many other biochemical reactions. Aerobic metabolism is always associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS may damage biomolecules but are also involved in regulatory [...] Read more.

Oxygen is a natural acceptor of electrons in the respiratory pathway of aerobic organisms and in many other biochemical reactions. Aerobic metabolism is always associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS may damage biomolecules but are also involved in regulatory functions of photosynthetic organisms. This review presents the main properties of ROS, the formation of ROS in the photosynthetic electron transport chain and in the stroma of chloroplasts, and ROS scavenging systems of thylakoid membrane and stroma. Effects of ROS on the photosynthetic apparatus and their roles in redox signaling are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue ROS Responses in Plants)

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15 pages, 1040 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Yield, Biochemical Characteristics, and Elemental Composition of Garlic and Onion under Selenium Supply

by Nadezhda Golubkina, Zarema Amagova, Visita Matsadze, Svetlana Zamana, Alessio Tallarita and Gianluca Caruso

Plants 2020, 9(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010084 - 9 Jan 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 4092

Abstract

Biofortification of garlic and onion plants with selenium and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculation are considered beneficial for producing functional food with anticarcinogenic properties. The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation, sodium selenate foliar application, and the combination AMF + selenium (Se), compared [...] Read more.

Biofortification of garlic and onion plants with selenium and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculation are considered beneficial for producing functional food with anticarcinogenic properties. The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation, sodium selenate foliar application, and the combination AMF + selenium (Se), compared to an untreated control, were assessed regarding the bulb yield, biochemical characteristics, and mineral composition. AMF + Se application resulted in the highest yield, monosaccharides, and Se content in both garlic and onion bulbs; and an increase of ascorbic acid and flavonoids in onion, and flavonoids in garlic. The highest bulb concentrations of P and K were recorded under the AMF + Se application, Ca was best affected by AMF, and Mg accumulation was highest under all the treatments in garlic and upon AMF + Se application in onion bulbs. Contrary to garlic, onion bulbs were characterized by a remarkable increase in microelements (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Si, Zn) under the AMF + Se treatment. Selenium, either with or without AMF application, promoted the accumulation of B and Si in onion and Mo and Zn in garlic bulbs. It can be inferred that the interaction between AMF and Se is highly specific, differing for garlic and onion grown in similar environmental conditions in Grozny region, Chechen Republic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Factors Affecting Yield, Quality, Antioxidants, Mineral Composition and Residual Biomass Valorization of Vegetable Crops)

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19 pages, 1646 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Mediate Drought Tolerance and Recovery in Two Contrasting Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Ecotypes by Regulating Stomatal, Water Relations, and (In)Organic Adjustments

by Abderrahim Boutasknit, Marouane Baslam, Mohamed Ait-El-Mokhtar, Mohamed Anli, Raja Ben-Laouane, Allal Douira, Cherkaoui El Modafar, Toshiaki Mitsui, Said Wahbi and Abdelilah Meddich

Plants 2020, 9(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010080 - 8 Jan 2020

Cited by 83 | Viewed by 6824

Abstract

Irregular precipitation and drought caused an increase in tree mortality rates in multiple forest biomes with alterations in both ecosystem services and carbon balance. Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) growth and production in arid and semi-arid ecosystems are likely affected by climate change-induced [...] Read more.

Irregular precipitation and drought caused an increase in tree mortality rates in multiple forest biomes with alterations in both ecosystem services and carbon balance. Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) growth and production in arid and semi-arid ecosystems are likely affected by climate change-induced droughts. Understanding the physiological responses of drought-induced early-stage tree death and strategies to enhance drought tolerance and optimize growth will help tree improvement programs. Mycorrhizal inoculation has a pronounced impact on plant growth, water absorption, mineral nutrition, and protection from abiotic stresses. However, a better understanding of these complex interconnected cellular processes and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)-mediated mechanisms regulating drought tolerance in plants will enhance its potential application as an efficient approach for bio-amelioration of stresses. The objectives of this work were to elucidate the different effects of autochthone AMF on inorganic solute and water content uptakes, organic adjustments (sugar and proteins content), leaf gas exchange (stomatal conductance and efficiency of photosystems I and II), and oxidative damage of two contrasting ecotypes of carob seedlings: coastal (southern ecotype (SE)) and in-land (northern ecotype (NE)) under control (C), drought (by cessation of irrigation for 15 days (15D)), and recovery (R) conditions. Our findings showed that AMF promoted growth, nutrient content, and physiological and biochemical parameters in plants of both ecotypes during C, 15D, and R conditions. After four days of recovery, stomatal conductance (g_s), the maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (F_v/F_m), water content, and plant uptake of mineral nutrients (P, K, Na, and Ca) were significantly higher in shoots of mycorrhizal (AM) than non-mycorrhizal (NM) control plants. Consequently, AMF reduced to a greater degree the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and oxidative damage to lipid (malondialdehyde (MDA)) content in AM than NM plants in NE and SE, after recovery. Altogether, our findings suggest that AMF can play a role in drought resistance of carob trees at an early stage by increasing the inorganic solutes (P, K, Na, and Ca), water content uptake, organic solutes (soluble sugars and protein content), stomatal conductance, and defense response against oxidative damage during re-watering after drought stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthetic Metabolism under Stressful Growth Conditions)

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22 pages, 4346 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Endophytic Bacillus Subtilis and Salicylic Acid on Postharvest Diseases (Phytophthora infestans, Fusarium oxysporum) Development in Stored Potato Tubers

by Oksana Lastochkina, Andrey Baymiev, Aysylu Shayahmetova, Darya Garshina, Igor Koryakov, Irina Shpirnaya, Liudmila Pusenkova, Il’dar Mardanshin, Cemal Kasnak and Recep Palamutoglu

Plants 2020, 9(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010076 - 7 Jan 2020

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 6201

Abstract

Postharvest diseases of potato lead to significant food and economic losses worldwide. The exogenous application of eco-friendly methods plays an important role in the control of postharvest decay. In this work the effects of endophytic bacteria B. subtilis (10-4, 26D) were studied in [...] Read more.

Postharvest diseases of potato lead to significant food and economic losses worldwide. The exogenous application of eco-friendly methods plays an important role in the control of postharvest decay. In this work the effects of endophytic bacteria B. subtilis (10-4, 26D) were studied in the context of two application parameters: concentration, with a range between 10³–10⁸ CFU/mL tested, and synergistic effects of the signal molecule salicylic acid (SA) (0.05 mM) on potato tubers’ resistance to Phytophthora infestans and Fusarium oxysporum during storage. The experiments were carried out on hydroponically grown potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) mini-tubers. This study demonstrates the suppressive effect of B. subtilis (10-4, 26D) on diseases of potato during storage and reveals that this effect happens in a dose-dependent manner, both individually and in combination with SA. The most effective concentrations of B. subtilis for suppression of both Ph. infestans and F. oxysporum are 10⁸ CFU/mL (10-4 and 26D), 10⁷ CFU/mL (10-4 + SA) and 10⁶ CFU/mL (26D + SA). The ability of B. subtilis (10-4, 26D) to effectively penetrate and colonize the internal tubers’ tissues when applied immediately prior to storage, and the ability of SA to accelerate these processes, have been proven. B. subtilis (10-4, 26D), individually and in compositions with SA, increased ascorbic acid content and decreased pathogen-induced proline accumulation and lipid peroxidation in tubers. This indicates a protective effect conferred to cells against reactive oxygen and an extension of aging processes, manifested by a prolonged shelf life and extended preservation of fresh appearance. Full article

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29 pages, 556 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biofortification of Pulse Crops: Status and Future Perspectives

by Ambuj B. Jha and Thomas D. Warkentin

Plants 2020, 9(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010073 - 6 Jan 2020

Cited by 118 | Viewed by 15176

Abstract

Biofortification through plant breeding is a sustainable approach to improve the nutritional profile of food crops. The majority of the world’s population depends on staple food crops; however, most are low in key micronutrients. Biofortification to improve the nutritional profile of pulse crops [...] Read more.

Biofortification through plant breeding is a sustainable approach to improve the nutritional profile of food crops. The majority of the world’s population depends on staple food crops; however, most are low in key micronutrients. Biofortification to improve the nutritional profile of pulse crops has increased importance in many breeding programs in the past decade. The key micronutrients targeted have been iron, zinc, selenium, iodine, carotenoids, and folates. In recent years, several biofortified pulse crops including common beans and lentils have been released by HarvestPlus with global partners in developing countries, which has helped in overcoming micronutrient deficiency in the target population. This review will focus on recent research advances and future strategies for the biofortification of pulse crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytic Acid and Mineral Biofortification Strategies: From Plant Science to Breeding and Biotechnological Approaches)

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20 pages, 2345 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Phytic Acid and Transporters: What Can We Learn from low phytic acid Mutants?

by Eleonora Cominelli, Roberto Pilu and Francesca Sparvoli

Plants 2020, 9(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010069 - 5 Jan 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5597

Abstract

Phytic acid has two main roles in plant tissues: Storage of phosphorus and regulation of different cellular processes. From a nutritional point of view, it is considered an antinutritional compound because, being a cation chelator, its presence reduces mineral bioavailability from the diet. [...] Read more.

Phytic acid has two main roles in plant tissues: Storage of phosphorus and regulation of different cellular processes. From a nutritional point of view, it is considered an antinutritional compound because, being a cation chelator, its presence reduces mineral bioavailability from the diet. In recent decades, the development of low phytic acid (lpa) mutants has been an important goal for nutritional seed quality improvement, mainly in cereals and legumes. Different lpa mutations affect phytic acid biosynthetic genes. However, other lpa mutations isolated so far, affect genes coding for three classes of transporters: A specific group of ABCC type vacuolar transporters, putative sulfate transporters, and phosphate transporters. In the present review, we summarize advances in the characterization of these transporters in cereals and legumes. Particularly, we describe genes, proteins, and mutants for these different transporters, and we report data of in silico analysis aimed at identifying the putative orthologs in some other cereal and legume species. Finally, we comment on the advantage of using such types of mutants for crop biofortification and on their possible utility to unravel links between phosphorus and sulfur metabolism (phosphate and sulfate homeostasis crosstalk). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytic Acid and Mineral Biofortification Strategies: From Plant Science to Breeding and Biotechnological Approaches)

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25 pages, 1999 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Potential and Challenges of Improving Photosynthesis in Algae

by Valeria Vecchi, Simone Barera, Roberto Bassi and Luca Dall’Osto

Plants 2020, 9(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010067 - 3 Jan 2020

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 15646

Abstract

Sunlight energy largely exceeds the energy required by anthropic activities, and therefore its exploitation represents a major target in the field of renewable energies. The interest in the mass cultivation of green microalgae has grown in the last decades, as algal biomass could [...] Read more.

Sunlight energy largely exceeds the energy required by anthropic activities, and therefore its exploitation represents a major target in the field of renewable energies. The interest in the mass cultivation of green microalgae has grown in the last decades, as algal biomass could be employed to cover a significant portion of global energy demand. Advantages of microalgal vs. plant biomass production include higher light-use efficiency, efficient carbon capture and the valorization of marginal lands and wastewaters. Realization of this potential requires a decrease of the current production costs, which can be obtained by increasing the productivity of the most common industrial strains, by the identification of factors limiting biomass yield, and by removing bottlenecks, namely through domestication strategies aimed to fill the gap between the theoretical and real productivity of algal cultures. In particular, the light-to-biomass conversion efficiency represents one of the major constraints for achieving a significant improvement of algal cell lines. This review outlines the molecular events of photosynthesis, which regulate the conversion of light into biomass, and discusses how these can be targeted to enhance productivity through mutagenesis, strain selection or genetic engineering. This review highlights the most recent results in the manipulation of the fundamental mechanisms of algal photosynthesis, which revealed that a significant yield enhancement is feasible. Moreover, metabolic engineering of microalgae, focused upon the development of renewable fuel biorefineries, has also drawn attention and resulted in efforts for enhancing productivity of oil or isoprenoids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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9 pages, 1082 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

PAST: The Pathway Association Studies Tool to Infer Biological Meaning from GWAS Datasets

by Adam Thrash, Juliet D. Tang, Mason DeOrnellis, Daniel G. Peterson and Marilyn L. Warburton

Plants 2020, 9(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010058 - 2 Jan 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6362

Abstract

In recent years, a bioinformatics method for interpreting genome-wide association study (GWAS) data using metabolic pathway analysis has been developed and successfully used to find significant pathways and mechanisms explaining phenotypic traits of interest in plants. However, the many scripts implementing this method [...] Read more.

In recent years, a bioinformatics method for interpreting genome-wide association study (GWAS) data using metabolic pathway analysis has been developed and successfully used to find significant pathways and mechanisms explaining phenotypic traits of interest in plants. However, the many scripts implementing this method were not straightforward to use, had to be customized for each project, required user supervision, and took more than 24 h to process data. PAST (Pathway Association Study Tool), a new implementation of this method, has been developed to address these concerns. PAST has been implemented as a package for the R language. Two user-interfaces are provided; PAST can be run by loading the package in R and calling its methods, or by using an R Shiny guided user interface. In testing, PAST completed analyses in approximately half an hour to one hour by processing data in parallel and produced the same results as the previously developed method. PAST has many user-specified options for maximum customization. Thus, to promote a powerful new pathway analysis methodology that interprets GWAS data to find biological mechanisms associated with traits of interest, we developed a more accessible, efficient, and user-friendly tool. These attributes make PAST accessible to researchers interested in associating metabolic pathways with GWAS datasets to better understand the genetic architecture and mechanisms affecting phenotypes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Bioinformatics)

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15 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sustainability Perspectives of Vigna unguiculata L. Walp. Cultivation under No Tillage and Water Stress Conditions

by Lorenzo Guzzetti, Andrea Fiorini, Davide Panzeri, Nicola Tommasi, Fabrizio Grassi, Eren Taskin, Chiara Misci, Edoardo Puglisi, Vincenzo Tabaglio, Andrea Galimberti and Massimo Labra

Plants 2020, 9(1), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010048 - 30 Dec 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4231

Abstract

Nowadays, agriculture is facing the great challenge of climate change which puts the productivity of the crops in peril due to unpredictable rain patterns and water shortages, especially in the developing world. Besides productivity, nutritional values of the yields of these crops may [...] Read more.

Nowadays, agriculture is facing the great challenge of climate change which puts the productivity of the crops in peril due to unpredictable rain patterns and water shortages, especially in the developing world. Besides productivity, nutritional values of the yields of these crops may also be affected, especially under low mechanization and the low water availability conditions of the developing world. Conservation agriculture (CA) is a topic of emerging interest due to the provision of adequate yields and reduced environmental impact, such as greenhouse gas emissions, by being based on three main principles: minimum soil disturbance (reduced or no tillage), cover crop maintenance, and crop rotation. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of CA management on the growth performance and the nutritional profile of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), a pulse of African origin, commonly known as black eye bean under field conditions. A field experiment was designed to assess the effect of conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT) combined with the usage of a set of cover crops, coupled to normal and deficient water regimes. Cowpea was revealed to be able to grow and yield comparably at each level of the treatment tested, with a better ability to face water exhaustion under CA management. After a faster initial growth phase in CT plots, the level of adaptability of this legume to NT was such that growth performances improved significantly with respect to CT plots. The flowering rate was higher and earlier in CT conditions, while in NT it was slower but longer-lasting. The leafy photosynthetic rate and the nutritional profile of beans were slightly influenced by tillage management: only total starch content was negatively affected in NT and watered plots while proteins and aminoacids did not show any significant variation. Furthermore, significantly higher carbon and nitrogen concentration occurred in NT soils especially at the topmost (0–5 cm) soil horizon. These findings confirm the capability of CA to enrich soil superficial horizons and highlight that cowpea is a suitable crop to be grown under sustainable CA management. This practice could be pivotal to preserve soils and to save agronomical costs without losing a panel of nutrients that are important to the human diet. Due to its great protein and aminoacidic composition, V. unguiculata is a good candidate for further cultivation in regions of the word facing deficiencies in the intake of such nutrients, such as the Mediterranean basins and Sub-Saharan countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Plant-Related Papers from the First Joint Meeting on Soil and Plant System Sciences (SPSS 2019) “Natural and Human-induced Impacts on the Critical Zone and Food Production”)

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21 pages, 755 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Development of Systems for the Production of Plant-Derived Biopharmaceuticals

by Ki-Beom Moon, Ji-Sun Park, Youn-Il Park, In-Ja Song, Hyo-Jun Lee, Hye Sun Cho, Jae-Heung Jeon and Hyun-Soon Kim

Plants 2020, 9(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010030 - 24 Dec 2019

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 15645

Abstract

Over the last several decades, plants have been developed as a platform for the production of useful recombinant proteins due to a number of advantages, including rapid production and scalability, the ability to produce unique glycoforms, and the intrinsic safety of food crops. [...] Read more.

Over the last several decades, plants have been developed as a platform for the production of useful recombinant proteins due to a number of advantages, including rapid production and scalability, the ability to produce unique glycoforms, and the intrinsic safety of food crops. The expression methods used to produce target proteins are divided into stable and transient systems depending on applications that use whole plants or minimally processed forms. In the early stages of research, stable expression systems were mostly used; however, in recent years, transient expression systems have been preferred. The production of the plant itself, which produces recombinant proteins, is currently divided into two major approaches, open-field cultivation and closed-indoor systems. The latter encompasses such regimes as greenhouses, vertical farming units, cell bioreactors, and hydroponic systems. Various aspects of each system will be discussed in this review, which focuses mainly on practical examples and commercially feasible approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Expression Systems for Bioproduct Production)

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17 pages, 681 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Light Intensity and Quality on Growth Rate and Composition of Chlorella vulgaris

by Maria N. Metsoviti, George Papapolymerou, Ioannis T. Karapanagiotidis and Nikolaos Katsoulas

Plants 2020, 9(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010031 - 24 Dec 2019

Cited by 125 | Viewed by 12375

Abstract

In this research, the effect of solar irradiance on Chlorella vulgaris cultivated in open bioreactors under greenhouse conditions was investigated, as well as of ratio of light intensity in the 420–520 nm range to light in the 580–680 nm range (I_420–520/I [...] Read more.

In this research, the effect of solar irradiance on Chlorella vulgaris cultivated in open bioreactors under greenhouse conditions was investigated, as well as of ratio of light intensity in the 420–520 nm range to light in the 580–680 nm range (I_420–520/I_580–680) and of artificial irradiation provided by red and white LED lamps in a closed flat plate laboratory bioreactor on the growth rate and composition. The increase in solar irradiance led to faster growth rates (μ_exp) of C. vulgaris under both environmental conditions studied in the greenhouse (in June up to 0.33 d⁻¹ and in September up to 0.29 d⁻¹) and higher lipid content in microalgal biomass (in June up to 25.6% and in September up to 24.7%). In the experiments conducted in the closed bioreactor, as the ratio I_420–520/I_580–680 increased, the specific growth rate and the biomass, protein and lipid productivities increased as well. Additionally, the increase in light intensity with red and white LED lamps resulted in faster growth rates (the μ_exp increased up to 0.36 d⁻¹) and higher lipid content (up to 22.2%), while the protein, fiber, ash and moisture content remained relatively constant. Overall, the trend in biomass, lipid, and protein productivities as a function of light intensity was similar in the two systems (greenhouse and bioreactor). Full article

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16 pages, 2709 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Insight into Composition of Bioactive Phenolic Compounds in Leaves and Flowers of Green and Purple Basil

by Bhakti Prinsi, Silvia Morgutti, Noemi Negrini, Franco Faoro and Luca Espen

Plants 2020, 9(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010022 - 23 Dec 2019

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 7885

Abstract

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a culinary, medicinal, and ornamental plant appreciated for its antioxidant properties, mainly attributed to high content of rosmarinic acid. This species also includes purple varieties, characterized by the accumulation of anthocyanins in leaves and flowers. In this [...] Read more.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a culinary, medicinal, and ornamental plant appreciated for its antioxidant properties, mainly attributed to high content of rosmarinic acid. This species also includes purple varieties, characterized by the accumulation of anthocyanins in leaves and flowers. In this work, we compared the main morphological characteristics, the antioxidant capacity and the chemical composition in leaves, flowers, and corollas of green (‘Italiano Classico’) and purple (‘Red Rubin’ and ‘Dark Opal’) basil varieties. The LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis of individual compounds allowed quantifying 17 (poly)phenolic acids and 18 flavonoids, differently accumulated in leaves and flowers of the three varieties. The study revealed that in addition to rosmarinic acid, basil contains several members of the salvianolic acid family, only scarcely descripted in this species, as well as, especially in flowers, simple phenolic acids, such as 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and salvianic acid A. Moreover, the study revealed that purple leaves mainly contain highly acylated anthocyanins, while purple flowers accumulate anthocyanins with low degree of decoration. Overall, this study provides new biochemical information about the presence of not yet characterized bioactive compounds in basil that could contribute to boosting the use of this crop and to gaining new knowledge about the roles of these compounds in plant physiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Polyphenols—from Plants to Human Health)

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17 pages, 9230 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Alpha Glucosidase Inhibitory Activities of Plants with Focus on Common Vegetables

by Samuel Tilahun Assefa, Eun-Young Yang, Soo-Young Chae, Mihye Song, Jundae Lee, Myeong-Cheoul Cho and Seonghoe Jang

Plants 2020, 9(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010002 - 18 Dec 2019

Cited by 98 | Viewed by 15540

Abstract

Type-2 diabetes mellitus is one of the most prevalent metabolic diseases in the world, and is characterized by hyperglycemia (i.e., high levels of glucose in the blood). Alpha-glucosidases are enzymes in the digestive tract that hydrolyze carbohydrates into glucose. One strategy that has [...] Read more.

Type-2 diabetes mellitus is one of the most prevalent metabolic diseases in the world, and is characterized by hyperglycemia (i.e., high levels of glucose in the blood). Alpha-glucosidases are enzymes in the digestive tract that hydrolyze carbohydrates into glucose. One strategy that has been developed to treat type-2 diabetes is inhibition of the activity of alpha-glucosidases using synthetic drugs. However, these inhibitors are usually associated with gastrointestinal side effects. Therefore, the development of inhibitors from natural products offers an alternative option for the control of hyperglycemia. In recent years, various studies have been conducted to identify alpha-glucosidases inhibitors from natural sources such as plants, and many candidates have transpired to be secondary metabolites including alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, and terpenoids. In this review, we focus on the alpha-glucosidases inhibitors found in common vegetable crops and the major classes of phytochemicals responsible for the inhibitory activity, and also as potential/natural drug candidates for the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus. In addition, possible breeding strategies for production of improved vegetable crops with higher content of the inhibitors are also described. Full article

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23 pages, 797 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Role of Plant-Associated Microbes in Mediating Host-Plant Selection by Insect Herbivores

by John M. Grunseich, Morgan N. Thompson, Natalie M. Aguirre and Anjel M. Helms

Plants 2020, 9(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010006 - 18 Dec 2019

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 12262

Abstract

There is increasing evidence that plant-associated microorganisms play important roles in shaping interactions between plants and insect herbivores. Studies of both pathogenic and beneficial plant microbes have documented wide-ranging effects on herbivore behavior and performance. Some studies, for example, have reported enhanced insect-repellent [...] Read more.

There is increasing evidence that plant-associated microorganisms play important roles in shaping interactions between plants and insect herbivores. Studies of both pathogenic and beneficial plant microbes have documented wide-ranging effects on herbivore behavior and performance. Some studies, for example, have reported enhanced insect-repellent traits or reduced performance of herbivores on microbe-associated plants, while others have documented increased herbivore attraction or performance. Insect herbivores frequently rely on plant cues during foraging and oviposition, suggesting that plant-associated microbes affecting these cues can indirectly influence herbivore preference. We review and synthesize recent literature to provide new insights into the ways pathogenic and beneficial plant-associated microbes alter visual, olfactory, and gustatory cues of plants that affect host-plant selection by insect herbivores. We discuss the underlying mechanisms, ecological implications, and future directions for studies of plant-microbial symbionts that indirectly influence herbivore behavior by altering plant traits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insect-Plant-Microbe Interactions)

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11 pages, 267 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

United Forces of Botanical Oils: Efficacy of Neem and Karanja Oil against Colorado Potato Beetle under Laboratory Conditions

by Kateřina Kovaříková and Roman Pavela

Plants 2019, 8(12), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8120608 - 14 Dec 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4367

Abstract

Neem and karanja oil are the most promising botanical insecticides in crop protection nowadays. Given that information about the insecticidal abilities of these oils is lacking, the aim was to explore the effects of neem and karanja oil binary mixtures. The insecticidal activity [...] Read more.

Neem and karanja oil are the most promising botanical insecticides in crop protection nowadays. Given that information about the insecticidal abilities of these oils is lacking, the aim was to explore the effects of neem and karanja oil binary mixtures. The insecticidal activity of NeemAzal T/S (Trifolio-M GmbH, Lahnau, Germany) (neem oil), Rock Effect (Agro CS a.s., Česká Skalice, Czech Republic) (karanja oil), and their binary mixes (at 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1 volume ratios) against the larvae of the Colorado potato beetle (CPB; Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was studied. In our bioassays, a synergistic effect of the mixtures, which was dose-dependent, was observed for the first time against this pest. The most effective blend was the 1:1 ratio. Its efficacy was more or less the same as, or even greater than, the neem oil alone. The LC₅₀ of neem oil two days after application was (0.075 g·L⁻¹) and the LC₅₀ of the mixture was (0.065 g·L⁻¹). The LC₅₀ of karanja oil was (0.582 g·L⁻¹), which was much higher than the LC₅₀ of neem oil. The LC₉₀ of neem oil five days after application was (0.105 g·L⁻¹) and the LC₉₀ of the mixture was (0.037 g·L⁻¹). The LC₉₀ of karanja oil was (1.032 g·L⁻¹). The results demonstrate that it is possible to lower the doses of both oils and get improved efficacy against CPB larvae; nevertheless, further verification of the results in field conditions is necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticidal Plants: From Smallholder Use to Commercialisation)

22 pages, 1273 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Development of Improved Fruit, Vegetable, and Ornamental Crops Using the CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing Technique

by Lígia Erpen-Dalla Corte, Lamiaa M. Mahmoud, Tatiana S. Moraes, Zhonglin Mou, Jude W. Grosser and Manjul Dutt

Plants 2019, 8(12), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8120601 - 13 Dec 2019

Cited by 52 | Viewed by 10561

Abstract

Horticultural crops, including fruit, vegetable, and ornamental plants are an important component of the agriculture production systems and play an important role in sustaining human life. With a steady growth in the world’s population and the consequent need for more food, sustainable and [...] Read more.

Horticultural crops, including fruit, vegetable, and ornamental plants are an important component of the agriculture production systems and play an important role in sustaining human life. With a steady growth in the world’s population and the consequent need for more food, sustainable and increased fruit and vegetable crop production is a major challenge to guarantee future food security. Although conventional breeding techniques have significantly contributed to the development of important varieties, new approaches are required to further improve horticultural crop production. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) has emerged as a valuable genome-editing tool able to change DNA sequences at precisely chosen loci. The CRISPR/Cas9 system was developed based on the bacterial adaptive immune system and comprises of an endonuclease guided by one or more single-guide RNAs to generate double-strand breaks. These breaks can then be repaired by the natural cellular repair mechanisms, during which genetic mutations are introduced. In a short time, the CRISPR/Cas9 system has become a popular genome-editing technique, with numerous examples of gene mutation and transcriptional regulation control in both model and crop plants. In this review, various aspects of the CRISPR/Cas9 system are explored, including a general presentation of the function of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in bacteria and its practical application as a biotechnological tool for editing plant genomes, particularly in horticultural crops. Full article

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14 pages, 304 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Evaluation of the Nutritive, Mineral, and Antinutritive Composition of Musa sinensis L. (Banana) and Musa paradisiaca L. (Plantain) Fruit Compartments

by Barnabas Oluwatomide Oyeyinka and Anthony Jide Afolayan

Plants 2019, 8(12), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8120598 - 12 Dec 2019

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 10172

Abstract

Banana and plantain contribute significantly to food security and amelioration of malnutrition, earning their status as staples in several localities of tropical and sub-tropical regions. The distribution of metabolites within the various parts also remains as a key essential to their nutritive and [...] Read more.

Banana and plantain contribute significantly to food security and amelioration of malnutrition, earning their status as staples in several localities of tropical and sub-tropical regions. The distribution of metabolites within the various parts also remains as a key essential to their nutritive and therapeutic potential. This study was aimed at evaluating the nutritional and mineral composition of the flesh, peel, and peel extract components of Musa sinensis L. and Musa paradisiaca L. fruits as well as their nutritional and therapeutic potentials. Proximate and antinutritional analyses were carried out using standard analytical methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), while the mineral constituents were evaluated using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Proximate analysis revealed that the flesh and peel of M. sinensis L. and M. paradisiaca L. contain substantial amounts of moisture, fiber, carbohydrates, and low fat content, while minerals K, Mg, Ca, Na, P, and N were substantially concentrated in the peels and peel extracts in particular. The antinutrients alkaloid, oxalate, saponin, and phytate were detected in safe amounts according to the World Health Organization (WHO). The study points out that the peel and its derivative extract, as well as the flesh of M. sinensis L. and M. paradisiaca L. are to be put to more relevant human nutritional and therapeutic use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)

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