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Volume 8
Issue 4
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Languages, Volume 8, Issue 4 (December 2023) – 66 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This paper deals with so-called ‘expletive’ mismo (‘same’), a non-comparative emphatic use of the prenominal adjective in appositions, which is currently attested in many varieties of American Spanish (e.g., Finalmente, Laura se sentó y aceptó el cigarrillo, mismo que nunca encendió, lit. ‘Laura finally sat down and accepted the cigarette, same that she never lighted up’). On the basis of corpus data, the geographical distribution of this form is precisely specified, and a novel analysis of its interpretive and combinatorial properties is provided. It is argued, in particular, that expletive mismo functions as an anaphoric reinforcer that is preceded by a null definite determiner and combines with an empty noun that takes a restrictive relative clause as its complement. View this paper
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29 pages, 1363 KiB  
Article
On the Emergence of Portuguese FCI qualquer: A Diachronic Perspective
by Clara Pinto
Languages 2023, 8(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040290 - 18 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1148
Abstract
Romance free choice items (FCIs) are frequently pointed out as resulting from the grammaticalization of the relative determiner qual ‘which’ and an element derived from a volition verb, such as querer ‘want’. Contrary to other Romance FCIs, Portuguese qualquer ‘any’ remains understudied, therefore [...] Read more.
Romance free choice items (FCIs) are frequently pointed out as resulting from the grammaticalization of the relative determiner qual ‘which’ and an element derived from a volition verb, such as querer ‘want’. Contrary to other Romance FCIs, Portuguese qualquer ‘any’ remains understudied, therefore motivating the current research. In this article, I investigate the syntax and semantics of qualquer, from a diachronic perspective, based on examples extracted from 13th and 14th century texts. Analysis of contexts of occurrence of qualquer showed that, in Old Portuguese, the elements qual and quer could combine in different configurations, corresponding to different structures. On the one hand, the relative determiner qual could combine with a form of the volition verb in ever free relative clauses. On the other hand, qual and quer were also combined in appositive relative clauses, which seem to be at the core of postnominal qualquer. However, similar to what is argued for Old Spanish, qualquer was also a quantifier-like element, occurring in prenominal position and giving rise to universal interpretations. The different origins of prenominal and postnominal qualquer may help explain the different readings in contemporary data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigating Language Variation and Change in Portuguese)
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25 pages, 1114 KiB  
Article
Paths of Constructionalization in Peninsular Spanish: The Development of “Pues Eso”. A 20th Century Case
by Shima Salameh Jiménez
Languages 2023, 8(4), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040289 - 18 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1152
Abstract
This paper explores the evolution of the conversational formula pues eso in Peninsular Spanish through the framework of constructionalization, so as to describe how form–meaning pairings have been consolidated. Additionally, the Val.Es.Co. model for discourse segmentation is introduced as part of the form [...] Read more.
This paper explores the evolution of the conversational formula pues eso in Peninsular Spanish through the framework of constructionalization, so as to describe how form–meaning pairings have been consolidated. Additionally, the Val.Es.Co. model for discourse segmentation is introduced as part of the form pole in the construction. The findings suggest that PE has become a consolidated parenthetical, procedural device during the 20th century, but that previous centuries are also key in understanding how the new functions were developed from pues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grammaticalization across Languages, Levels and Frameworks)
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32 pages, 810 KiB  
Article
Grammatical and Lexical Dialectal Variation in Spanish: The Case of deísmo
by Edita Gutiérrez-Rodríguez and Pilar Pérez-Ocón
Languages 2023, 8(4), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040288 - 15 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1135
Abstract
Deísmo is a non-standard dialectal phenomenon consisting of the insertion of a non-required preposition de ‘of’ before a non-finite clause: Me apetece (de) salir ‘I want to go out’. In most papers, de is analyzed as a defective complementizer that does not change [...] Read more.
Deísmo is a non-standard dialectal phenomenon consisting of the insertion of a non-required preposition de ‘of’ before a non-finite clause: Me apetece (de) salir ‘I want to go out’. In most papers, de is analyzed as a defective complementizer that does not change the meaning of the sentence. However, deísmo has also been associated with a prospective meaning with some verbs, and de has been considered as a marker of evidentiality with visual perception verbs. In this paper, we provide a formal analysis for deísmo constructions, in which de is located in a projection below that occupied by de in dequeísmo constructions). Secondly, we will show the results of a questionnaire whose objective is to figure out if there is an evidential meaning associated with deísmo. For the questionnaire, we made a preliminary search in Corpus Oral y Sonoro del Español Rural (COSER) and in Spanish Web Corpus 2018 (Sketch Engine). From this, we selected the most frequent verbs with deísmo in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). An examination of the results revealed that, on the one hand, deísmo is lexically associated with certain verbs, but not necessarily with all of the same semantic class; and on the other hand, that there is not an evidential meaning associated with deísmo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches to Spanish Dialectal Grammar)
21 pages, 12005 KiB  
Article
Meeting in the Middle: Sociophonetic Convergence of Bad Bunny and J Balvin’s Coda /s/ in Their Artistic Performance Speech
by Elizabeth Naranjo Hayes
Languages 2023, 8(4), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040287 - 14 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1914
Abstract
The artistic performance of identity by top Latin music artists can be heard on many Top-40 US radio stations, since, as of July 2023, 20% of the Billboard Hot 100 is (Spanish language) Latin music. This study aims to determine the variants found [...] Read more.
The artistic performance of identity by top Latin music artists can be heard on many Top-40 US radio stations, since, as of July 2023, 20% of the Billboard Hot 100 is (Spanish language) Latin music. This study aims to determine the variants found in the pronunciation of coda /s/, a robust phonetic differentiator of regional and social dialects, in the top songs versus in the spontaneous speech of the two top Latin music artists in the global market. Are Bad Bunny and J Balvin holding to the pronunciation of their respective regional variety in their artistic performance speech (APS, my term) or are they shifting to a different pronunciation? What motivations might cause a difference in the pronunciation of their APS and spontaneous speech? Bad Bunny and J Balvin’s pronunciation of coda /s/ is analyzed in depth as sociophonetic data: their performances of songs from 2018 to 2020 that charted at the top of the Hot Latin Songs Billboard chart as well as on The Billboard Hot 100 chart, and their spontaneous speech from their most-viewed Spanish-language interviews and Instagram Live recordings on YouTube recorded between 2018 and 2020. Bad Bunny overwhelmingly used deletions (∅) in his spontaneous speech—which is typical of an island Puerto Rican—but used a statistically significant amount of maintenance of the sibilant [s] and its aspirated variant [h] in his APS (p < 0.0001). J Balvin primarily used [s] in his spontaneous speech—which is typical of Medellín, Colombia—but used about 50/50 [s] and (∅) in his APS. They are both shifting to a different pronunciation in their APS and converging towards each other, and the difference is statistically significant (p < 0.0001). This dialect convergence could be the beginning of an identity-based pan-Latinx dialect leveling that is, on the one hand, the “in-crowd” pronunciation with covert prestige but, on the other hand, is part of the formation of an evolving multi-regional connector variant diffused through popular music and pop culture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interface between Sociolinguistics and Music)
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21 pages, 406 KiB  
Article
Questioning Practices and Speech Style Shifting in Korean Entertainment Talk Shows
by Kyung-Eun Yoon
Languages 2023, 8(4), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040286 - 12 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1310
Abstract
This study explores the dynamics of questioning practices and speech-style shifting in Korean entertainment talk shows. While prior research has examined the topic of questioning practices in the Korean language, mostly in everyday conversation or educational discourse, this article expands this investigation to [...] Read more.
This study explores the dynamics of questioning practices and speech-style shifting in Korean entertainment talk shows. While prior research has examined the topic of questioning practices in the Korean language, mostly in everyday conversation or educational discourse, this article expands this investigation to encompass semi-institutional discourse, particularly focusing on the context of entertainment talk shows. This research also contributes to understanding the pragmatic characteristics of two Korean honorific speech styles, namely the polite (-yo) and deferential (-(su)pnita/-(su)pnikka) styles, by investigating their interplay and transitions. Adopting an interactional approach to discourse and drawing upon membership categorization analysis and conversation analysis, this study analyzes the discourse of 15 entertainment talk shows, with a special focus on approximately 1500 sentential units, 325 of which are questions. The analysis of these utterances provides an account of the utilization of linguistic resources in questioning practices and the utilization of the two Korean honorific speech styles in the joint construction of social activities and identities within the entertainment talk show setting. The selection of linguistic resources for questioning practices and style shifting is closely intertwined with the management of entertainment and institutional dynamics among the participants in this particular setting. Full article
28 pages, 505 KiB  
Article
Adaptation of Gap Predictions in Filler-Gap Dependency Processing during Reading
by Emily Atkinson and Akira Omaki
Languages 2023, 8(4), 285; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040285 - 12 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1206
Abstract
Syntactic adaptation effects have been demonstrated for an expanding list of structure types, but the mechanism underlying this effect is still being explored. In the current work on filler-gap dependency processing, we examined whether exposing participants to a less common gap location—prepositional object [...] Read more.
Syntactic adaptation effects have been demonstrated for an expanding list of structure types, but the mechanism underlying this effect is still being explored. In the current work on filler-gap dependency processing, we examined whether exposing participants to a less common gap location—prepositional object (PO) gaps—altered their gap predictions, and whether these effects would transfer across tasks when this input was presented in a quasi-naturalistic way (i.e., by reading stories). In Experiment 1, we demonstrated that comprehenders dampened their direct object (DO) gap predictions following exposure to PO gaps. However, Experiments 2A and 2B suggest that these adaptation effects did not transfer when the quasi-naturalistic exposure phase was presented as a separate task (Experiment 2A) and when they also needed to generalize from a syntactic to a semantic measure of direct object gap predictions (i.e., filled gap vs. plausibility mismatch sentences; Experiment 2B). Overall, these experiments add filler-gap dependency processing, as well as the gap predictions associated with it, to the growing list of structures demonstrating adaptation effects, while also suggesting that this effect may be specific to a singular experimental task environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Syntactic Adaptation)
24 pages, 4733 KiB  
Article
Vocative Intonation in Language Contact: The Case of Bulgarian Judeo-Spanish
by Jonas Grünke, Bistra Andreeva, Christoph Gabriel and Mitko Sabev
Languages 2023, 8(4), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040284 - 08 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2095
Abstract
The present study investigates the prosodic realization of calling contours by bilingual speakers of Bulgarian and (Bulgarian) Judeo-Spanish and monolingual speakers of Bulgarian in a discourse completion task across three pragmatic contexts: (i) neutral (routine) context—calling a child from afar to come in [...] Read more.
The present study investigates the prosodic realization of calling contours by bilingual speakers of Bulgarian and (Bulgarian) Judeo-Spanish and monolingual speakers of Bulgarian in a discourse completion task across three pragmatic contexts: (i) neutral (routine) context—calling a child from afar to come in for dinner; (ii) positive context—calling a child from afar to get a present; and (iii) negative (or urgent) context—calling a child from afar for a chastising. Through quantitative analyses of the F0 span between tonal landmarks, alignment of pitch peaks, intensity, and durational and prominence patterns, we systematically account for the phonetic characteristics of the contours and determine their tonal composition and meaning, thereby situating them within the intonation systems of Bulgarian Judeo-Spanish and Bulgarian. It is shown that both languages use the same inventory of contours: (1) L+H* !H-% (the so-called “vocative chant”), (2) L+H* H-L%, and (3) L+H* L-%. However, their distribution differs across contexts and varieties. Monolingual and bilingual speakers of Bulgarian, on the one hand, predominantly use (1) and (2) in neutral and positive contexts and clearly prefer (3) in negative contexts. In Bulgarian Judeo-Spanish, the bilinguals also more often recur to (3) in neutral and positive contexts and generally show more variation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Prosody in Shared Linguistic Spaces of the Spanish-Speaking World)
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6 pages, 307 KiB  
Editorial
Introduction to the Special Issue Social Meanings of Language Variation in Spanish
by Sonia Barnes and Whitney Chappell
Languages 2023, 8(4), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040283 - 06 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1198
Abstract
Centering stances, positionalities, and style, the third wave of sociolinguistic study positions individuals at the heart of its analysis [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Meanings of Language Variation in Spanish)
23 pages, 1820 KiB  
Article
Inferential Interrogatives with qué in Spanish
by Ángel L. Jiménez-Fernández and Mercedes Tubino-Blanco
Languages 2023, 8(4), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040282 - 30 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1480
Abstract
In this paper, we discuss the evidential properties of inferential interrogative sentences with qué in Spanish. This interrogative type exhibits the shape of a wh-question but the interpretation of a polar question. These sentences have the additional particularity that they are interrogatives [...] Read more.
In this paper, we discuss the evidential properties of inferential interrogative sentences with qué in Spanish. This interrogative type exhibits the shape of a wh-question but the interpretation of a polar question. These sentences have the additional particularity that they are interrogatives with evidential material, which are attested but not frequent crosslinguistically, if compared with declarative evidentials. An interesting consequence of their double interrogative and evidential nature is the fact that both discourse participants have a prominent role in the interpretation of these sentences, as the Speaker makes the inference but the Addressee is requested for confirmation. To account for the construction, we assume a multiple-layered system that includes both Speech Act projection and Finiteness projection. In these two areas we simultaneously find evidential material housing the Speaker’s inference, and a raised Addressee in its prominent interrogative position as the participant with the knowledge to provide the requested confirmation of the interrogative’s truth value. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Syntax and Discourse at the Crossroads)
17 pages, 2888 KiB  
Article
Current Approaches to Heritage Spanish and the Identity Construction of Spanish Heritage Speakers: Lessons Learnt from Five European Countries
by María Cecilia Ainciburu, Kris Buyse, Marta Gallego-García and Eva González Melón
Languages 2023, 8(4), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040281 - 28 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1416
Abstract
An individual’s social identity, often overlooked in Europe in the field of Spanish as a second or foreign language (S2L/SFL), has always been the focus of attention in the teaching of heritage Spanish in the USA, especially in programmes designed from critical pedagogy [...] Read more.
An individual’s social identity, often overlooked in Europe in the field of Spanish as a second or foreign language (S2L/SFL), has always been the focus of attention in the teaching of heritage Spanish in the USA, especially in programmes designed from critical pedagogy and based on a reconstructive narrative of Latino immigration. There, heritage speakers (HS) strengthen their identity as linguistic experts and contribute to positive social change that counteracts the scholastic subordination of Spanish to English in primary schools. In this research based on verified questionnaires, we investigate in the European context (Italy, Poland, Germany, Portugal, and Belgium) how primary–middle school HSs attending extracurricular S2L/SFL classes self-perceive their identity in comparison to S2L/SFL students. The results show that the incidence of the factor “country of origin” is central to identity recognition and highlight the feelings linked to different classroom conditions and dynamics for heritage and S2L/SFL students. To conclude, these results are contrasted with those obtained in the United States. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Approaches to the Acquisition of Heritage Spanish)
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18 pages, 2700 KiB  
Article
Can L2 Pronunciation Be Evaluated without Reference to a Native Model? Pillai Scores for the Intrinsic Evaluation of L2 Vowels
by Paolo Mairano, Fabián Santiago and Leonardo Contreras Roa
Languages 2023, 8(4), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040280 - 28 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1441
Abstract
In this article, we explore the possibility of evaluating L2 pronunciation, and, more specifically, L2 vowels, without referring to a native model, i.e., intrinsically. Instead of comparing L2 vowel productions to native speakers’ productions, we use Pillai scores to measure the overlap between [...] Read more.
In this article, we explore the possibility of evaluating L2 pronunciation, and, more specifically, L2 vowels, without referring to a native model, i.e., intrinsically. Instead of comparing L2 vowel productions to native speakers’ productions, we use Pillai scores to measure the overlap between target vowel categories in L2 English (/iː/ — /ɪ/, /ɑː/ — /æ/, /ɜː/ — /ʌ/, /uː/ — /ʊ/) for L1 French, L1 Spanish, and L1 Italian learners (n = 40); and in L2 French (/y/ — /u/, /ø/ — /o/, /ø/ — /e/, /ɛ˜/ — /e /, /ɑ˜/ — /a/, /ɔ˜/ — /o/) for L1 English, L1 Spanish, and L1 Italian learners (n = 48). We assume that a greater amount of overlap within a contrast indicates assimilated categories in a learner’s production, whereas a smaller amount of overlap indicates the establishment of phonological categories and distinct realisations for members of the contrast. Pillai scores were significant predictors of native ratings of comprehensibility and/or nativelikeness for many of the contrasts considered. Despite some limitations and caveats, we argue that Pillai scores and similar methods for the intrinsic evaluation of L2 pronunciation can be used, (i) to avoid direct comparisons of L2 users’ performance with native monolinguals, following recent trends in SLA research; (ii) when comparable L1 data are not available; (iii) within longitudinal studies to track the progressive development of new phonological categories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Speech Analysis and Tools in L2 Pronunciation Acquisition)
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28 pages, 882 KiB  
Article
A Corpus Analysis of the Effects of Definiteness and Animacy on Word Order Variation
by Hiwa Asadpour
Languages 2023, 8(4), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040279 - 27 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1227
Abstract
This article deals with the analysis of word order variation regarding subjects, direct objects, and non-direct object phrases called the “Target” in the corpus of languages of northwestern Iran, viz., Armenian, Mukri Kurdish, and Northeastern Kurdish (Indo-European), Jewish Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (Semitic), and Azeri [...] Read more.
This article deals with the analysis of word order variation regarding subjects, direct objects, and non-direct object phrases called the “Target” in the corpus of languages of northwestern Iran, viz., Armenian, Mukri Kurdish, and Northeastern Kurdish (Indo-European), Jewish Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (Semitic), and Azeri Turkic (Turkic). The objective is to examine the effects of formal and semantic (in)definiteness in combination with animacy on Target word order variation to find out which one can be a triggering factor. Full article
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16 pages, 2089 KiB  
Article
His or Her? Errors in Possessive Determiners Made by L2-English Native Spanish Speakers
by Esther Jesús-Ortiz and José Ramón Calvo-Ferrer
Languages 2023, 8(4), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040278 - 25 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1339
Abstract
Native Spanish speakers commonly confuse third person singular possessive determiners when making gender agreements, which is considered an error-prone grammatical feature because there are syntactic differences in their use between English and Spanish. This study conducted an elicited production task to explore whether [...] Read more.
Native Spanish speakers commonly confuse third person singular possessive determiners when making gender agreements, which is considered an error-prone grammatical feature because there are syntactic differences in their use between English and Spanish. This study conducted an elicited production task to explore whether proficiency in English affects the correct use of his/her by Spanish speakers in speech production, whether participants make more errors depending on the gender match or mismatch between the possessor and the possessum in the noun phrase, and whether there are differences in the number of errors made due to the gender of the possessor. The results showed that sentences with a gender mismatch condition had higher error rates and that advanced L2 speakers made fewer mistakes than less proficient ones. However, proficiency did not mitigate the number of errors in sentences which required the use of the feminine possessive determiner, which is in line with the theory of the default masculine gender in Spanish. The study provides valuable insights into the challenges faced by native Spanish speakers when producing possessive gender agreements in English and highlights the need for more targeted instruction to address these issues in the teaching of English as a foreign language. Full article
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20 pages, 1052 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Non-Native Language Input on Bilingual Children’s Language Skills
by Milijana Buac and Margarita Kaushanskaya
Languages 2023, 8(4), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040277 - 23 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1541
Abstract
We assessed the impact of non-native language input on Spanish–English bilingual preschool-age children’s language skills. Most participants (96%) had language skills within the average range. We examined whether the number of native English speakers, the number of non-native English speakers, the strength of [...] Read more.
We assessed the impact of non-native language input on Spanish–English bilingual preschool-age children’s language skills. Most participants (96%) had language skills within the average range. We examined whether the number of native English speakers, the number of non-native English speakers, the strength of foreign accent in English, intelligibility (percent intelligible utterances), syntax/morphology (mean length of utterance in morphemes), and grammatical errors were related to children’s overall language skills. The results revealed that the number of native English speakers and intelligibility in English positively predicted children’s language skills while the number of non-native English speakers and the strength of foreign accent in English negatively predicted children’s language skills. None of the grammatical measures predicted children’s language skills. These findings indicate that non-native input can be associated with less robust language skills, but non-native input is not in fact detrimental to language development for neurotypical preschool-age children given their within-average language scores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends and Future Directions in Bilingual Language Acquisition)
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14 pages, 1090 KiB  
Article
The Role of Prediction Error in 4-Year-Olds’ Learning of English Direct Object Datives
by Chiara Gambi and Katherine Messenger
Languages 2023, 8(4), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040276 - 23 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1148
Abstract
Is children’s acquisition of structural knowledge driven by prediction errors? Error-driven models of language acquisition propose that children generate expectations about upcoming words (prediction), compare them to the input, and, when they detect a mismatch (i.e., prediction error signal), update their long-term linguistic [...] Read more.
Is children’s acquisition of structural knowledge driven by prediction errors? Error-driven models of language acquisition propose that children generate expectations about upcoming words (prediction), compare them to the input, and, when they detect a mismatch (i.e., prediction error signal), update their long-term linguistic knowledge. But we only have limited empirical evidence for this learning mechanism. Using a novel touch-screen app and a pre-post training between-subjects design, we tested the effect of prediction errors on 120 English-learning 4-year-olds’ understanding of challenging direct object datives. We hypothesized that children who are exposed to input that encourages the generation of prediction error signals should show greater improvements in their post-test comprehension scores. Consistent with error-driven models of language learning, we found that children exposed to sentences that encouraged the generation of incorrect linguistic predictions improved numerically more than those who were exposed to sentences that did not support predictions. However, we caution that these preliminary findings need to be confirmed by additional testing on much larger samples (we only tested 20–30 children per training condition). If confirmed, these findings would provide some of the strongest empirical support to date for the role of prediction error in the acquisition of linguistic structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Syntactic Adaptation)
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17 pages, 6993 KiB  
Article
Isma‘ili Continuity and Social Change: Chronotopes and Practicing Taqiyya within the Sulaymani Community of Saudi Arabia
by Aidah Aljuran and Jarred Brewster
Languages 2023, 8(4), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040275 - 22 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1421
Abstract
This paper examines discourses around the religious and social practice of taqiyya among members of the Sulaymani Isma‘ili community in Saudi Arabia. Isma‘ilism, in the context of 1200 years of anti-Shi‘a discrimination, cultivated the practice known as taqiyya (Arabic, ‘circumscription’) as a tool [...] Read more.
This paper examines discourses around the religious and social practice of taqiyya among members of the Sulaymani Isma‘ili community in Saudi Arabia. Isma‘ilism, in the context of 1200 years of anti-Shi‘a discrimination, cultivated the practice known as taqiyya (Arabic, ‘circumscription’) as a tool for self-preservation, which was then further rationalized and reinforced by the sect’s esoteric theology. Taqiyya consists of concealing religious identity, public avoidance of certain rituals, and, in some instances, claiming to be a member of the unmarked Sunni majority. Sweeping changes in Saudi society in the last several years have meant a growing ambivalence about taqiyya and its continued utility. This is significant since taqiyya for many of our interlocutors in this study is not merely a survival tactic. Instead, it is better understood as an embodied disposition cultivated against the backdrop of household privacy. This disposition intimately links everyday comportment to the esoteric cosmology of Isma‘ilism, which is the distinctive and iconic feature of the faith. Our interlocutors’ narratives demonstrated how the invocation of different spatial and temporal frameworks provides a basic heuristic by which to interpret these individuals’ accounts of taqiyya. For some of these individuals, taqiyya is an essential and timeless practice, while for others, the meaning has been reshaped by the recent socio-political reforms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Use in the Middle East and North Africa)
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22 pages, 1782 KiB  
Article
«¡La de + N + que…!» The Feminine Definite Article in Spanish Exclamative Clauses
by Juan José Arias
Languages 2023, 8(4), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040274 - 21 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1111
Abstract
The present study explores the exclamative use of the feminine definite article la in structures such as ‘¡La de chicos que besé en la fiesta!’ (How many guys I kissed at the party!). First, a morphosyntactic description of the pattern is [...] Read more.
The present study explores the exclamative use of the feminine definite article la in structures such as ‘¡La de chicos que besé en la fiesta!’ (How many guys I kissed at the party!). First, a morphosyntactic description of the pattern is offered so as to show that the data under analysis are pseudopartitive constructions which display all the characteristics of primary and partial exclamatives. Building on research on nominal exclamatives, we conclude that these examples are not CPs but indefinite DPs with an exclamative flavor which contain a semi-relative clause introduced by que. Within the framework of Distributed Morphology, we schematize a set of syntactic structures which capture the ‘chimeric’ and hybrid nature of the data, these being halfway between DPs and exclamative clauses. In order to do so, it will be necessary to split the DP into smaller projections (FocP, FinP), since la must move to Spec-FocP to be interpreted as an exclamative operator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches to Spanish Dialectal Grammar)
14 pages, 650 KiB  
Article
Between Domestication and Foreignization: A Study of How an Italian Film Remake Got Lost in Translation in the Arab World
by Charleine Saad
Languages 2023, 8(4), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040273 - 21 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1503
Abstract
Film remakes represent a form of cinematic translation that reconstructs various elements of the original text. This article relies on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization to analyze “Āṣḥāb Wālā Āʿāz”, the Arabic remake of the Italian film “Perfetti [...] Read more.
Film remakes represent a form of cinematic translation that reconstructs various elements of the original text. This article relies on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization to analyze “Āṣḥāb Wālā Āʿāz”, the Arabic remake of the Italian film “Perfetti Sconosciuti” or “Perfect Strangers”. This study shows that the Arabic remake, which sparked controversy across the Middle East, replicates many of the syntactic elements of the original film, such as the narrative and the plot structure, as well as cinematographic and paralinguistic elements. Still, it attempts to adopt a transformative approach in order to generate a cultural production. The result shows that the use of domestication in film remakes alters the rhetorical effect of the original version and that, although foreignization may promote an audience’s interest in foreign cultures, it may contribute to the reproduction of otherness due to the dissatisfaction of the targeted audiences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Translating Otherness: Challenges, Theories, and Practices)
20 pages, 1927 KiB  
Article
Child Heritage Speakers’ Overregularization of Spanish Past Participles
by Elisabeth Baker Martínez and Naomi Shin
Languages 2023, 8(4), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040272 - 19 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1965
Abstract
The current study investigated overregularization of Spanish irregular past participles (e.g., dicho ‘said’, regularized as decido) among 20 child heritage speakers of Spanish in New Mexico, ages 5;1–11;9. Overregularization occurs when a child produces an irregular form analogously to its regular counterpart [...] Read more.
The current study investigated overregularization of Spanish irregular past participles (e.g., dicho ‘said’, regularized as decido) among 20 child heritage speakers of Spanish in New Mexico, ages 5;1–11;9. Overregularization occurs when a child produces an irregular form analogously to its regular counterpart (e.g., eated instead of ate). Typically, children first produce the irregular form and then, after they have learned a morphological pattern, they overapply it to the irregular form. Ultimately, children retreat from overregularization and once again produce the target irregular form. While there has been a wealth of studies on monolingual children’s overregularizations, very few have investigated this phenomenon in child heritage speakers, who may develop their grammars diversely due to their exposure to the heritage language. This study analyzed the impact of age, Spanish language experience, Spanish morphosyntax proficiency, and lexical frequency on overregularization among the 13/20 children who produced past participles (n = 233) in response to an elicited production task. Participles were overregularized at high rates (74%), resulting in forms like ponido (‘put’, cf: puesto). Results from a regression analysis indicate that overregularization was more likely among the younger children, the children with lower morphosyntax scores, and with lower-frequency participles. Further, an interaction between morphosyntax score and lexical frequency indicated that children with higher scores overregularized with lower frequency participles, but not higher frequency ones, whereas children with low scores overregularized with both low- and high-frequency forms. In summary, child heritage speakers overregularize Spanish past participles at high rates, and the retreat from overregularization is tied to overall grammatical development and lexical frequency, suggesting that the acquisition of irregular participles is dependent on experiencing multiple instances of the irregular verb form. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Approaches to the Acquisition of Heritage Spanish)
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17 pages, 2522 KiB  
Article
¿(Está/Es) Difícil?: Variable Use of Ser and Estar by Heritage Learners of Spanish
by Jamelyn Wheeler, Matthew Pollock and Manuel Díaz-Campos
Languages 2023, 8(4), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040271 - 18 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1564
Abstract
The current study examines variation in copula selection in Spanish by looking at the written productions of three groups of language learners in the United States, including heritage learners, those with English as an L1, and international students with English as an L2. [...] Read more.
The current study examines variation in copula selection in Spanish by looking at the written productions of three groups of language learners in the United States, including heritage learners, those with English as an L1, and international students with English as an L2. Research on copula variation in Spanish has pinpointed several key linguistic and social factors that influence selection; this study aims to apply these findings to heritage learners in order to determine how their acquisition differs from that of non-native language learners. This analysis used the COWS-L2H corpus of Spanish from the University of California, Davis. Examining over 8000 tokens of [adjective + copula] constructions in variable contexts where both ser and estar were used, the study tracks how linguistic and extralinguistic factors condition copula selection within the three learner groups and how these results compare to previous findings. Seven factors were predictive of copula selection: resultant state, frame of reference, adjective class, experience with study abroad, essay prompt, student age, and course level. Heritage learner copula use was found to be governed by a different set of predictors than that of learners, hinting at the variable motivations and backgrounds that influence use and reflect the identity goals of these speakers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Approaches to the Acquisition of Heritage Spanish)
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24 pages, 644 KiB  
Article
Dative Doubling in Non-Mandatory Contexts in European Spanish
by Sara Gómez Seibane
Languages 2023, 8(4), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040270 - 16 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1097
Abstract
Clitic doubling (CD) is the co-appearance in the same sentence of the clitic and a correlative syntagma in the canonical position of the object. Apart from obligatory contexts, CD of the indirect object (IO) is found with variable frequency in Romance languages and [...] Read more.
Clitic doubling (CD) is the co-appearance in the same sentence of the clitic and a correlative syntagma in the canonical position of the object. Apart from obligatory contexts, CD of the indirect object (IO) is found with variable frequency in Romance languages and even in different varieties of the same language, most likely because it is a phenomenon of internal/external language interface. The objective of this work is to determine the frequency of CD in non-obligatory contexts of recipient and location IO in peninsular Spanish, and to analyse its features according to the referential hierarchy used for the diachronic evolution of the phenomenon. For this purpose, we extracted data from two open access corpora of interviews (COREC and PRESEEA) from different regions that are (or are not) areas of historical contact with other languages. The results show a significant extension of doubling in contexts where this is optional and the neutralisation of features that previously predicted CD of IOs. Nevertheless, there are geographical differences in peninsular Spanish in terms of frequency, definiteness, specificity, the influence of the cliticization of the direct object, and the accessibility of the IO referents in the minds of the speakers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches to Spanish Dialectal Grammar)
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20 pages, 824 KiB  
Article
The Acquisition of Copula Alternation Ser/Estar and Adjective in L1 Russian, Spanish Heritage Speakers
by Iban Mañas Navarrete, Pedro Guijarro Fuentes and Iria Bello Viruega
Languages 2023, 8(4), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040269 - 15 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1213
Abstract
Spanish copula choice ser/estar and the semantic and pragmatic distinctions that derive from their alternation in predicate adjective constructions have been discussed in several studies focused on the features of Spanish as a heritage language, usually focusing on the lack of [...] Read more.
Spanish copula choice ser/estar and the semantic and pragmatic distinctions that derive from their alternation in predicate adjective constructions have been discussed in several studies focused on the features of Spanish as a heritage language, usually focusing on the lack of equivalence between English and Spanish. The aim of this study is to determine the competence of a group of heritage speakers of Spanish that were born and raised in Russia in adjective copula selection for ser and estar and to what extent it differs from that of L2 speakers. A group of second-generation heritage Spanish-Russian speakers (n = 29) and a group of L1 Russian learners of Spanish as foreign language (n = 23) performed a translation recognition task in Spanish based on extracts from contemporary Spanish literary works. From a crosslinguistic perspective, a partial correspondence can be established between long forms of the Russian adjective with ser, and short forms of the Russian adjective with estar. Taking this cross-language relationship into account, we considered congruent and non-congruent cross-language scenarios. The results confirm that the heritage speakers outperformed the L2 Spanish speakers. This suggests a possible benefit of earlier exposure and use of Spanish. The facilitative effect of L1 can be traced in the ser-preferred scenarios but it fades away in the estar-preferred contexts for both groups. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Approaches to the Acquisition of Heritage Spanish)
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23 pages, 1173 KiB  
Article
Cº realizations along the left edge across English and Spanish
by Julio Villa-García
Languages 2023, 8(4), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040268 - 14 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1244
Abstract
This paper investigates the lexicalization of the complementizer that/que in English and Spanish varieties in different contexts along the left edge of the clause. This is performed through discussion of a range of constructions traditionally attributed to the CP domain/left periphery, primarily (but [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the lexicalization of the complementizer that/que in English and Spanish varieties in different contexts along the left edge of the clause. This is performed through discussion of a range of constructions traditionally attributed to the CP domain/left periphery, primarily (but not only) in certain embedded clauses. The ubiquity of that/que, that is, the lexical realization of that/que in subordinating environments, exclamative clauses, interrogative contexts, and subjunctive clauses, amongst others, sheds light not only on the characterization of the relevant constructions but also on the make-up of the left edge of the clause. The fact that such realizations can be obligatory, optional, or, on occasion, impossible, sometimes depending on the variety in question, furthers our understanding of head lexicalizations while contributing to macro and microvariation studies in syntactic theory. In so doing, this paper paves the way for holistic investigations devoted to complementizer realization in the head position of different left-edge-related constructions and in different linguistic varieties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Syntax and Discourse at the Crossroads)
20 pages, 4610 KiB  
Article
Subjunctives in Romanian Languages: Micro-Parametric Variation in Complement CPs and the Periphrastic Future
by Gabriela Alboiu and Virginia Hill
Languages 2023, 8(4), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040267 - 14 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1168
Abstract
This paper aims to (i) establish the micro-parametric variation in the development of the subjunctive CP in Romanian languages (Daco-Romanian/DR; Aromanian/AR; Megleno-Romanian/MR; Istro-Romanian/IR) and (ii) account for derivations in which the subjunctive is integrated into the formation of the periphrastic future in these [...] Read more.
This paper aims to (i) establish the micro-parametric variation in the development of the subjunctive CP in Romanian languages (Daco-Romanian/DR; Aromanian/AR; Megleno-Romanian/MR; Istro-Romanian/IR) and (ii) account for derivations in which the subjunctive is integrated into the formation of the periphrastic future in these languages. Briefly, the analysis points out that the subjunctive CP in Romanian languages can display a split Fin (unlike in other Balkan languages) and that the remerging of the split Fin finds itself at different stages: complete in DR, but incomplete at different degrees in AR, MR, and IR. The compatibility of the subjunctive morphology with the derivation of the periphrastic future follows from the semantic bleaching and grammaticization of the volitional ‘will’ and ‘have’ verbs, together with the Balkan Sprachbund subjunctive mood marking, which combine in a monoclausal construction via a serial verb derivation to compositionally check a Fin marked [+finite, modal]. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Formal Studies in Balkan Romance Languages)
24 pages, 3741 KiB  
Article
The Indeterminacy of Social Meaning Linked to ‘Mexico’ and ‘Texas’ Spanish: Examining Monoglossic Language Ideologies among Heritage and L2 Spanish Listeners
by Brendan Regan and Jazmyn L. Martinez
Languages 2023, 8(4), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040266 - 14 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1442
Abstract
This study examines how implied speaker nationality, which serves as a proxy for bilingual/monolingual status, influences social perception and linguistic evaluation. A modified matched-guise experiment was created with the speech of eight bilingual U.S. Spanish speakers from Texas talking about family traditions; the [...] Read more.
This study examines how implied speaker nationality, which serves as a proxy for bilingual/monolingual status, influences social perception and linguistic evaluation. A modified matched-guise experiment was created with the speech of eight bilingual U.S. Spanish speakers from Texas talking about family traditions; the speech stimuli remained the same, but the social information provided about the speakers–whether they were said to be from Mexico (implied monolingual) or from Texas (implied bilingual)–varied. Based on 140 listeners’ responses (77 L2 Spanish listeners, 63 heritage Spanish listeners), quantitative analyses found that overall listeners evaluated ‘Mexico’ voices as more able to teach Spanish than ‘Texas’ voices. However, only heritage listeners perceived ‘Mexico’ voices as being of higher socioeconomic status and of more positive social affect than ‘Texas’ voices. Qualitative comments similarly found that heritage listeners evaluated ‘Mexico’ voices more favorably in speech quality and confidence than ‘Texas’ voices. The implications are twofold: (i) the social information of implied monolingualism/bilingualism influences listeners’ social perceptions of a speaker, reflecting monoglossic language ideologies; and (ii) there exists indeterminacy between language and social meaning that varies based on differences in lived experiences between L2 and heritage Spanish listeners. Extending on previous findings of indeterminacy between linguistic variants and meaning, the current study shows this also applies to (implied) language varieties, demonstrating the role of language ideologies in mediating social perception. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Meanings of Language Variation in Spanish)
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24 pages, 1436 KiB  
Article
Exploring Grammatical Gender Agreement in Russian Learners of Greek: An Eye-Tracking Study
by Alexandros Tantos, Nikolaos Amvrazis, Konstantinos Angelou and Kosmas Kosmidis
Languages 2023, 8(4), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040265 - 10 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1581
Abstract
This study investigates the acquisition of grammatical gender in Russian learners of Greek. Agreement in Determiner-Noun (Det-N) and Adjective-Noun (Adj-N) dependencies is explored through eye-tracking registration in a reading-based design. Twenty-four intermediate learners read short texts embedded with agreement violations, and then responded [...] Read more.
This study investigates the acquisition of grammatical gender in Russian learners of Greek. Agreement in Determiner-Noun (Det-N) and Adjective-Noun (Adj-N) dependencies is explored through eye-tracking registration in a reading-based design. Twenty-four intermediate learners read short texts embedded with agreement violations, and then responded to a comprehension task. The study implemented a two-level triangulation by drawing its stimuli from the Greek Learner Corpus II (GLCII) and contrasting, at a first level, the findings with comparable offline data that were previously obtained from the same corpus. The second level entailed a contrast between the online evidence and the offline data that were collected through a post-reading questionnaire right after the online eye-tracking session. This questionnaire explored whether longer fixations on agreement violations are associated with explicit awareness of the study’s focus. To anticipate the outcome of the study, the gender agreement data suggests that the abstract gender feature is present in the developing grammar of Russian learners of Greek. Moreover, the participants seem to effectively deal with the syntactic computations underlying nominal agreement, though efficacy varies across the structures that have been examined. Apart from this, certain suggestions are made considering the research paradigm followed. Full article
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21 pages, 1337 KiB  
Article
Abstract Priming and the Lexical Boost Effect across Development in a Structurally Biased Language
by Alina Kholodova, Michelle Peter, Caroline F. Rowland, Gunnar Jacob and Shanley E. M. Allen
Languages 2023, 8(4), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040264 - 10 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1569
Abstract
The present study investigates the developmental trajectory of abstract representations for syntactic structures in children. In a structural priming experiment on the dative alternation in German, we primed children from three different age groups (3–4 years, 5–6 years, 7–8 years) and adults with [...] Read more.
The present study investigates the developmental trajectory of abstract representations for syntactic structures in children. In a structural priming experiment on the dative alternation in German, we primed children from three different age groups (3–4 years, 5–6 years, 7–8 years) and adults with double object datives (Dora sent Boots the rabbit) or prepositional object datives (Dora sent the rabbit to Boots). Importantly, the prepositional object structure in German is dispreferred and only rarely encountered by young children. While immediate as well as cumulative structural priming effects occurred across all age groups, these effects were strongest in the 3- to 4-year-old group and gradually decreased with increasing age. These results suggest that representations in young children are less stable than in adults and, therefore, more susceptible to adaptation both immediately and across time, presumably due to stronger surprisal. Lexical boost effects, in contrast, were not present in 3- to 4-year-olds but gradually emerged with increasing age, possibly due to limited working-memory capacity in the younger child groups. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Syntactic Adaptation)
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17 pages, 926 KiB  
Article
Family Language Policies of Multilingual Families during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden
by Anastassia Zabrodskaja, Natalia Meir, Sviatlana Karpava, Natalia Ringblom and Anna Ritter
Languages 2023, 8(4), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040263 - 08 Nov 2023
Viewed by 2249
Abstract
This study explored the language and literacy practices of multilingual families in Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study focuses on the different roles of family members in language transmission in order to understand whether these practices might [...] Read more.
This study explored the language and literacy practices of multilingual families in Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study focuses on the different roles of family members in language transmission in order to understand whether these practices might have been influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic. We aimed to answer two key research questions: RQ1, whether and how the pandemic conditions affected the heritage language, societal language acquisition, and heritage language literacy learning environments in the five countries examined (Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Israel, and Sweden); and RQ2, what is the nature of child and parental agency in facilitation of the possible changes in the corresponding five countries? Fifty semi-structured interviews (ten in each country) were conducted. The data highlighted the factors that triggered changes in family language policy during the pandemic and the role of the child’s agency, parents, extended family, and social network during this period. Based on our findings, we argue that the pandemic conditions gave the children new opportunities for agency when it comes to language and literacy choice and communication with extended family members. This even facilitated new sources of input and suggested the active role of a child as an agent in shaping family language policy in the family. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Policy and Practice in Multilingual Families)
15 pages, 2079 KiB  
Article
Phonetic Tonal Manifestations and Trends in Tone Change: A Case Study of the Yong-Deng Dialect in Northwest China
by Li Yi
Languages 2023, 8(4), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040262 - 08 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1194
Abstract
This study takes the Yong-deng dialect as a case study to investigate the phenomenon of tonal merging observed in Northwest Chinese dialects. It begins by examining the various monosyllabic tone patterns of the Yong-deng dialect, then supplements this with a review of the [...] Read more.
This study takes the Yong-deng dialect as a case study to investigate the phenomenon of tonal merging observed in Northwest Chinese dialects. It begins by examining the various monosyllabic tone patterns of the Yong-deng dialect, then supplements this with a review of the relevant literature, comparisons with the tone patterns of the neighbouring dialects, and an analysis of its tone sandhi in disyllabic and trisyllabic combinations. Each step of the dialect’s tonal variation is scrutinised, allowing for the identification of pertinent phonetic biases and the derivation of associated phonological rules. The central argument advanced here is that both synchronic tonal variation and diachronic tone change are governed by specific phonological rules. Despite the ostensibly variable phonetic manifestations, these rules can enable the prediction of the trajectory of tone change. The paper contributes to the understanding of tone merger and highlights its systemic and rule-bound nature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Directions for Sino-Tibetan Linguistics in the Mid-21st Century)
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15 pages, 927 KiB  
Article
ɬwa:n⁵ as a Marker of the Degree of Expressiveness in the Kam Language
by Hui He
Languages 2023, 8(4), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040261 - 08 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1671
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of syntactic collocations that include the constraints on an adjective phrase (AP) and adverbs or final particles (X) in the ɬwa:n⁵ + AP + X construction, as well as its pragmatic features and grammatical functions in the Kam [...] Read more.
This paper presents an analysis of syntactic collocations that include the constraints on an adjective phrase (AP) and adverbs or final particles (X) in the ɬwa:n⁵ + AP + X construction, as well as its pragmatic features and grammatical functions in the Kam language. ɬwa:n⁵ functions as an exclamative marker (EM) that conveys the expressive meaning of the speaker’s attitude. The primary lexical meaning of ɬwa:n⁵ is ‘to calculate’ or ‘to regard as’, and the word is borrowed from Chinese (算 suàn, ‘to count’, ‘to calculate’, ‘to regard as’). The role of ɬwa:n⁵ in the construction ɬwa:n⁵ + AP + X will mainly be discussed in this paper. In addition, the adjectives that can collocate with ɬwa:n⁵ are subject to a gradeability restriction, that is, only gradable adjectives can collocate with ɬwa:n⁵. In general, the ɬwa:n⁵ construction is used to express that the speaker expected an existing situation with a gradable property; in reality, the degree follows a particular scalar and surpasses the expectation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Directions for Sino-Tibetan Linguistics in the Mid-21st Century)
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