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Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "G: Energy and Buildings".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2022) | Viewed by 32994

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Mark B. Luther

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture and Built Environment, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia
Interests: thermal comfort; building performance; energy efficiency; indoor environmental quality; retrofitting

Dr. Igor Martek

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture and Built Environment, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
Interests: sustainability in construction; construction industry restructuring; strategic and competitive advantage in international construction; infrastructure strategy planning and policy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Mehdi Amirkhani

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Guest Editor

UniSA Online, Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM), University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
Interests: retrofitting; renewable energy; innovative technology; indoor environmental comfort; lighting system; sustainability planning; architectural design
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Gerhard Zucker

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Guest Editor

Center for Energy, Austrian Institute of Technology, Giefinggasse 2, AT-1210 Vienna, Austria
Interests: building automation and control; artificial intelligence; energy efficient buildings; Internet of Things; demand-side management; data science; computer science
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The application of renewable energy and innovative environmental technologies is important for the improvement of existing buildings. The purpose of this Special Issue is to acknowledge actual experimental work undertaken for the purpose of applying, sizing and/or optimising the use of renewable energy sources and innovative environmental technologies in retrofitted buildings. While much of the present research focus is directed towards new buildings, this Special Issue intends to observe and acknowledge what the possibilities are for existing projects. In alignment with this theme is the desire to explore affordable strategies.

When considering the present state, the energy used in the building sector often accounts for 40% of all our energy use. We consider projects built within the last 10 years as new, and these generally account for less than 10% of our built environment. Therefore, it is essential to explore concepts that utilise our resources effectively and consider feasible methods of application and installation for older existing projects.

In this Special Issue, we are looking for a multitude of solutions that can achieve high environmental performing affordable buildings. The objective here is to explore renewable energy systems, ventilation strategies, innovative conditioning systems, construction retrofits, new sensor technologies as well as optimised control strategies and more. We welcome your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Mark B. Luther
Dr. Igor Martek
Dr. Mehdi Amirkhani
Dr. Gerhard Zucker
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

retrofitting
renewable energy
innovative technology
conditioning systems
new materials and construction

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 173 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue “Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings”

by Mark B. Luther, Igor Martek, Mehdi Amirkhani and Gerhard Zucker

Energies 2022, 15(16), 5956; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15165956 - 17 Aug 2022

Viewed by 955

Abstract

The architectural and construction professions are in a state of major transition [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

Research

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12 pages, 3135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IFC BIM Model Enrichment with Space Function Information Using Graph Neural Networks

by Adam Buruzs, Miloš Šipetić, Brigitte Blank-Landeshammer and Gerhard Zucker

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2937; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082937 - 16 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3776

Abstract

The definition of room functions in Building Information Modeling (BIM) using IfcSpace entities is an important quality requirement that is often not fulfilled. This paper presents a three-step method for enriching open BIM representations based on Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) with room function information (e.g., kitchen, living room, foyer). In the first step, the geometric algorithm for detecting and defining IfcSpace entities and injecting them into IFC models is presented. After deriving the IfcSpaces, a geometric method for calculating the graph of connections between spaces based on accessibility is described; this information is not explicitly stored in IFC models. In the final step, a graph convolution-based neural network using the accessibility graph to classify the IfcSpace entities is described. Local node features are automatically extracted from the geometry and neighboring elements. With the help of a Graph Convolutional Network (GCN), the connection and spatial context information is utilized by the neural network for the classification decision, in addition to the local features of the spaces which are more commonly used. To evaluate the classification accuracy, the model was tested on a set of residential building IFC models. A weighted version of the common GCN was implemented and tested, resulting in a slight improvement in the classification accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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18 pages, 30783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency of Energy Consumption between Reinforced Concrete Structure and Cross-Laminated Timber Based Hybrid Structure in East Asian Cities

by Meng-Ting Tsai and Wei-Ting Lin

Energies 2022, 15(1), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010165 - 27 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2793

Abstract

From the environmental perspective, wooden structures are favorable insulators that are suitable for carbon fixation and wooden-related products are considered the most sustainable material. Research has indicated that wooden structures have superior energy-saving performance compared to reinforced concrete (RC) structures. In this study, a CLT-based hybrid structure system that potentially improves the efficiency of energy consumption is proposed. The proposed hybrid structure system, which preserved original RC beams, columns and replaced CLT floors and walls, has less building weight compared to the original RC building. Additionally, less energy required for the manufacturing of building materials in the renovation of the aged building is achieved, compared to building a new CLT building. The energy consumptions for buildings with heights of 10 stories were compared. CLT and RC were selected as benchmark building materials to compare the energy-saving efficiencies with the proposed hybrid structure system. In addition, to examine the energy consumption differences at different latitudes, the energy consumptions in Taipei, Tokyo, Harbin, and Singapore were compared as well. The simulation results indicate the proposed hybrid structure system, which comprises RC beams and columns and CLT floors and walls, and has an energy-saving efficiency close to that of a CLT structure, by approximately 3–5% higher, however, had a superior energy consumption performance to the RC structure. In general, the proposed hybrid structure system can be effectively used for old building renewal in the selected Asian cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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18 pages, 827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applying Solar PV to Heat Pump and Storage Technologies in Australian Houses

by Tom Simko, Mark B. Luther, Hong Xian Li and Peter Horan

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5480; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175480 - 02 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

Innovative mechanical services coupled with renewable energy systems are crucial for achieving a net zero energy goal for houses. Conventional systems tend to be vastly oversized because they lack the means to buffer energy flows and are based on peak loads. This paper presents an approach to achieve a net zero energy goal for houses by using a solar PV system, heat pumps, and thermal and electrical storage batteries, all off-the-shelf. Constraining one part of the system and then showing how to manage energy storage and flow is a paradigm shift in sizing. The design is for a modest-sized house built in Melbourne, Australia. The output of a solar photovoltaic array drives a small-scale heat pump to heat water, buffering its energy in a thermal battery to energise a radiant space heating system. Space cooling is provided by a separate heat pump. Through energy storage in electrical and thermal batteries, it is possible to meet the electricity, heating and cooling needs of the house for the Melbourne climate with a heat pump that draws less than 1 kW. The design methodology is detailed in an appendix and can be applied to similar projects. This paper contributes to similar work worldwide that aims to reinforce innovative renewable energy driven service design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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18 pages, 5386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bushfire: Retrofitting Rural and Urban Fringe Structures—Implications of Current Engineering Data

by Glenn P. Costin

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3526; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123526 - 14 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2680

Abstract

Since the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in which 173 lives were lost, two-thirds of whom died in their homes, the question of what a home prepared for bushfire looks like has been repeatedly raised. The 2019/2020 fires saw us not much further advanced. This paper seeks to consolidate what is known about bushfire behavior, its influence upon structures, and, through this data, infer improved standards of practice for retrofitting rural and urban fringe homes. In particular, the prevention of ember and smoke incursion: the data suggesting the prior as the main mechanism of home destruction; the latter as high risk to sheltering occupant health. The article is framed around a comprehensive literature review, and the author’s own experiences and observations from fire impacted structures in Victoria’s northeast. The article’s import lies in demonstrating how embers and smoke may enter homes otherwise seen to be appropriately sealed prior to the fire’s approach. Included in the findings are developed hypotheses based on thermal expansion, pressure differentials and backdraft; offering defined paths towards future research. In addition, the work provides practical advice towards mitigating the identified issues using retrofit practices based upon the author’s practical experience as a tradesperson and building designer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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17 pages, 8157 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Enclosure Boundary Patterns and Lift-Up Design on Optimization of Summer Pedestrian Wind Environment in High-Density Residential Districts

by Zhengrong Jiang and Weijun Gao

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3199; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113199 - 30 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2403

Abstract

A comfortable wind environment favors the sustainable development of urban residential districts and public health. However, the rapid growth of high-rise urban residential districts leads to low wind velocity environments in summer. This study examines the influence of enclosure boundary patterns and lift-up design on the wind environment and proposes an optimization strategy to improve the low wind velocity environment in residential districts in summer. A typical residential district in Hangzhou was selected; the average wind velocity, calm wind zone ratio and comfortable wind zone ratio were selected as the evaluation indexes. The wind environment for different enclosure boundary patterns and lift-up designs were obtained via computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The results indicate that the pedestrian wind environment is greatly improved in residential districts by reducing the height/width of the enclosure boundary, increasing the permeability rate and adopting a lift-up design in all buildings within residential districts. A combination of permeable railings and lift-up design is recommended; this can increase the average wind velocity and the ratio of comfortable wind zones by 70% and 200%, respectively. This study provides practical guidelines for the optimization of a low wind velocity environment in Chinese high-density residential districts in summer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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24 pages, 34858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Guidance on Implementing Renewable Energy Systems in Australian Homes

by Peter Horan, Mark B. Luther and Hong Xian Li

Energies 2021, 14(9), 2666; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092666 - 06 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1955

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to examine several real house cases as renewable energy resources are installed. It is an empirical study, based on first principles applied to measured data. In the first case presented, a PV solar system has been installed and a hybrid vehicle purchased. Battery storage is being considered. Smart Meter data (provided in Victoria, Australia) measures the electrical energy flowing to and from the grid in each half hour. Missing is the story about what the house is generating and what its energy requirements are through each half hour interval. We apply actual (on site) solar PV data to this study, resolving the unknown energy flows. Analysing energy flow has revealed that there are five fundamental quantities which determine performance, namely energy load, energy import, energy harvesting, energy export and energy storage. As a function of PV size these quantities depend on four parameters, easily derivable from the Smart Meter data, namely the house load, the night-time house load (no PV generation), the rating of the solar PV system and the tariffs charged. This reveals most of the information for providing advice on PV array size and whether to install a battery. An important discovery is that a battery, no matter what size, needs a PV system large enough to charge it during the winter months. The analysis is extended to two more houses located within 5 km for which detailed solar data is unavailable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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16 pages, 2754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Camera-Driven Probabilistic Algorithm for Multi-Elevator Systems

by Yerzhigit Bapin, Kanat Alimanov and Vasilios Zarikas

Energies 2020, 13(23), 6161; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13236161 - 24 Nov 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3154

Abstract

A fast and reliable vertical transportation system is an important component of modern office buildings. Optimization of elevator control strategies can be easily done using the state-of-the-art artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms. This study presents a novel method for optimal dispatching of conventional passenger elevators using the information obtained by surveillance cameras. It is assumed that a real-time video is processed by an image processing system that determines the number of passengers and items waiting for an elevator car in hallways and riding the lifts. It is supposed that these numbers are also associated with a given uncertainly probability. The efficiency of our novel elevator control algorithm is achieved not only by the probabilistic utilization of the number of people and/or items waiting but also from the demand to exhaustively serve a crowded floor, directing to it as many elevators as there are available and filling them up to the maximum allowed weight. The proposed algorithm takes into account the uncertainty that can take place due to inaccuracy of the image processing system, introducing the concept of effective number of people and items using Bayesian networks. The aim is to reduce the waiting time. According to the simulation results, the implementation of the proposed algorithm resulted in reduction of the passenger journey time. The proposed approach was tested on a 10-storey office building with five elevator cars and traffic size and intensity varying from 10 to 300 and 0.01 to 3, respectively. The results showed that, for the interfloor traffic conditions, the average travel time for scenarios with varying traffic size and intensity improved by 39.94% and 19.53%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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30 pages, 1696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Evaluation of Occupancy-Aware HVAC Control for Residential Building Energy Efficiency and Occupant Comfort

by Christina Turley, Margarite Jacoby, Gregory Pavlak and Gregor Henze

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5396; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205396 - 15 Oct 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 3294

Abstract

Occupancy-aware heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) control offers the opportunity to reduce energy use without sacrificing thermal comfort. Residential HVAC systems often use manually-adjusted or constant setpoint temperatures, which heat and cool the house regardless of whether it is needed. By incorporating occupancy-awareness into HVAC control, heating and cooling can be used for only those time periods it is needed. Yet, bringing this technology to fruition is dependent on accurately predicting occupancy. Non-probabilistic prediction models offer an opportunity to use collected occupancy data to predict future occupancy profiles. Smart devices, such as a connected thermostat, which already include occupancy sensors, can be used to provide a continually growing collection of data that can then be harnessed for short-term occupancy prediction by compiling and creating a binary occupancy prediction. Real occupancy data from six homes located in Colorado is analyzed and investigated using this occupancy prediction model. Results show that non-probabilistic occupancy models in combination with occupancy sensors can be combined to provide a hybrid HVAC control with savings on average of 5.0% and without degradation of thermal comfort. Model predictive control provides further opportunities, with the ability to adjust the relative importance between thermal comfort and energy savings to achieve savings between 1% and 13.3% depending on the relative weighting between thermal comfort and energy savings. In all cases, occupancy prediction allows the opportunity for a more intelligent and optimized strategy to residential HVAC control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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19 pages, 2123 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatically Creating HVAC Control Strategies Based on Building Information Modeling (BIM): Heat Provisioning and Distribution

by Andreas Sporr, Gerhard Zucker and René Hofmann

Energies 2020, 13(17), 4403; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13174403 - 26 Aug 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3052

Abstract

Building Information Modeling (BIM) data are typically exchanged using the Industrial Foundation Classes (IFC) standard. An IFC-based BIM model is a container for data that is created during the design and planning phase and is therefore a rich source of information for the commissioning phase, in which building services are brought to operation. This paper examines the use of BIM data for automated generation of control strategies for energy systems, thus simplifying and accelerating the commissioning phase. We present a methodology to create control strategies of a building heating system with several variations of renewable energy systems and include both heat provisioning and a distribution system. The control goals include favoring the use of non-fossil energy, which is provided by a combination of photovoltaic system (PV), heat pump (HP) and industrial excess-heat source. Thermal energy storages are integrated for load shifting purposes and the control of the heat distribution system is designed towards the requirements of building physics, occupancy and outside climate conditions. A validation of the approach is presented in a combined SIMULINK and TRNSYS simulation environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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Review

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26 pages, 7385 KiB

Open AccessReview

Radiant Conditioning Retrofitting for Residential Buildings

by Hung Q. Do, Mark B. Luther, Mehdi Amirkhani, Zheng Wang and Igor Martek

Energies 2022, 15(2), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020449 - 10 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2475

Abstract

In order to achieve Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets, a majority of the existing residential building stock in Australia will require retrofitting in favour of energy-efficient solutions. This paper considers retrofitting for conditioning to be one of the most straightforward and offers the greatest potential to deliver significant comfort and energy-saving results. Radiant conditioning systems are not new, yet some game-changing innovations have taken place over the last decade that may require an entire paradigm shift in the manner we condition our buildings. The reiteration of the principle ‘thermally active systems’ suggests that our buildings need to accommodate these systems into the fabric of building components. However, extremely few products and/or innovative solutions for doing such seem to be provided by the industry. We seem incompetent with solutions that are not costing the Earth, insulating, lightweight, and offering an instant response time to conditioning. We still have the concept embedded in our minds that radiative systems consist of heavy ‘combat’ construction with time lags of a day or two and that they are very costly to implement, especially if we are to retrofit a project. The purpose of this paper is to rectify and change our understanding of radiant systems, namely through a review of the existing technology and its recent advancements. It intends to introduce the fact that radiant systems can become highly reactive, responsive, and thermally dynamic conditioning systems. Lightweight radiant systems can be 40% more energy-efficient than common air conditioners and can respond in less than 15 min rather than in the hours required of heavy radiant systems. Thus, an insulated, lightweight radiant system is ideal for retrofitting residential buildings. Furthermore, this paper supports and introduces various systems suited to retrofitting a residential building with hydronic radiant systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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18 pages, 2484 KiB

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Mapping Research Trends in Residential Construction Retrofitting: A Scientometric Literature Review

by Mehdi Amirkhani, Igor Martek and Mark B. Luther

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6106; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196106 - 25 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1891

Abstract

The world is looking to reduce carbon emissions, prevent global warming, and become more energy sustainable. Despite the various strategies for mitigating climate change, the fact remains that 80% of greenhouse gas emissions are attributable to activities associated with the built environment, and this is where a concentrated focus is needed. Moreover, most buildings are residential, not commercial or industrial. In essence, ways must be found to reduce energy consumption and CO₂ emissions from existing houses and apartments globally if sustainability is to be realised. The recognised way to achieve this is through the retrofitting of existing residential buildings. Studies in this area have increased in recent times, but the extent of the work remains unmapped and undescribed. If further progress is to be made in this field, researchers’ knowledge domain so far must be documented. This literature review delivers that goal. A scientometric evaluation of research on residential retrofitting is here presented. VOSviewer, Gephi, and CiteSpace are the software packages used. Findings identify retrofitting as an emerging theme, taking off only as recently as 2017. The breadth of research is very limited, primarily concerned with calibrating trade-offs between energy costs and thermal comfort. Emerging and new opportunities to expand retrofitting research are identified. Finally, while several journals accommodate publications on this topic, analysis reveals Energy and Buildings to be the significant citation source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Technology Applications in the Retrofitting of Residential Buildings)

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