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Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects

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A special issue of Electronics (ISSN 2079-9292). This special issue belongs to the section "Microwave and Wireless Communications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 33669

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Sabrine Kheriji

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Measurement and Sensor Technology, Technische Universität Chemnitz, Reichenhainer Straße 70, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
Interests: Wireless Sensor Network (WSN); Internet of Things (IoT); cloud computing; data aggregation techniques for WSN; low power embedded systems; information technology; Artificial Intelligence; communication and networking; energy saving

Prof. Dr. Olfa Kanoun

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Guest Editor

Chair of Measurement and Sensor Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
Interests: energy harvesting; nanocompsoites; design of sensors and sensors systems; impedance spectroscopy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Faouzi Derbel

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Guest Editor

Institute for Electrical Power Engineering, Leipzig University of Applied Sciences, Wächterstrasse 13, 04107 Leipzig, Germany
Interests: wireless sensor networks; IoT; localization based on WSN; smart diagnostic; smart grids; energy autonomous sensors

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have attracted research and development interest in different fields, such as smart health, industry 4.0, smart cities, and environmental sciences. WSNs are one of the key enabling technologies for the Internet of Things (IoT). With the development of IoT, WSNs have drawn more attention in various up-to-date applications. Thus, WSNs need to be highly flexible, scalable, interoperable, and reliable. Despite significant developments and efforts in the fields of WSN and IoT technologies, challenges still remain, such as energy efficiency, data bandwidth demand, data processing, and self-organization. In recent years, significant contributions have revealed valuable possibilities for overcoming such challenges by reducing energy consumption, implementing energy harvesting, compressive sensing for data aggregation, and improving IoT scalability through cloud computing and artificial intelligence for fully automated IoT applications.

The main focus of this Special Issue is to bring together researchers to share their high-quality research and outcomes in the context of the challenges, applications, architecture development, technologies, and opportunities for future work with relation of WSNs/IoT.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

WSNs/IoT architecture design;
Wireless communication systems—5G Internet and mobile communication networks;
Compressive sensing;
Energy-efficient IoT-enabled WSNs architectures;
Energy harvesting;
Energy-aware, cluster-based routing protocols and localization;
Fault-tolerance techniques in WSNs;
Data analytics in WSNs and IoT;
Artificial intelligence for WSNs/IoT;
Cloud computing, fog computing, and edge computing for IoT and WSNs;
Industrial Internet of Things;
Wireless body area networks;
Sensor systems for wearables and implants;
Industry 4.0;
Future prospects and developments.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Sabrine Kheriji
Prof. Dr. Olfa Kanoun
Prof. Dr. Faouzi Derbel
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Electronics is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

WSN
IoT
WBAN
Artificial Intelligence
energy saving
data aggregation
energy harvesting
cloud compting

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Hello Flood Attacks Using Fuzzy-Based Energy-Efficient Clustering Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks

by S. Radhika, K. Anitha, C. Kavitha, Wen-Cheng Lai and S. R. Srividhya

Electronics 2023, 12(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12010123 - 27 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1284

Abstract

Clustering is one among the most important strategies to improve the lifetime of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The frequent occurrence of clustering and the subsequent interchange of data overload the sensor nodes and result in wasting power. WSNs are susceptible to attacks because of their resource-constrained nature and large applications in critical military areas. The objective of the threats to the security of wireless sensor networks is to compromise the network by seizing information for misuse. Security features have become a major concern in these types of networks as it is important to protect sensitive data from unauthorized users. This paper aims to present an enriched clustering strategy to minimize the overhead caused by clustering, by formulating an effective cluster update schedule. It also focuses on the attacks that occur during an exchange of initialization messages with neighbors. Clustering of the network is carried out on the basis of the energy of sensor nodes. The nodes that are the heads of the cluster nodes are determined according to the characteristics of energy factors; hence, the role is frequently switched among the nodes of the cluster. To formulate the next cluster update schedule, a fuzzy inference system is employed, and this uses the energy factor of the node, the distance the node is placed from the sink, and the number of member nodes of the cluster. A mechanism is included during an exchange of initialization messages that detects any malicious node pretending to be a neighbor node. The proposed algorithm is evaluated using simulation, and it is found to produce an improved lifetime of 1700 time units. It is shown to conserve the energy of sensor nodes and protect them from unauthorized nodes posing as legitimate neighbors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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25 pages, 4763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Unclonable Function and Machine Learning Based Group Authentication and Data Masking for In-Hospital Segments

by Pintu Kumar Sadhu, Venkata P. Yanambaka and Ahmed Abdelgawad

Electronics 2022, 11(24), 4155; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11244155 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1811

Abstract

The involvement of the Internet of things (IoT) in the development of technology makes systems automated and peoples’ lives easier. The IoT is taking part in many applications, from smart homes to smart industries, in order to make a city smart. One of the major applications of the IoT is the Internet of medical things (IoMT) which deals with patients’ sensitive information. This confidential information needs to be properly transferred and securely authenticated. For successful data protection and preserving privacy, this paper proposes multidevice authentication for the in-hospital segment using a physical unclonable function (PUF) and machine learning (ML). The proposed method authenticates multiple devices using a single message. Most of the protocols require PUF keys to be stored at the server, which is not required in the proposed framework. Moreover, authentication, as well as data, is sent to the server in the same message, which results in faster processing. Furthermore, a single ML model authenticates a group of devices at the same time. The proposed method shows 99.54% accuracy in identifying the group of devices. Moreover, the proposed method takes 2.6 ms and 104 bytes to complete the authentication of a device and takes less time with the increment of devices in the group. The proposed algorithm is analyzed using a formal analysis to show its resistance against various vulnerabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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31 pages, 691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parallelly Running and Privacy-Preserving k-Nearest Neighbor Classification in Outsourced Cloud Computing Environments

by Jeongsu Park and Dong Hoon Lee

Electronics 2022, 11(24), 4132; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11244132 - 11 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1028

Abstract

Classification is used in various areas where k-nearest neighbor classification is the most popular as it produces efficient results. Cloud computing with powerful resources is one reliable option for handling large-scale data efficiently, but many companies are reluctant to outsource data due to privacy concerns. This paper aims to implement a privacy-preserving k-nearest neighbor classification (PkNC) in an outsourced environment. Existing work proposed a secure protocol (SkLE/SkSE) to compute k data with the largest/smallest value privately, but this work discloses information. Moreover, SkLE/SkSE requires a secure comparison protocol, and the existing protocols also contain information disclosure problems. In this paper, we propose a new secure comparison and SkLE/SkSE protocols to solve the abovementioned information disclosure problems and implement PkNC with these novel protocols. Our proposed protocols disclose no information and we prove the security formally. Then, through extensive experiments, we demonstrate that the PkNC applying the proposed protocols is also efficient. Especially, the PkNC is suitable for big data analysis to handle large amounts of data, since our SkLE/SkSE is executed for each dataset in parallel. Although the proposed protocols do require efficiency sacrifices to improve security, the running time of our PkNC is still significantly more efficient compared with previously proposed PkNCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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19 pages, 1022 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling and Duty-Cycling for Ultra Low-Power Wireless Sensor Nodes

by Sabrine Khriji, Rym Chéour and Olfa Kanoun

Electronics 2022, 11(24), 4071; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11244071 - 07 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3105

Abstract

Energy efficiency presents a significant challenge to the reliability of Internet of Things (IoT) services. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) present as an elementary technology of IoT, which has limited resources. Appropriate energy management techniques can perform increasing energy efficiency under variable workload conditions. Therefore, this paper aims to experimentally implement a hybrid energy management solution, combining Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS) and Duty-Cycling. The DVFS technique is implemented as an effective power management scheme to optimize the operating conditions during data processing. Moreover, the duty-cycling method is applied to reduce the energy consumption of the transceiver. Hardware optimization is performed by selecting the low-power microcontroller, MSP430, using experimental estimation and characterization. Another contribution is evaluating the energy-saving design by defining the normalized power as a metric to measure the consumed power of the proposed model per throughput. Extensive simulations and real-world implementations indicate that normalized power can be significantly reduced while sustaining performance levels in high-data IoT use cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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18 pages, 2236 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Location-Aware IoT-Enabled Wireless Sensor Networks for Landslide Early Warning

by Dhouha El Houssaini, Sabrine Khriji, Christian Viehweger, Thomas Keutel and Olfa Kanoun

Electronics 2022, 11(23), 3971; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11233971 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1550

Abstract

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) represent an interesting technology for designing early warning systems for landslides as they can ensure real-time and continuous monitoring. Through accurate localization techniques, changes in the position of installed nodes can be detected even during the early stage of field instability. This is through an accurate detection of nodes position changes independently from systematic deviations resulting from outdoor environmental conditions. In this study, we propose an accurate measurement system for distance measurement between wireless sensor nodes based on an ultra-wideband (UWB) localization method. In particular, distance measurements at different real weather conditions were performed to identify the impact of weather changes on distance measurement deviations. A prototype for a landslide warning system has been developed realizing a localization accuracy of 98%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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26 pages, 9664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supervised Machine Learning Tools and PUF Based Internet of Vehicles Authentication Framework

by Pintu Kumar Sadhu, Jesse Eickholt, Venkata P. Yanambaka and Ahmed Abdelgawad

Electronics 2022, 11(23), 3845; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11233845 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1388

Abstract

The recent advancement of the Internet of Things (IoT) in the fields of smart vehicles and integration empowers all cars to join to the internet and transfer sensitive traffic information. To enhance the security for the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) and maintain privacy, this paper proposes an ultralight authentication scheme. Physical unclonable function (PUF), supervised machine learning (SML), and XOR functions are used to authenticate both server and device in a two message flow. The proposed framework can authenticate devices with a low computation time (3 ms) compared to other proposed frameworks while protecting against existing potential threats. Furthermore, the proposed framework needs low overhead (21 bytes) that avoids adding to the IoV network’s workload. Moreover, SML makes weak PUF responses as random numbers to provide the functionality of a strong PUF for the framework. In addition, both formal (Burrows, Abadi, Needham (BAN) logic) and informal analysis are presented to show the resistance against known attacks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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17 pages, 11018 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agricultural Lightweight Embedded Blockchain System: A Case Study in Olive Oil

by Jalel Ktari, Tarek Frikha, Faten Chaabane, Monia Hamdi and Habib Hamam

Electronics 2022, 11(20), 3394; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11203394 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2328

Abstract

In Tunisia, one of the major problems of the olive oil industry is marketing. Several factors have an impact, such as quality, originality, lobbying, subsidies and the certification of extra virgin olive oil. The major problem remains the traceability of the production process to guarantee the origin of the food at all times. This fine-grained traceability can be achieved by applying Blockchain technologies. Blockchain can be used as a solution that could bring visibility to the oil supply chain. It is proposed in order to guarantee the veracity of the product information at different stages. In this paper, a multi-Blockchain, multi-sensor traceability system using IoT will be presented. Two Blockchains that can be programmed via Smart Contract will be used. The first one is Quorum, which is a private Blockchain used by the actors of our system, and the second one is Ethereum, which is public and connects the different actors who have access to our system. This smart contract allows us to conta our system to track the olive oil manufacturing process from the farmer, through the oil mill, the transporter and the quality controller to the customer. A general approach for managing the olive oil supply chain is presented. This approach offers the possibility for the system to be configurable. It is based on smart contracts and applications that interact with the same smart contracts. The IoT is used to configure sensors. These sensors are the source of data for the supply chain process. These sensors are connected to the embedded platforms that host Quorum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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20 pages, 2339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GDPR Compliant Data Storage and Sharing in Smart Healthcare System: A Blockchain-Based Solution

by Pinky Bai, Sushil Kumar, Kirshna Kumar, Omprakash Kaiwartya, Mufti Mahmud and Jaime Lloret

Electronics 2022, 11(20), 3311; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11203311 - 14 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1961

Abstract

Smart healthcare systems provide user-centric medical services to patients based on collected information of patients inducing personal health information (PHI) and personal identifiable information (PII). The information (PII and PHI) flows into the smart healthcare system with or without any regulation and patient concern with the help of new information and communication technologies (ICT). The use of ICT comes with the security and privacy issues of collected PII and PHI data. The Europe Union has published the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) to regulate the flow of personal information. Towards this end, this paper proposes a blockchain-based data storage and sharing framework for a smart healthcare system that complies with the “Privacy by Design” rule of the GDPR. The personal information collected from patients is stored on off-chain storage (IPFS), and other information is stored on the blockchain ledger, which is visible to all participants. The smart contracts are designed to share the PII data with another participant based on prior permission of the data owner. The proposed framework also includes the deletion of PII and PHI in the system as per the “Right to be Forgotten” GDPR rule. Security and privacy analyses are performed for the framework to demonstrate the security and privacy of data while sharing and at rest. The comparative performance analysis demonstrates the benefit of the proposed GDPR-compliant data storage and sharing framework using blockchain. It is evident from the reported results that the proposed framework outperforms the state-of-the-art techniques in terms of performance metrics in a smart healthcare system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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24 pages, 6726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Implementation of Low Noise Amplifier Operating at 868 MHz for Duty Cycled Wake-Up Receiver Front-End

by Ilef Ketata, Sarah Ouerghemmi, Ahmed Fakhfakh and Faouzi Derbel

Electronics 2022, 11(19), 3235; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11193235 - 08 Oct 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4818

Abstract

The integration of wireless communication, e.g., in real- or quasi-real-time applications, is related to many challenges such as energy consumption, communication range, quality of service, and reliability. The improvement of wireless sensor networks (WSN) performance starts by enhancing the capabilities of each sensor node. To minimize latencies without increasing energy consumption, wake-up receiver (WuRx) nodes have been introduced in recent works since they can be always-on or power-gated with short latencies by a power consumption in the range of some microwatts. Compared to standard receiver technologies, they are usually characterized by drawbacks in terms of sensitivity. To overcome the limitation of the sensitivity of WuRxs, a design of a low noise amplifier (LNA) with several design specifications is required. The challenging task of the LNA design is to provide equitable trade-off performances such as gain, power consumption, the noise figure, stability, linearity, and impedance matching. The design of fast settling LNA for a duty-cycled WuRx front-end operating at a 868 MHz frequency band is investigated in this work. The paper details the trade-offs between design challenges and illustrates practical considerations for the simulation and implementation of a radio frequency (RF) circuit. The implemented LNA competes with many commercialized designs where it reaches single-stage 12 dB gain at a 1.8 V voltage supply and consumes only a 1.6 mA current. The obtained results could be made tunable by working with off-the-shelf components for different wake-up based application exigencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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15 pages, 2688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Algorithm for Increasing Network Lifetime in Wireless Sensor Networks Using Jumping and Mobile Sensor Nodes

by Muhammad Amir Khan, Jawad Khan, Khalid Mahmood, Inam Bari, Haider Ali, Naveed Jan and Rania M. Ghoniem

Electronics 2022, 11(18), 2913; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11182913 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1744

Abstract

Sensor networks’ network connectivity must be restored as part of any solution. This strategy’s goal was to come up with a concept. Many approaches to restoring connections after a network outage can be implemented by relying on these factors: low mobility, minimal field coverage drop and a reduction in the overall number of messages sent. All of the following objectives can be met with this solution. Based on detailed simulations and a comparison with the PACR and SNR methods, it can be concluded that the proposed methodology is effective. The sensor nodes’ batteries slowly depleted over time due to power restrictions. Network nodes fail as a result; data transmission stops, and the network’s lifespan is shortened because of it. As a result, one of the most difficult challenges in wireless sensor networks is to minimize energy consumption while also maximizing the network’s lifespan. In this study, the network lifetime of a wireless sensor network is extended through the use of special jumping nodes. Instead of using wheels or other means of transportation, these nodes leap into the network, and they are used to recharge other nodes in the network that are dying upon request. Results show that the proposed technique works more efficiently with figures of 83.76%, 84.84% and 87.3% for SNR, PACR and the proposed technique, respectively, with 250 nodes. This significantly increases the network’s lifetime. The simulation results suggest that the proposed technique outperforms other strategies that have been used in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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Review

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24 pages, 504 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Advents of Ubiquitous Computing in the Development of Smart Cities—A Review on the Internet of Things (IoT)

by Jawad Ali, Mohammad Haseeb Zafar, Chaminda Hewage, Syed Raheel Hassan and Rameez Asif

Electronics 2023, 12(4), 1032; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12041032 - 19 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1672

Abstract

By leveraging ubiquitous computing and the Internet of Things (IoT), smart cities gain potential to provide a wider range of services. Different homogeneous and heterogeneous networking schemes and applications have been proposed in the literature to date. In these networking schemes, human and computer are connected for social, economic, physiological, and technological growth. However, there is a dearth of recent literature that incorporates recently proposed and operating techniques and technologies capable of enhancing the productivity of human and machine in IoT technologies. The role of this research is to investigate the protocols, followed by the advance frameworks for IoT, the characteristics and services that are being governed using IoT for establishing information-rich smart cities. To this end, likewise, physical layer, media access control, networking and applications protocols, and encapsulation standards of IoT for smart cities applications are critically reviewed. Certain open issues are discussed based on the literature collected that would improve the autonomous behavior, process control, device handling, and the QoS in smart environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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23 pages, 1797 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Applications of the Internet of Medical Things to Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

by Ignacio Rodríguez-Rodríguez, José-Víctor Rodríguez and María Campo-Valera

Electronics 2023, 12(3), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12030756 - 02 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3717

Abstract

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (DM1) is a condition of the metabolism typified by persistent hyperglycemia as a result of insufficient pancreatic insulin synthesis. This requires patients to be aware of their blood glucose level oscillations every day to deduce a pattern and anticipate future glycemia, and hence, decide the amount of insulin that must be exogenously injected to maintain glycemia within the target range. This approach often suffers from a relatively high imprecision, which can be dangerous. Nevertheless, current developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and innovative sensors for biological signals that might enable a continuous, complete assessment of the patient’s health provide a fresh viewpoint on treating DM1. With this, we observe that current biomonitoring devices and Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM) units can easily obtain data that allow us to know at all times the state of glycemia and other variables that influence its oscillations. A complete review has been made of the variables that influence glycemia in a T1DM patient and that can be measured by the above means. The communications systems necessary to transfer the information collected to a more powerful computational environment, which can adequately handle the amounts of data collected, have also been described. From this point, intelligent data analysis extracts knowledge from the data and allows predictions to be made in order to anticipate risk situations. With all of the above, it is necessary to build a holistic proposal that allows the complete and smart management of T1DM. This approach evaluates a potential shortage of such suggestions and the obstacles that future intelligent IoMT-DM1 management systems must surmount. Lastly, we provide an outline of a comprehensive IoMT-based proposal for DM1 management that aims to address the limits of prior studies while also using the disruptive technologies highlighted before. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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26 pages, 3621 KiB

Open AccessReview

Energy-Efficient Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks: Architectures, Strategies, and Performance

by Trupti Mayee Behera, Umesh Chandra Samal, Sushanta Kumar Mohapatra, Mohammad S. Khan, Bhargav Appasani, Nicu Bizon and Phatiphat Thounthong

Electronics 2022, 11(15), 2282; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11152282 - 22 Jul 2022

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5163

Abstract

Recent developments in low-power communication and signal processing technologies have led to the extensive implementation of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). In a WSN environment, cluster formation and cluster head (CH) selection consume significant energy. Typically, the CH is chosen probabilistically, without considering the real-time factors such as the remaining energy, number of clusters, distance, location, and number of functional nodes to boost network lifetime. Based on the real-time issues, different strategies must be incorporated to design a generic protocol suited for applications such as environment and health monitoring, animal tracking, and home automation. Elementary protocols such as LEACH and centralized-LEACH are well proven, but gradually limitations evolved due to increasing desire and need for proper modification over time. Since the selection of CHs has always been an important criterion for clustered networks, this paper overviews the modifications in the threshold value of CH selection in the network. With the evolution of bio-inspired algorithms, the CH selection has also been enhanced considering the behavior of the network. This paper includes a brief description of LEACH-based and bio-inspired protocols, their pros and cons, assumptions, and the criteria of CH selection. Finally, the performance factors such as longevity, scalability, and packet delivery ratio of various protocols are compared and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Sensors Networks in the IoT Era: Advanced Technologies, Recent Challenges, Smart Applications & Future Prospects)

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