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Languages, Volume 9, Issue 4 (April 2024) – 37 articles

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15 pages, 6445 KiB  
Article
Gestural Alignment in Spoken Simultaneous Interpreting: A Mixed-Methods Approach
by Inés Olza
Languages 2024, 9(4), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040151 - 21 Apr 2024
Viewed by 268
Abstract
Cognitive and behavioral alignment plays a major role in simultaneous interpreting, the interpreter centrally monitoring and accommodating his/her behavior to that of the speaker-source. In parallel, the place of gesture in the interpreters’ practice, as well as its degree of convergence with respect [...] Read more.
Cognitive and behavioral alignment plays a major role in simultaneous interpreting, the interpreter centrally monitoring and accommodating his/her behavior to that of the speaker-source. In parallel, the place of gesture in the interpreters’ practice, as well as its degree of convergence with respect to the gestures of the speaker-source, has been scarcely analyzed until very recently. The multimodal data for this study were collected under (quasi-)experimental conditions in a real court interpreting setting during spoken training exercises performed by two novice interpreters. In this exploratory study, the gestural performance of the interpreters, including their degree of gestural alignment towards the speaker-source, is analyzed and compared using a mixed-methods approach to a randomized sample of the recorded data. The analysis combines a basic descriptive quantification of body movements and a qualitative and comparative analysis of the gesture types performed by the speaker-source and the interpreters. The results show that, in spite of individual differences in interpreting fluency and gestural styles, both interpreters tend to align with the speaker-source’s gestural behavior in several ways, and thus a basic taxonomy of gestural convergence between the speaker-source and the interpreters is defined according to several criteria (mainly, gesture presence and gesture type). Our conclusions also allow us to formulate new research questions and hypotheses to be tested in future studies (e.g., types of gestures by the speaker-source that prompt a higher degree of alignment). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Non-Verbal Communication in the 21st Century)
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24 pages, 4100 KiB  
Article
Robustness and Complexity in Italian Mid Vowel Contrasts
by Margaret E. L. Renwick
Languages 2024, 9(4), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040150 - 18 Apr 2024
Viewed by 397
Abstract
Accounts of phonological contrast traditionally invoke a binary distinction between unpredictable lexically stored phonemes and contextually predictable allophones, whose patterning reveals speakers’ knowledge about their native language. This paper explores the complexity of contrasts among Italian mid vowels from a multifaceted perspective considering [...] Read more.
Accounts of phonological contrast traditionally invoke a binary distinction between unpredictable lexically stored phonemes and contextually predictable allophones, whose patterning reveals speakers’ knowledge about their native language. This paper explores the complexity of contrasts among Italian mid vowels from a multifaceted perspective considering the lexicon, linguistic structure, usage, and regional variety. The Italian mid vowels are marginally contrastive due to a scarcity of minimal pairs alongside variation in phonetic realization. The analysis considers corpus data, which indicate that the marginal contrasts among front vowels vs. back vowels are driven by different sources and forces. Functional loads are low; while front /e ɛ/ have the weakest lexical contrast among all Italian vowels, back /o ɔ/ are separated by somewhat more minimal pairs. Among stressed front vowels, height is predicted by syllable structure and is context-dependent in some Italian varieties. Meanwhile, the height of back mid vowels is predicted by lexical frequency, in line with expectations of phonetic reduction in high-frequency contexts. For both front and back vowels, the phonetic factor of duration predicts vowel height, especially in closed syllables, suggesting its use for contrast enhancement. The results have implications for a proposed formalization of Italian mid vowel variation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonetic and Phonological Complexity in Romance Languages)
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18 pages, 7204 KiB  
Article
Full Transfer and Segmental Emergence in the L2 Acquisition of Phonology: A Case Study
by Anaer Nulahan and Yvan Rose
Languages 2024, 9(4), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040149 - 18 Apr 2024
Viewed by 409
Abstract
In this paper, we discuss a child Kazakh speaker’s acquisition of English as her second language. In particular, we focus on this child’s development of the English segments |f, v, θ, ð, ɹ, ʃ, ʧ|, which are not part of the Kazakh phonological [...] Read more.
In this paper, we discuss a child Kazakh speaker’s acquisition of English as her second language. In particular, we focus on this child’s development of the English segments |f, v, θ, ð, ɹ, ʃ, ʧ|, which are not part of the Kazakh phonological inventory of consonants. We begin with a longitudinal description of the patterns that the child displayed through her acquisition of each of these segments. The data reveal patterns that range from extremely rapid to rather slow and progressive acquisition. The data also reveal patterns that were unexpected at first, for example, the slow development of |ʧ| in syllable onsets, an affricate that occurs as a contextual allophone in syllable onsets in Kazakh. We analyze these patterns through the Phonological Interference hypothesis, which was recently extended into the Feature Redistribution and Recombination hypothesis. These models predict the transfer into the L2 of all of the relevant phonological features present within the learner’s first language and their recombination to represent segments present in the L2. We also discuss contexts where feature-based approaches to L2 acquisition fail to capture the full range of observations. In all such contexts, we show that the facts are modulated by phonetic characteristics of the speech sounds present in either the child’s L1 or her L2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Investigating L2 Phonological Acquisition from Different Perspectives)
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20 pages, 1624 KiB  
Article
On the Functional Convergence of Pragmatic Markers in Arizona Spanish
by Brandon Joseph Martínez
Languages 2024, 9(4), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040148 - 17 Apr 2024
Viewed by 367
Abstract
Tags, compared to other types of pragmatic markers (PMs), are typically considered as separate yet related phenomena and are usually differentiated by their syntactic positions and discourse functions, among other factors. The current work explores this differentiation utilizing 36 sociolinguistic interviews with Spanish-English [...] Read more.
Tags, compared to other types of pragmatic markers (PMs), are typically considered as separate yet related phenomena and are usually differentiated by their syntactic positions and discourse functions, among other factors. The current work explores this differentiation utilizing 36 sociolinguistic interviews with Spanish-English bilinguals in southern Arizona, USA. Standard language variation and change (LVC) methodologies were used in the extraction, coding, and statistical analyses of this dataset (n = 591), with four PM variants identified for study through an exploratory methodology: the tags no and qué no and the discourse markers (DMs) you know and saber. The results of our analyses indicate that, while utterance position, self-reported gender, and length of residence were all significant in the multivariate analysis, discourse function was dropped from the statistical model. Therefore, we interpret this finding as an indication that functional differences between these two pragmatic resources have been levelled through grammaticalization, demonstrating that for Arizona Spanish, tags and DMs belong in the same functional category of PMs. Furthermore, an analysis of codeswitching behavior triggered by the incoming variant you know demonstrates that it is becoming incorporated into the Spanish pragmatic system, patterning similarly to its counterpart saber in terms of function and position, without attrition of the native variant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Contact in Borderlands)
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19 pages, 740 KiB  
Systematic Review
Prime Surprisal as a Tool for Assessing Error-Based Learning Theories: A Systematic Review
by Judit Fazekas, Giovanni Sala and Julian Pine
Languages 2024, 9(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040147 - 16 Apr 2024
Viewed by 466
Abstract
Error-based learning theories of language acquisition are highly influential in language development research, yet the predictive learning mechanism they propose has proven difficult to test experimentally. Prime surprisal—the observation that structural priming is stronger following more surprising primes—has emerged as a promising methodology [...] Read more.
Error-based learning theories of language acquisition are highly influential in language development research, yet the predictive learning mechanism they propose has proven difficult to test experimentally. Prime surprisal—the observation that structural priming is stronger following more surprising primes—has emerged as a promising methodology for resolving this issue as it tests a key prediction of error-based learning theories: surprising input leads to increased structure repetition as well as learning. However, as prime surprisal is a relatively new paradigm, it is worth evaluating how far this promise has been fulfilled. We have conducted a systemic review of PS studies to assess the strengths and limitations of existing approaches, with 13 contributions selected out of 66 search results. We found that alongside inconsistency in statistical power and how the level of surprisal is measured, the limited scope of current results cast doubt on whether PS can be used as a general tool to assess error-based learning. We suggest two key directions for future research: firstly, targeting the scope of the prime surprisal effect itself with reliable statistical power and appropriate surprisal measurements across a greater variety of languages and grammatical structures; and secondly, using the prime surprisal method as a tool to assess the scope of an error-based learning mechanism utilising conditions in which prime surprisal has been reliably established. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Syntactic Adaptation)
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16 pages, 1230 KiB  
Article
An Early Intervention in Gestural Communication in Chilean Children from Psychosocially At-Risk Backgrounds and Its Impact on Language Skills at 18 Months Old
by Chamarrita Farkas
Languages 2024, 9(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040146 - 16 Apr 2024
Viewed by 467
Abstract
The emergence of symbolic gestures is a solid milestone in early childhood development. Interventions that intentionally promote them have contributed to children’s language, cognitive, and socioemotional development. However, these studies have mainly been conducted in the USA with middle-SES families, and such research [...] Read more.
The emergence of symbolic gestures is a solid milestone in early childhood development. Interventions that intentionally promote them have contributed to children’s language, cognitive, and socioemotional development. However, these studies have mainly been conducted in the USA with middle-SES families, and such research has considerably decreased in recent years. This study aimed to assess the effects of an intentional intervention for promoting symbolic gestures in the expressive and comprehensive language of Chilean children who were aged 18 months. Sixty-nine highly psychosocially at-risk children were assessed at 5–9 months and then at 18 months. Teachers from half of the nurseries involved in the study received the intervention. The assessment included a report on the children’s gestural vocabulary, the CDI, and the language scale of BSID-III. The results showed that the children in the intervention group had a significantly greater gestural vocabulary at 18 months and they performed better in their expressive language than the children in the control group did. Additionally, this study aimed to analyze if this intervention affected children differentially in consideration of their language development (adequate and at-risk). The results showed that children with adequate development improved their language when they received the intervention, but those from the at-risk group did not. The implications of these results for the design of interventions at an early age are discussed while considering children from different sociocultural backgrounds and with different language development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Non-Verbal Communication in the 21st Century)
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22 pages, 1977 KiB  
Article
Use and Function of Gestures in Persuasive Business Communication: A Contrastive Study between Spanish and English
by Ana M. Cestero Mancera and Mercedes Díez-Prados
Languages 2024, 9(4), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040145 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 312
Abstract
This study sheds light on the types and frequencies of kinesic signs used in business pitches by entrepreneurs in Spanish and English, as well as the functions these nonverbal signs fulfil to contribute to the persuasiveness of their presentations. The corpus consists of [...] Read more.
This study sheds light on the types and frequencies of kinesic signs used in business pitches by entrepreneurs in Spanish and English, as well as the functions these nonverbal signs fulfil to contribute to the persuasiveness of their presentations. The corpus consists of 20 pitches (10 in each language) from two equivalent TV programs (the reality shows Dragons’ Den and Tu Oportunidad from the UK and Spain, respectively). A specific method of analysis previously developed by Cestero Mancera is used to identify signs in an inductive, qualitative way that allows us to apply a quantitative methodology to distinguish among the different subpopulations of the subjects studied (male and female presenters in Spanish and English presentations). The results show that facial gesturing is the most frequent type used by all presenters, although speakers of each language seem to have diverse preferences for the rest of the signs (head, hand and other body gestures). Kinesic signs apparently display the same pragmatic functions in Spanish and English, although they are more frequently used in Spanish (63.78% of the 784 signs found) than English (36.22%). Gender may be considered an influential factor when observed within the same language but not as a variable; furthermore, gender preferences are reversed when associated with language (i.e., female Spanish presentations display the most signs, while English presentations by females display the least; male presentations are in between these, there being more in Spanish than in English presentations). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Non-Verbal Communication in the 21st Century)
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14 pages, 3458 KiB  
Article
Bilingual Texting in the Age of Emoji: Spanish–English Code-Switching in SMS
by Cecilia Montes-Alcalá
Languages 2024, 9(4), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040144 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1157
Abstract
Technology and computer-mediated communication (CMC) have quickly transformed the means of interaction among monolingual and bilingual individuals alike, especially in the younger generations. While e-mail once replaced traditional “snail mail”, today’s youth networks mainly via social media and short message services (SMS). Digital [...] Read more.
Technology and computer-mediated communication (CMC) have quickly transformed the means of interaction among monolingual and bilingual individuals alike, especially in the younger generations. While e-mail once replaced traditional “snail mail”, today’s youth networks mainly via social media and short message services (SMS). Digital communication has thus become a fertile ground for sociolinguistic research. The present study aims to contribute to the field of “electronic” code-switching, specifically in the emerging area of text messaging. To this end, I analyze The Bilingual Youth Texts Corpus, a collection of text messages among urban emergent Spanish–English bilinguals in New York City. The main findings indicate that (1) although it is not the most common practice, participants do engage in code-switching when texting each other; (2) their language mixing obeys most of the socio-pragmatic and communicative patterns attested in oral production (such as emphasis, elaboration, lexical need and, especially, tag switches) along with other functions (textisms) which are idiosyncratic to CMC; and (3) the language choices made by these bilinguals reveal a linguistic and a cultural belonging to two worlds where they may and must use both languages to fully express themselves online just like in real life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spanish in the US: A Sociolinguistic Approach)
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28 pages, 661 KiB  
Article
NN and VV Coordinate Compounds
by Akiko Nagano and Masaharu Shimada
Languages 2024, 9(4), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040143 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 409
Abstract
Broadly speaking, binominal and biverbal lexical constructions have been studied independently in different research traditions and frameworks. It is true that the two do not necessarily have overlapping areal distributions, but the fundamental question remains whether Indo-European NN compounds and Transeurasian VV compounds [...] Read more.
Broadly speaking, binominal and biverbal lexical constructions have been studied independently in different research traditions and frameworks. It is true that the two do not necessarily have overlapping areal distributions, but the fundamental question remains whether Indo-European NN compounds and Transeurasian VV compounds have nothing in common. Against this background, a cross-categorial comparison, not within but across languages, is made of coordinative binominal and biverbal constructions. NN and VV coordinate compounds from English and Japanese are examined in detail using the methodology of contrastive morphology and decompositional lexical semantics. It is shown that dvandva is possible not only in NN but also in VV coordinate compounds and, furthermore, that the dvandva–appositive distinction in NN coordinate compounds recurs in VV coordinate compounds. Cross-categorial formal analyses of the two types, i.e., dvandva and appositive, are presented in the Lexical Semantic Framework. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Word-Formation Processes in English)
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13 pages, 370 KiB  
Article
Variant Choices of Future Time Reference in Galician: The Grammaticalization of [haber (de) + infinitive] as a Window to Diachronic Change
by Esther L. Brown and Javier Rivas
Languages 2024, 9(4), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040142 - 15 Apr 2024
Viewed by 430
Abstract
Compared to neighboring Romance languages, Galician currently maintains a more ubiquitous usage of the construction [haber (present) + (de) + infinitive] as a future marker in variation with the periphrastic construction with ir ‘go’ and the morphological [...] Read more.
Compared to neighboring Romance languages, Galician currently maintains a more ubiquitous usage of the construction [haber (present) + (de) + infinitive] as a future marker in variation with the periphrastic construction with ir ‘go’ and the morphological future. We examine this under-studied construction to gain a better understanding of Galician grammar and also contribute new data with which to consider diachronic change regarding the grammaticalization of the future from obligation markers. We conduct a variationist analysis of 1589 tokens of future forms in recorded conversations (CORILGA) in order to determine the frequency of usage, patterns of variation, linguistic conditioning and degree of grammaticalization of the periphrastic forms with haber and ir in contrast to the morphological variant. We find evidence to suggest that the periphrastic construction with haber is highly grammaticalized as a future marker and we identify factors of the production context that modulate the grammaticalization process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Developments in Galician Linguistics)
50 pages, 2417 KiB  
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review of Eye-Tracking Technology in Second Language Research
by Xin Hu and Vahid Aryadoust
Languages 2024, 9(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040141 - 12 Apr 2024
Viewed by 658
Abstract
Eye-tracking has become increasingly popular in second language (L2) research. In this study, we systematically reviewed 111 eye-tracking studies published in 17 L2 journals to explore the application and replicability of eye-tracking technology in L2 research. The results revealed eight areas of application [...] Read more.
Eye-tracking has become increasingly popular in second language (L2) research. In this study, we systematically reviewed 111 eye-tracking studies published in 17 L2 journals to explore the application and replicability of eye-tracking technology in L2 research. The results revealed eight areas of application of eye-tracking in L2 research, among which grammar and vocabulary were the most frequently examined lines of inquiry. We also identified three types of cognitive mechanisms investigated in L2 eye-tracking studies: attention, higher cognitive processes, and cognitive load. Attention was predominantly measured via fixation temporal indices, while higher cognitive processes were frequently measured by using fixation count and fixation temporal measures. In addition, the measures adopted to assess cognitive load mainly depended on the task type. Finally, with respect to the replicability of the studies, transparent reporting practices were evaluated based on 33 features of replicable studies. We found that more than 95% of the reviewed studies reported less than 70% of the information essential for future replication studies. We suggest that the reporting of the information critical to conducting replicable L2 eye-tracking research needs improvement in transparency and completeness. The implications of this study are discussed. Full article
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24 pages, 1711 KiB  
Article
“Dime con Quién Andas y te Diré Qué Piensas Sobre el Español de los US”: Language Attitudes and Motivation to Learn Spanish as a Heritage Language through the Lens of Social Networks
by Marina Cuartero Marco
Languages 2024, 9(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040140 - 12 Apr 2024
Viewed by 381
Abstract
This study explores the motivation and attitudes of heritage speakers (HSs) of Spanish, focusing on the influence of their social networks. Previous research highlighted variations in HS motivation, attributed to social, cultural, and contextual factors. The study investigates how HS communities shape motivation [...] Read more.
This study explores the motivation and attitudes of heritage speakers (HSs) of Spanish, focusing on the influence of their social networks. Previous research highlighted variations in HS motivation, attributed to social, cultural, and contextual factors. The study investigates how HS communities shape motivation and attitudes towards learning the heritage language (HL). Employing personal network analysis, the research surveyed 26 Spanish HSs in a Spanish heritage language program. Results revealed that HS networks primarily consisted of emotionally close family members. Positive and negative factors within these networks, such as language support, confidence, shame, and expectations, significantly influenced HS motivation and attitudes. Language attitudes within the network positively impacted individual attitudes, indicating a process of internalizing shared values. The study emphasizes the importance of considering the context surrounding HSs and suggests that addressing language expectations and fostering language support in communities may positively transform perceptions of Spanish in the United States. The findings underscore the effectiveness of a personal network approach in recreating the external environment beyond the language classroom. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spanish in the US: A Sociolinguistic Approach)
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26 pages, 512 KiB  
Article
The Role of Age Variables in Family Language Policy
by Karen Rose, Sharon Armon-Lotem and Carmit Altman
Languages 2024, 9(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040139 - 12 Apr 2024
Viewed by 484
Abstract
Family language policy (FLP) provides a critical framework to explain the planning of language use in the home. It constitutes a dynamic construct that sheds light on variations in the language acquisition of bilingual children, potentially explaining the shifts that may occur in [...] Read more.
Family language policy (FLP) provides a critical framework to explain the planning of language use in the home. It constitutes a dynamic construct that sheds light on variations in the language acquisition of bilingual children, potentially explaining the shifts that may occur in language dominance and preference. The environment and life experiences are thought to shape FLP, yet little is known about the function of age. This study examines the association of FLP with children’s chronological age and the age they become bilingual. Data were collected via questionnaires from parents and their bilingual children (n = 82) aged 5.08–14.08 (M = 8.98, SD = 3.27) speaking English (heritage language) and Hebrew (societal language). Correlations and logistic regressions indicate a relationship between FLP and dimensions of age. Findings reveal that age may have repercussions for parent language beliefs, patterns of language use within the home, and the adoption of language promotion strategies. Younger children and children with a later age of onset of bilingualism are associated with families who lean towards a pro-heritage language FLP. Considering dimensions of age enhances our understanding of FLP and may offer a greater insight into how languages are supported in the bilingual home. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Methods for Exploring the Role of Input in Child Bilingual Development)
16 pages, 758 KiB  
Article
Gradualness of Grammaticalization and Abrupt Change Reconciled: Evidence from Microvariation in Romance
by Sandra Paoli
Languages 2024, 9(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040138 - 09 Apr 2024
Viewed by 442
Abstract
Grammaticalization has long been understood as a process that takes place gradually, but within it, discrete and abrupt changes take place. This tension has been reconciled by claiming that the semblance of a gradual process is given by different parts of a construction [...] Read more.
Grammaticalization has long been understood as a process that takes place gradually, but within it, discrete and abrupt changes take place. This tension has been reconciled by claiming that the semblance of a gradual process is given by different parts of a construction undergoing changes at different points in time. Focusing on synchronic microvariation as gradience, this article discusses cases of clitic loss in four Romance varieties (Brazilian Portuguese, Raeto-Romance, some northeastern Italo-Romance varieties, and French), and identifies common patterns in the cells of the paradigms that are most vulnerable to the process of loss. Relating the grammatical and semantic properties of these cells to established typological hierarchies, the paper explores how general cognitive principles can account for the key properties of gradualness and gradience and, ultimately, language change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grammaticalization across Languages, Levels and Frameworks)
15 pages, 1230 KiB  
Article
Is Syntactic Priming from Multiple Speakers Stronger?
by Kerime Eylul Eski and Luca Onnis
Languages 2024, 9(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040137 - 09 Apr 2024
Viewed by 744
Abstract
Syntactic priming in dialogue occurs when exposure to a particular syntactic structure implicitly induces a speaker’s subsequent preference for the same syntactic structures in their own speech. Here, we asked whether this priming effect is boosted when individuals are primed by several different [...] Read more.
Syntactic priming in dialogue occurs when exposure to a particular syntactic structure implicitly induces a speaker’s subsequent preference for the same syntactic structures in their own speech. Here, we asked whether this priming effect is boosted when individuals are primed by several different speakers as opposed to one. In an initial baseline session involving a picture description task, we assessed adult participants’ production of double object/DO (vs. prepositional/PO) dative and passive (vs. active) transitive structures. Subsequently, participants played a picture description and verification game, in turns, with six other players (confederates). During verification turns, confederates primed participants by using DO and passive utterances. Crucially, participants were primed either by a single confederate (single-speaker priming condition, SSP) or by five confederates (multi-speaker priming condition, MSP). Across conditions, the same priming stimuli were presented in the same order, leaving speaker source/variation as the only different feature. The degree to which participants were primed for the target structures compared to baseline was measured. Results indicated a robust priming effect in both conditions. Nevertheless, the increase in the target structures’ use did not differ significantly between the SSP and MSP conditions, suggesting that speaker variation did not promote stronger priming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Syntactic Adaptation)
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44 pages, 5120 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Multilingual Experience on Executive Function and Structure Learning: Effects in Young Adults in the UK and Singapore
by Chrysoula Vassiliu, Victoria Leong and Henriette Hendriks
Languages 2024, 9(4), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040136 - 08 Apr 2024
Viewed by 542
Abstract
Most studies regarding the relationship between multilingualism and cognitive control reduce linguistic diversity to a dichotomous comparison, viz., monolinguals vs. bilinguals, failing to capture the multifactorial nature of multilingualism. Language research is largely restricted to the Global North, albeit most of the world’s [...] Read more.
Most studies regarding the relationship between multilingualism and cognitive control reduce linguistic diversity to a dichotomous comparison, viz., monolinguals vs. bilinguals, failing to capture the multifactorial nature of multilingualism. Language research is largely restricted to the Global North, albeit most of the world’s population resides in the Global South, limiting the interpretability of the existing literature. Cognitive performance is assessed using very few tasks, yielding unreliable measurements. In this study, we identify the manner in which multilingual experiences influence cognitive performance in diverse sociolinguistic contexts. Young adults from the UK (n = 51, mean age = 24.0, SD = 3.18) and Singapore (n = 36, mean age = 21.3, SD = 2.15) were tested using an extensive battery of cognitive tasks, including cognitive flexibility (CF), working memory (WM), inhibition, and structure learning (SL). Information on language proficiency, use, age of acquisition, and frequency of switching was collected. The effects of various linguistic factors on the cognitive performance of each group were assessed using multiple linear regression models. The UK and Singapore samples exhibited significantly different linguistic profiles, which in turn dissimilarly influenced their cognitive performance. Our study underscores the necessity for more research in the Global South, challenging the prevailing Northern-centric focus on the multilingualism–cognition relationship. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Use, Processing and Acquisition in Multilingual Contexts)
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9 pages, 356 KiB  
Article
On the Overlooked Diversity of Clause Structures and Argument Structures in Non-Indo-European Languages
by Randy J. LaPolla
Languages 2024, 9(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040135 - 08 Apr 2024
Viewed by 487
Abstract
This article responds to a conference call for papers that makes universalist assumptions about clause structures, assuming all languages in the world basically follow the same organizing principles in terms of clause structure, argument structure, and alignment. The article presents data from Tagalog [...] Read more.
This article responds to a conference call for papers that makes universalist assumptions about clause structures, assuming all languages in the world basically follow the same organizing principles in terms of clause structure, argument structure, and alignment. The article presents data from Tagalog to show how different a language can be from the assumed universal organizing principles to make the point that by imposing an Indo-European framework on non-Indo-European languages, we are overlooking the true diversity of language forms found in the world’s languages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Directions for Sino-Tibetan Linguistics in the Mid-21st Century)
15 pages, 379 KiB  
Article
Impact of English Language Proficiency on Local Language Use among Bangladeshi Graduates
by Md Tarikul Islam, Md. Kamrul Hasan, Selvajothi Ramalingam and Kazi Enamul Hoque
Languages 2024, 9(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040134 - 08 Apr 2024
Viewed by 950
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the impact of English language proficiency on Bangladeshi graduates in terms of its influence on local languages and cultural integration. The study was conducted using a quantitative approach, and the random sampling technique was employed to select 370 [...] Read more.
This study aimed to identify the impact of English language proficiency on Bangladeshi graduates in terms of its influence on local languages and cultural integration. The study was conducted using a quantitative approach, and the random sampling technique was employed to select 370 respondents from English and Bengali medium-instructed Bangladeshi graduates. Data were analysed using SPSS version 27.0. The Pearson correlation, ANOVA, and multiple regression analyses were used in line with the research objectives. The Pearson correlation shows a significant correlation among the studied variables, such as cultural erosion (R2 = 047, p < 0.001), threat to local language (R2 = 048, p < 0.001), and polluting local language (R2 = 047, p < 0.001). The ANOVA test was performed to find the mean difference in cultural erosion (CE), threat to local language (TLL), and polluting local language (PLL) with respect to respondents’ qualifications (bachelor’s, master’s, or Ph.D. degree). The ANOVA result revealed no statistically significant difference in CE and TLL in terms of graduates’ qualifications, while PLL differs significantly based on their qualifications (bachelor’s, master’s, or Ph.D. degree.). Similarly, significant differences in CE, TLL, and PLL were found among the income groups and living places of graduates. Multiple regression analysis explained 13.6% variances in the social class context with ELP-linked challenges (R2 = 0.136, p = 0.001), while the lower class was found to have positive non-significant relationships with ELP-linked challenges (B = 0. 159, p = 0.382). This was almost double that of the result for the rich class (B = 0.085, p = 0.721). However, ELP-linked challenges contain a mixture of languages and cultural blending in society, as the rich class faces fewer challenges than the lower and middle classes. The study is influential in creating an awareness of language use whenever necessary. Full article
18 pages, 432 KiB  
Article
Perceptions of Forms of Address in European Portuguese in Online Metadiscourse or What Happens When You Use você in Court
by Rita Faria
Languages 2024, 9(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040133 - 07 Apr 2024
Viewed by 373
Abstract
The point of departure for this study is an incident in 2020 when a football manager testifying in a Lisbon court used the pronoun of address você and was reprimanded. With the aid of corpus linguistics, we qualitatively analyse the comments (understood as [...] Read more.
The point of departure for this study is an incident in 2020 when a football manager testifying in a Lisbon court used the pronoun of address você and was reprimanded. With the aid of corpus linguistics, we qualitatively analyse the comments (understood as metacomments) that this case generated on media outlets and social media. The main conclusion is that the sociocultural foundations of EP (European Portuguese) address are polarised and unstable based on the following: the nexus between forms of address and the expression of (im)politeness is often rejected, with concerns that a complex system of address might impede an egalitarian society; despite this, discernment remains a core facet, expressed in the concern for finding appropriate sociolinguistic rules so as to arrive at forms understood as intrinsically (im)polite. Furthermore, a binary T/V dimension does not apply to the EP system, and although a N (neutral) dimension should be added, the polarised perceptions of EP address preclude clear candidates not only for the N platform but also, to an extent, for the V dimension. Fifty years after the 1974 ‘Carnation’ Revolution that initiated the transition to democracy in Portugal, EP conceptualisations of address show that sociocultural concerns for an egalitarian society coexist with persistent concerns for hierarchy and rules. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perception and Processing of Address Terms)
40 pages, 21150 KiB  
Article
Language-Specific Prosody in Statements of Palenquero/Spanish Bilinguals
by Wilmar Lopez-Barrios
Languages 2024, 9(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040132 - 03 Apr 2024
Viewed by 516
Abstract
This study explores the extent to which Palenquero/Spanish bilinguals, a population that is said to have a residual high tone of African origin, keep their two languages temporally and intonationally distinct across statements. While creole languages that emerged from the contact of African [...] Read more.
This study explores the extent to which Palenquero/Spanish bilinguals, a population that is said to have a residual high tone of African origin, keep their two languages temporally and intonationally distinct across statements. While creole languages that emerged from the contact of African and European languages, such as Palenquero, may develop hybrid prosodic systems with tones from substrate languages, and stress from the majority language, language-specific prosody might be expected to converge or simplify over the course of time. As prosodic convergence seems to be inescapable under Palenquero’s circumstances, which factors could support language-specific prosody in this population, if there are any? Two-hundred and thirty-four five-syllable statements were elicited through a discourse completion task, with the participation of ten Palenquero/Spanish bilinguals, in two unilingual sessions. Both phrase-final lengthening and F0 contours were assessed using linear mixed-effects models testing their association with final stress, language, and generation. F0 contours were dimensionally reduced using functional principal component analysis. Despite the strong similarities between the two languages, results indicate that both groups keep their two languages intonationally distinct using plateau-shaped contours in Palenquero initial rises followed by steeper declinations in Spanish. However, elderly bilinguals implement penultimate lengthening language-specifically, being more pronounced in Palenquero. Adults, in contrast, do not show this distinction. In addition to this, elderly speakers show hyperarticulation in Spanish intonation, increasing the difference between their languages. This leads us to believe that adults exhibit a more simplified prosodic system between their languages, relative to elderly bilinguals. In spite of such differences, both generations seem to have the same underlying process (perhaps a substrate effect) driving plateau-shaped intonation in Palenquero, which enhances language differentiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Prosody in Shared Linguistic Spaces of the Spanish-Speaking World)
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27 pages, 3617 KiB  
Article
On the Absence of Certain Island Effects in Mende
by Jason D. Smith
Languages 2024, 9(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040131 - 02 Apr 2024
Viewed by 605
Abstract
The distinction between weak and strong islands has been extensively explored in the literature from both a descriptive and analytical perspective. In this paper, I document and analyze island constructions and constraints in Mende, an understudied Mande language spoken in Sierra Leone. Mende [...] Read more.
The distinction between weak and strong islands has been extensively explored in the literature from both a descriptive and analytical perspective. In this paper, I document and analyze island constructions and constraints in Mende, an understudied Mande language spoken in Sierra Leone. Mende has both weak islands (left branch and wh-islands) and strong islands (adjunct clauses, sentential subjects, and coordinate structures). Intriguingly, it has a third class of islands, that I call mixed islands which show a subject–non-subject asymmetry in allowing for movement out of relative clauses, only when they modify the subject. As such, subject-modifying RCs cannot be classified as (strong/weak) islands in Mende. This is the first systematic work on islands and island constraints in the Mande language family, and, as such, it brings novel data from an understudied language family to bear on our understanding of A-bar dependencies and the study of island escape in African languages. It also calls into question a neat paradigm of cross-linguistic island constraints. Importantly, this work also lays down a baseline for future research on island constraints in the broader Mande language family. In order to discuss island constraints, this paper also lays out the first analysis of relative clauses in Mende, while integrating new research on the left periphery, focus constructions, and wh-constructions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Escaping African ‘Islands’)
21 pages, 1145 KiB  
Article
The Targetedness of English Schwa: Evidence from Schwa-Initial Minimal Pairs
by Emily R. Napoli and Cynthia G. Clopper
Languages 2024, 9(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040130 - 02 Apr 2024
Viewed by 645
Abstract
Schwa in English shows a considerable amount of contextual variation, to the extent that previous work has proposed that it is acoustically targetless. Although the consensus of previous research seems to suggest that schwa is targeted, the sources of schwa’s contextual variation have [...] Read more.
Schwa in English shows a considerable amount of contextual variation, to the extent that previous work has proposed that it is acoustically targetless. Although the consensus of previous research seems to suggest that schwa is targeted, the sources of schwa’s contextual variation have yet to be fully explained. We explored a potential source of variation in English schwa, namely, whether schwa occurs in a content word (word-initial schwa, e.g., accompany) or is a function word (phrase-initial schwa, e.g., a company). We sought to determine whether English speakers distinguish word- and phrase-initial schwas in production, as well as whether word- and phrase-initial schwas differ in their level of targetedness. To elicit hyperarticulation of word- and phrase-initial schwas and thereby facilitate our ability to observe their targets, participants produced ambiguous and unambiguous word- and phrase-initial schwa pairs in neutral and biased sentence contexts. The first and second formant trajectories of the schwas were analyzed using growth curve analysis, allowing us to demonstrate that word-initial and phrase-initial schwas are both targeted and have different targets. Ultimately, our results suggest different underlying representations for schwas in function and content words. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue An Acoustic Analysis of Vowels)
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15 pages, 1253 KiB  
Article
A Construction Morphology Approach to Neoclassical Compounds and the Function of the Linking Vowel
by Hiromi Hayashi
Languages 2024, 9(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040129 - 01 Apr 2024
Viewed by 530
Abstract
The morphological status of combining-forms (CF) (bio-, -logy, etc.) used in neoclassical compounds (biology, bioscience, etc.) is a matter of debate in morphology. Some see them as having the same status as ordinary words, while others [...] Read more.
The morphological status of combining-forms (CF) (bio-, -logy, etc.) used in neoclassical compounds (biology, bioscience, etc.) is a matter of debate in morphology. Some see them as having the same status as ordinary words, while others see them as having a special status and forming an independent category. This paper focuses on neoclassical compounds having basic and extended patterns. The former, biology type, is composed solely of CFs, while the latter contains ordinary words, i.e., free morphemes (FM), and is further classified into two categories: bioscience type and hamburgerology type. This paper aims to explain the relationship among those subtypes of neoclassical compounds while capturing their extension processes within the framework of Construction Morphology (CxM). In particular, we outline a novel analysis of those subtypes of neoclassical compounds using “schemas” and “constructional idioms” following the literature regarding CxM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Word-Formation Processes in English)
18 pages, 2110 KiB  
Article
Censorship and Taboo Maintenance in L1 and LX Swearing
by Kristy Beers Fägersten, Karyn Stapleton and Minna Hjort
Languages 2024, 9(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040128 - 01 Apr 2024
Viewed by 819
Abstract
In this paper, we consider the censorship of public swear word usage as a function of, and continued maintenance of, taboo with a focus on L1 and LX swearing and its management. In research with multilingual speakers, first-language swear words are consistently perceived [...] Read more.
In this paper, we consider the censorship of public swear word usage as a function of, and continued maintenance of, taboo with a focus on L1 and LX swearing and its management. In research with multilingual speakers, first-language swear words are consistently perceived as more taboo, and thus more emotional/powerful than equivalent words from a second or third language. While the public use of English-language swear words may be subject to censorship in Anglophone contexts, it is not censored to the same extent in LX contexts. On the other hand, L1 swear words are censored. Such perceptions of differences in strength between one’s L1 and LX languages also seem to affect the work of language professionals: translators’ tendency to self-censor may at least in part be explained by this bias. The existence of a two-tier system of swearing and censorship serves to reinvigorate L1 swear words, while diminishing the power of English swear words. We thus examine how censorship works as a means of maintaining and/or attenuating taboo, potentially moderating the power of swearing itself in cross-linguistic and multilingual contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Studies in the Language of Taboos)
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34 pages, 546 KiB  
Article
The Absence of Islands in Akan: The Role of Resumption
by Sampson Korsah and Andrew Murphy
Languages 2024, 9(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040127 - 01 Apr 2024
Viewed by 573
Abstract
The precise nature of Ā-dependencies that terminate in a pronoun has been a long-standing subject of cross-linguistic research. Traditionally, it has been assumed that there are two derivational strategies to form resumptive Ā-dependencies: movement and base generation. Island configurations have played a crucial [...] Read more.
The precise nature of Ā-dependencies that terminate in a pronoun has been a long-standing subject of cross-linguistic research. Traditionally, it has been assumed that there are two derivational strategies to form resumptive Ā-dependencies: movement and base generation. Island configurations have played a crucial role in determining which derivational strategy is employed in a given language, as islands effects are expected to arise from dependencies created by movement but not by base generation. The body of cross-linguistic research on resumption has shown that the situation is more complicated once other diagnostics are taken into account, as languages can have mixed resumption profiles. In this paper, we discuss resumption in Ā-dependencies in Akan, a Kwa language spoken in Ghana, and illustrate that, despite their general insensitivity to islands, resumptive dependencies also show many classic hallmarks of movement. We situate these findings in the broader context of a general understanding of resumption cross-linguistically and discuss how the conflicting diagnostics might be reconciled with a movement-based analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Escaping African ‘Islands’)
18 pages, 1197 KiB  
Article
A Corpus-Based Study on Orthographic Errors of Russian Heritage Learners and Their Implications for Linguistic Research and Language Teaching
by Olesya Kisselev, Irina Dubinina and Galina Paquette
Languages 2024, 9(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040126 - 01 Apr 2024
Viewed by 498
Abstract
The challenges faced by heritage language (HL) learners in mastering spelling and orthography are well-documented. Despite these documented difficulties, this aspect of HL linguistic knowledge has received limited attention from HL researchers. Beyond instructional implications, the study of spelling and orthography in HL [...] Read more.
The challenges faced by heritage language (HL) learners in mastering spelling and orthography are well-documented. Despite these documented difficulties, this aspect of HL linguistic knowledge has received limited attention from HL researchers. Beyond instructional implications, the study of spelling and orthography in HL speakers holds significance to building a finer understanding of the nature of heritage languages, since the development of orthographic skills is intricately linked to the knowledge of phonology and morphology as well as to metalinguistic awareness in these two areas. The study presented in this paper attempts to contribute to this area of research by turning its attention to orthographic skills of Russian heritage learners with English as their dominant language. The corpus-based research presented here categorizes orthographic errors in adjectival endings in hand-written essays produced by college-age HL learners of Russian of various writing proficiency levels and attempts to provide preliminary explanations for the source of these errors. While this paper is exploratory in nature and limited in scope by focusing only on adjectival endings, our results emphasize the need for further exploration in this underrepresented area to enhance our understanding of heritage language development and improve instructional strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Russian Bilingualism across the Lifespan)
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21 pages, 3331 KiB  
Article
A Multimodal Approach to Catalan Pragmatic Markers: An Exploratory Study
by Ana Llopis Cardona, Iris Hübscher and Adrián Cabedo Nebot
Languages 2024, 9(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040125 - 01 Apr 2024
Viewed by 512
Abstract
This exploratory study aims to investigate the co-occurrence of Catalan pragmatic markers that fulfill an interactive function and multimodal cues, such as manual gestures, adaptors, head gestures, and eye gaze. To do so, we utilized spontaneous face-to-face conversations between ten different dyads, all [...] Read more.
This exploratory study aims to investigate the co-occurrence of Catalan pragmatic markers that fulfill an interactive function and multimodal cues, such as manual gestures, adaptors, head gestures, and eye gaze. To do so, we utilized spontaneous face-to-face conversations between ten different dyads, all of whom were undergraduate students discussing movies that they had recently seen. We processed the data with descriptive quantitative statistics, specifically employing exploratory multifactorial statistical visualization techniques, including multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) and cluster analysis. The results showed that pragmatic markers generally co-occur with multimodal cues. Although the multimodal system works independently, when pragmatic markers are uttered, both systems tend to harmonize in accordance with general communicative tasks, particularly turn management, alignment, and social affiliation. Full article
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71 pages, 741 KiB  
Article
For-Verbs in Old English
by Michiko Ogura
Languages 2024, 9(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040124 - 01 Apr 2024
Viewed by 488
Abstract
All of the for-verbs in the Dictionary of Old English can have semantic features of ‘equal or emphatic’, ‘expanded or antonymous’, ‘rare’, ‘only in gloss’ and ‘poetic’, including overlapping types. Most for-verbs have a sense of emphasis in contrast to their [...] Read more.
All of the for-verbs in the Dictionary of Old English can have semantic features of ‘equal or emphatic’, ‘expanded or antonymous’, ‘rare’, ‘only in gloss’ and ‘poetic’, including overlapping types. Most for-verbs have a sense of emphasis in contrast to their non-prefixed counterparts; some mean almost the same as the non-prefixed ones, some seem to be always used with the for-prefix, and some cannot be precisely identified because of their very rare occurrences. In this paper, I classify Old English for-verbs with examples and try to show why they were chosen in contrast to their non-prefixed counterparts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corpus-Based Linguistics of Old English)
20 pages, 5617 KiB  
Article
From Bilingualism to Multilingualism: Mapping Language Dynamics in the Linguistic Landscape of Hispanic Philadelphia
by Daniel Guarín
Languages 2024, 9(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040123 - 01 Apr 2024
Viewed by 569
Abstract
This study explores the linguistic landscape (LL) of three Hispanic neighborhoods in Philadelphia, PA, aiming to document and measure the presence of the Spanish language in public spaces and understand the influence of time, location, and establishment type on language use. [...] Read more.
This study explores the linguistic landscape (LL) of three Hispanic neighborhoods in Philadelphia, PA, aiming to document and measure the presence of the Spanish language in public spaces and understand the influence of time, location, and establishment type on language use. Based on 3437 signs analyzed from 2021 to 2023, our findings reveal that English dominates the LL at 61.65%, while Spanish constitutes 24.16%. The study employs chi-squared tests to confirm the impact of time and location on language use, highlighting a rise in bilingual and monolingual Spanish signs over time. Additionally, variables were combined into clusters using a heatmap to explore language use across different establishments. Bilingualism emerges as a sustained trend, underscoring inclusivity and linguistic diversity within these contexts. Location analysis exposes unique linguistic characteristics in each neighborhood, reflecting the cultural and linguistic diversity of their communities. The Golden Block exhibits bilingual prevalence, indicative of evolving demographics. Olney showcases language mixtures due to diverse ethnic and sociolinguistic influences, while South Philadelphia’s Italian Market area features prevalent Spanish and multilingual signage. The study underscores the growing presence of Spanish and minority languages, emphasizing the need to recognize and revitalize linguistic diversity in urban spaces. As cities evolve, continued exploration of the LL is crucial to understanding language dynamics in relation to identity, culture, and power. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spanish in the US: A Sociolinguistic Approach)
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19 pages, 439 KiB  
Article
The Effects of the Slavic–Balkan Contact on Lipovan Daco-Romanian
by Adnana Boioc Apintei
Languages 2024, 9(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040122 - 29 Mar 2024
Viewed by 478
Abstract
This paper offers both a descriptive account and an analysis of the possible consequences of linguistic contact between the Daco-Romanian variety spoken by the Lipovan community and Russian (starting from a fieldwork-based corpus study) regarding (low) verb movement in neutral readings, ultimately reflected [...] Read more.
This paper offers both a descriptive account and an analysis of the possible consequences of linguistic contact between the Daco-Romanian variety spoken by the Lipovan community and Russian (starting from a fieldwork-based corpus study) regarding (low) verb movement in neutral readings, ultimately reflected in the preference for [adv-v] word order. The situation identified in Lipovan Daco-Romanian will be compared with that of old and standard Daco-Romanian, Moldovan Daco-Romanian, and Russian. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Formal Studies in Balkan Romance Languages)
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