Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
6.8
3.9
Journals
Sensors
Special Issues
Single Photon Counting Image Sensor
sensors-logo
Submit to Sensors Review for Sensors Propose a Special Issue

Journal Menu

► Journal Menu

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser
share announcement

Single Photon Counting Image Sensor

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Optical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 June 2021) | Viewed by 21377

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Martin Laurenzis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
French-German Research Institute of Saint-Louis, 5 Rue du General Cassagnou, 68301 Saint-Louis, France
Interests: time-of-flight non-line of sight sensing; single-photon flux imaging; low-light-level imaging; imaging through scattering media
Prof. Dr. Gerald S. Buller

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
Interests: short-wave infrared single-photon detectors; single-photon lidar; quantum-enhanced imaging; quantum communications
Prof. Dr. Edoardo Charbon

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
AQUA Laboratory, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 2002 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Interests: large-format SPAD image sensors; FLIM-FRET; time-resolved Raman spectroscopy; LiDAR; TOF-PET; cryo-CMOS; quantum computing; quantum imaging; SNSPDs
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Ivan Rech

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico Milano, Via Ponzio 34/5, 20133 Milano, Italia
Interests: time-correlated single-photon counting; SPAD; time-resolved electronics; fast counting
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Single-photon counting imaging sensors such as the ubiquitous all solid-state single-photon counting avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors can measure single-photon events. This image sensor field is developing rapidly as new applications emerge. Imaging systems based on scanning single sensors or sensor arrays achieve ever-higher resolution concerning space, time, and quantum efficiency in different spectral ranges (e.g., ultraviolet, visible, infrared). This fundamental platform technology opens up the development of new imaging methods and applications in science and industry. This Special Issue contains articles discussing various single-photon counting imaging sensor technologies and selected new applications.

Dr. Martin Laurenzis
Prof. Dr. Gerald S. Buller
Prof. Dr. Edoardo Charbon
Prof. Ivan Rech
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Photon counting
  • Single-photon detection
  • Scanning single sensor
  • Sensor arrays
  • Image sensor
  • Time-of-flight sensor
  • Avalanche photodiodes
  • Fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy
  • Quantum imaging
  • Single-photon LiDAR
  • Time-resolved image sensors
  • SPAD
  • Cryogenic sensors
  • III-V Sensors

Published Papers (4 papers)

Download All Papers
Order results
Result details
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:

Research

16 pages, 4275 KiB  
Article
Custom-Technology Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Linear Detector Array for Underwater Depth Imaging
by Aurora Maccarone, Giulia Acconcia, Ulrich Steinlehner, Ivan Labanca, Darryl Newborough, Ivan Rech and Gerald S. Buller
Sensors 2021, 21(14), 4850; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21144850 - 16 Jul 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3120
Abstract
We present an optical depth imaging system suitable for highly scattering underwater environments. The system used the time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) technique and the time-of-flight approach to obtain depth profiles. The single-photon detection was provided by a linear array of single-photon avalanche diode [...] Read more.
We present an optical depth imaging system suitable for highly scattering underwater environments. The system used the time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) technique and the time-of-flight approach to obtain depth profiles. The single-photon detection was provided by a linear array of single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors fabricated in a customized silicon fabrication technology for optimized efficiency, dark count rate, and jitter performance. The bi-static transceiver comprised a pulsed laser diode source with central wavelength 670 nm, a linear array of 16 × 1 Si-SPAD detectors, with a dedicated TCSPC acquisition module. Cylindrical lenses were used to collect the light scattered by the target and image it onto the sensor. These laboratory-based experiments demonstrated single-photon depth imaging at a range of 1.65 m in highly scattering conditions, equivalent up to 8.3 attenuation lengths between the system and the target, using average optical powers of up to 15 mW. The depth and spatial resolution of this sensor were investigated in different scattering conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Single Photon Counting Image Sensor)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 7764 KiB  
Article
Statistical Modelling of SPADs for Time-of-Flight LiDAR
by Alfonso Incoronato, Mauro Locatelli and Franco Zappa
Sensors 2021, 21(13), 4481; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21134481 - 30 Jun 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5731
Abstract
Time-of-Flight (TOF) based Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a widespread technique for distance measurements in both single-spot depth ranging and 3D mapping. Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) detectors provide single-photon sensitivity and allow in-pixel integration of a Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC) to measure [...] Read more.
Time-of-Flight (TOF) based Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a widespread technique for distance measurements in both single-spot depth ranging and 3D mapping. Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) detectors provide single-photon sensitivity and allow in-pixel integration of a Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC) to measure the TOF of single-photons. From the repetitive acquisition of photons returning from multiple laser shots, it is possible to accumulate a TOF histogram, so as to identify the laser pulse return from unwelcome ambient light and compute the desired distance information. In order to properly predict the TOF histogram distribution and design each component of the LiDAR system, from SPAD to TDC and histogram processing, we present a detailed statistical modelling of the acquisition chain and we show the perfect matching with Monte Carlo simulations in very different operating conditions and very high background levels. We take into consideration SPAD non-idealities such as hold-off time, afterpulsing, and crosstalk, and we show the heavy pile-up distortion in case of high background. Moreover, we also model non-idealities of timing electronics chain, namely, TDC dead-time, limited number of storage cells for TOF data, and TDC sharing. Eventually, we show how the exploit the modelling to reversely extract the original LiDAR return signal from the distorted measured TOF data in different operating conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Single Photon Counting Image Sensor)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 14330 KiB  
Article
Spot Tracking and TDC Sharing in SPAD Arrays for TOF LiDAR
by Vincenzo Sesta, Fabio Severini, Federica Villa, Rudi Lussana, Franco Zappa, Ken Nakamuro and Yuki Matsui
Sensors 2021, 21(9), 2936; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21092936 - 22 Apr 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5500
Abstract
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a widespread technique for 3D ranging and has widespread use in most automated systems that must interact with the external environment, for instance in industrial and security applications. In this work, we study a novel architecture for [...] Read more.
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a widespread technique for 3D ranging and has widespread use in most automated systems that must interact with the external environment, for instance in industrial and security applications. In this work, we study a novel architecture for Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) arrays suitable for handheld single point rangefinders, which is aimed at the identification of the objects’ position in the presence of strong ambient background illumination. The system will be developed for an industrial environment, and the array targets a distance range of about 1 m and a precision of few centimeters. Since the laser spot illuminates only a small portion of the array, while all pixels are exposed to background illumination, we propose and validate through Monte Carlo simulations a novel architecture for the identification of the pixels illuminated by the laser spot to perform an adaptive laser spot tracking and a smart sharing of the timing electronics, thus significantly improving the accuracy of the distance measurement. Such a novel architecture represents a robust and effective approach to develop SPAD arrays for industrial applications with extremely high background illumination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Single Photon Counting Image Sensor)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 14763 KiB  
Article
Analytical Evaluation of Signal-to-Noise Ratios for Avalanche- and Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes
by Andre Buchner, Stefan Hadrath, Roman Burkard, Florian M. Kolb, Jennifer Ruskowski, Manuel Ligges and Anton Grabmaier
Sensors 2021, 21(8), 2887; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21082887 - 20 Apr 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5748
Abstract
Performance of systems for optical detection depends on the choice of the right detector for the right application. Designers of optical systems for ranging applications can choose from a variety of highly sensitive photodetectors, of which the two most prominent ones are linear [...] Read more.
Performance of systems for optical detection depends on the choice of the right detector for the right application. Designers of optical systems for ranging applications can choose from a variety of highly sensitive photodetectors, of which the two most prominent ones are linear mode avalanche photodiodes (LM-APDs or APDs) and Geiger-mode APDs or single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). Both achieve high responsivity and fast optical response, while maintaining low noise characteristics, which is crucial in low-light applications such as fluorescence lifetime measurements or high intensity measurements, for example, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), in outdoor scenarios. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of detectors is used as an analytical, scenario-dependent tool to simplify detector choice for optical system designers depending on technologically achievable photodiode parameters. In this article, analytical methods are used to obtain a universal SNR comparison of APDs and SPADs for the first time. Different signal and ambient light power levels are evaluated. The low noise characteristic of a typical SPAD leads to high SNR in scenarios with overall low signal power, but high background illumination can saturate the detector. LM-APDs achieve higher SNR in systems with higher signal and noise power but compromise signals with low power because of the noise characteristic of the diode and its readout electronics. Besides pure differentiation of signal levels without time information, ranging performance in LiDAR with time-dependent signals is discussed for a reference distance of 100 m. This evaluation should support LiDAR system designers in choosing a matching photodiode and allows for further discussion regarding future technological development and multi pixel detector designs in a common framework. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Single Photon Counting Image Sensor)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying articles 1-4
Back to TopTop