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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental and Green Processes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 December 2022) | Viewed by 43551

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Dr. Hah Young Yoo

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Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Republic of Korea
Interests: Biomaterial Applications; Biomolecule Identification; Biomass Conversion; Enzyme Technology; Applied Microbiology; Biofuel Production; Response Surface Methodology; Bioprocess Engineering; Purification; Fermentation; Process Design and Simulation
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Dr. Ja Hyun Lee

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Department of Food Science and Engineering, Dongyang Mirae University, 445, Gyeongin-ro, Guro-gu, Seoul 08221, Republic of Korea
Interests: bioprocess engineering; biorefinery; biotechnology; enzyme; microalgae; biochar
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Chulhwan Park

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Department of Chemical Engineering, Kwangwoon University, 20, Kwangwoon-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul 01897, Republic of Korea
Interests: bioactive compounds; marine biorefinery; process optimization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Bioprocesses that use biomass as a raw material to produce various products such as biochemistry, bio-energy, food, and pharmaceuticals are expected to serve as sustainable future processes due to their relatively low energy consumption, environmental friendliness, and carbon neutrality. In particular, bioeconomy for sustainable development in global population growth is an emerging paradigm that is rapidly spreading around the world, and the demand for bioprocesses is expected to increase due to the large investment in the bio-industries. The major challenge of bioprocesses is to secure economic feasibility; thus, various strategies have been proposed in the development stage of new products, such as the development of new biotechnology, utilization of none-edible biomass, and improvement of efficiency of conventional processes. In the development stage of bioproducts, optimization of main production such as enzymatic conversion or fermentation is an important success factor, and the maximum yield can be achieved through many trials. This process optimization can be estimated more efficiently by statistical methods, and it can be significantly applied to multivariate and regression analysis for correlation of factors in various emerging applied areas.

This Special Issue on “Bioprocess Design and Optimization” intends to present novel examples of process design and optimization for all bioprocesses. Topics include but are not limited to:

Biomass conversion (chemical- or enzymatical reaction, or fermentation);
Biomass utilization (2nd, 3rd, and 4th generation);
Bioprocess design;
Process optimization by statistical methodologies;
Treatment of biomass such as extraction, pretreatment, or saccharification.

Dr. Hah Young Yoo
Dr. Ja Hyun Lee
Prof. Dr. Chulhwan Park
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Biomass
Biorefinery
Bioprocess design
Bioprocess optimization
Fermentation
Hydrolysis
Pretreatment

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 988 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Step-by-Step Hybrid Conversion of Glucose to 5-acetoxymethyl-2-furfural Using Immobilized Enzymes and Cation Exchange Resin

by Kyung Won Lee, Jin Ku Cho, Chulhwan Park and Baek-Jin Kim

Processes 2022, 10(10), 2086; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102086 - 14 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1446

Abstract

An alternative to 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furfural (HMF), which is a promising furan derivative that can be used as a starting material for the preparation of non-petroleum-derived polymeric materials from sugars, is 5-acetoxymethyl-2-furfural (AMF). The less-hydrophilic acetyl group of AMF has advantages over the hydroxy group of HMF in terms of thermal stability and isolation. In previous studies, fructose has been used as a starting material along with lipases for the enzymatic synthesis of AMF. In this study, we designed a hybrid synthesis system that includes the isomerization and esterification of glucose into AMF. For the step-by-step conversion of glucose to 1,6-diacetylfructose (DAF), glucose-isomerase and immobilized lipase (Novozym 435) were used as enzymes. Furthermore, for the synthesis of AMF, the direct dehydration of DAF was performed using a cation exchange resin (Amberlyst 15), combined with several industrial solvents, such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), acetonitrile (AN) and dimethylformamide (DMF) for the synthesis of AMF. In order to improve the final yield of AMF, we determined the best solvent conditions. While the AMF yield after the direct dehydration of DAF in a single solvent was maximum 24%, an AMF and HMF yield in the mixed solvent such as dioxane and DMS (9:1) was achieved each 65% and 15%. According to these results, we found that the addition of dioxane in aprotic polar solvents could affect the dehydration reaction and dramatically improve the formation of AMF and HMF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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12 pages, 2696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Box-Behnken Design (BBD) Application for Optimization of Chromatographic Conditions in RP-HPLC Method Development for the Estimation of Thymoquinone in Nigella sativa Seed Powder

by Prawez Alam, Faiyaz Shakeel, Mohamad Taleuzzaman, Ahmed I. Foudah, Mohammed H. Alqarni, Tariq M. Aljarba, Sultan Alshehri and Mohammed M. Ghoneim

Processes 2022, 10(6), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10061082 - 29 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2229

Abstract

Thymoquinone (THY) is a bioactive compound present in the seed powder of Nigella sativa (NS). This research aims to precisely and accurately estimate THY using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a Quality by Design (QbD) application. Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to optimize the chromatographic conditions for HPLC method development, taking mobile phase flow rate, pH of the buffer, and λ_max as independent variables and retention time and tailing factor as the measured responses. The mobile phase composition was methanol: acetonitrile: buffer (2.2 mM ammonium formate) at the ratio of 35:50:15 v/v/v on a Symmetry^® C18 (5 μm, 3.9 × 150 mm) column. In isocratic mode, it had a flow rate 0.9 mL min⁻¹ and eluted analyte was detected at 249 nm. Validation parameters followed the International Council for Harmonization (ICH) guidelines for the new HPLC method. The method was linear over the range 6.25–100 µg mL⁻¹ with a coefficient of determination (r2) of 0.9957. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 2.05 and 6.25 µg mL⁻¹, respectively. The %RSD of system suitability for retention time was 1.42% and for the tailing factor it was 0.695%. In addition, the developed method was precise, accurate, and robust according to ICH criteria. The developed HPLC method is simple, accurate, quick, and robust, and it could be used for the routine analysis of THY in different kinds of formulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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15 pages, 1689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Relation between Temperature and M13 Phage Production via ATP Expenditure

by Young Kyun Choi, Sang Min Han, Sang Min Lee, Jeong Ook Soh, Seung Kyu Lee and Ju Hun Lee

Processes 2022, 10(5), 962; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10050962 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2586

Abstract

M13 bacteriophage is a promising biomolecule capable of various bionano and material science applications. The biomaterial can self-assemble into matrices to fabricate bioscaffolds using high phage concentration and high phage purity. Previous studies aimed to acquire these conditions in large-scale phage production and have identified the optimal culture temperature range at 28–31 °C. However, explanations as to why this temperature range was optimal for phage production is absent from the work. Therefore, in this study, we identified the relation between culture temperature and M13 phage production using ATP expenditure calculations to comprehend the high yield phage production at the optimal temperature range. We extended a coarse-grained model for the evaluation of phage protein and ribosomal protein synthesis with the premise that phage proteins (a ribosomal protein) are translated by bacterial ribosomes in E. coli through expenditure of ATP energy. By comparing the ATP energy for ribosomal protein synthesis estimated using the coarse-grained model and the experimentally calculated ATP expenditure for phage production, we interpreted the high phage yield at the optimal temperature range and recognized ATP analysis as a reasonable method that can be used to evaluate other parameters for phage production optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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16 pages, 1332 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimization and Analysis of Liquid Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Agro-Industrial Wastes via Mixture Design

by Roberto Eloy Hernández Regalado, Tobias Weide, Daniel Baumkötter, Lukas Wettwer, Jurek Häner, Elmar Brügging and Jens Tränckner

Processes 2021, 9(5), 877; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050877 - 17 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2286

Abstract

Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) is a widely employed technique to produce biogas from simultaneous digestion of various biomasses. However, the selection of the optimal proportions of the substrates in the mixtures presents a challenge. This research used a mixture design to investigate the interactions between the liquid fraction of piglet manure (PM), cow manure (CWM), and starch wastewater (SWW). A modified Gompertz model was used to identify the statistically significant parameters of the methane production curves. The optimal compositions of the mixtures were identified based on multi-objective optimization of the maximal methane yield (Y_CH4) and maximal methane specific production rate (r_CH4) parameters. The study was validated using a double mixture of PM and CWM and a triple mixture. The estimated degradation rates for both mixtures were faster than the predicted ones. The absolute relative errors of r_CH4 were 27.41% for the double mixture and 5.59% for the triple mixture, while the relative errors of Y_CH4 were 4.64% for the double mixture and 10.05% for the triple mixture. These relative errors are within the normal limits of a process with high variability like AD. Thus, mixture design supported by the tested models is suitable for the definition of practically advisable mixtures of substrates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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14 pages, 1974 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improved Sugar Recovery from Orange Peel by Statistical Optimization of Thermo-Alkaline Pretreatment

by Ye Won Jang, Kang Hyun Lee and Hah Young Yoo

Processes 2021, 9(3), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9030409 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4126

Abstract

Orange peel, which is a by-product of oranges, contains carbohydrates that can be converted into sugars and used in the fermentation process. In this study, the thermal alkaline pretreatment process was chosen because of its simplicity and lesser reaction time. In addition, the reaction factors were optimized using response surface methodology. The determined optimal conditions were as follows: 60.1 g/L orange peels loading, 3% KOH and 30 min. Under the optimal conditions, glucan content (GC) and enzymatic digestibility (ED) were found to be 32.8% and 87.8%, respectively. Enzymatic hydrolysis was performed with pretreated and non-pretreated orange peels using three types of enzyme complex (cellulase, cellobiase and xylanase). The minimum concentrations of enzyme complex required to obtain maximum ED were 30 FPU (filter paper unit), 15 CBU (cellobiase unit), and 30 XNU (xylanase unit) based on 1 g-biomass. Additionally, ED of the treated group was approximately 3.7-fold higher than that of the control group. In conclusion, the use of orange peel as a feedstock for biorefinery can be a strategic solution to reduce wastage of resources and produce sustainable bioproducts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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12 pages, 1745 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Significant Effect of Sample Pretreatment on Ara h1 Extraction and Improved Sensitive SWCNT-Based Detection through Optimization

by Jinyoung Lee

Processes 2020, 8(11), 1420; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8111420 - 08 Nov 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1890

Abstract

Single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)-based nanobiosensors have received increasing attention from food researchers as a future instrument of food safety due to their high sensitivity. However, the pretreatment process of the sample applying to SWCNT-based nanobiosensor is required to be more delicate compared to other analyses. In this study, the pretreatment process of Ara h1 protein from its retained complex food matrix was optimized using various buffer compounds and the pretreated allergenic Ara h1 obtained for the optimized process was detected by SWCNT-based nanobiosensor. In the pretreatment process, the buffer extraction method with tris buffer (Tris-HNO₃, pH 8.4) was developed and used to extract native peanut allergens from foods. The extraction procedure for Ara h1 from peanut butter foods was performed by varying the temperature, extraction time, and additives (NaCl and skim milk powder). The results of these tests using our SWCNT-based biosensor were analyzed to evaluate the allergenic nature of the extracts. The peak level of Ara h1 extraction was achieved as 84.60 ± 7.50 ng/mL at 21 °C/60 min with the mixture of Tris-HNO₃ and 1 M NaCl. In addition, other significant Ara h1 extractions were found to be 29.59 ± 2.57 at 21 °C/15 min and 27.74 ± 1.33 ng/mL at 60 °C/15 min. This study emphasizes the importance of adjusting the extraction time and temperature with respect to the target allergen and food matrix components. After the optimization of the sample pretreatment, the precision of SWCNT-based nanobiosensor by the resistance difference (ΔR) of the SWCNT-based biosensor via linear sweep voltammetry in a potentiostat was identified using the pretreated Ara h1 sample from the processed food compared with the indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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17 pages, 2400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Polymer Grade L-Lactic Acid Production Using Lactobacillus rhamnosus SCJ9 from Low-Grade Cassava Chips by Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation

by Kridsada Unban, Narongsak Puangkhankham, Apinun Kanpiengjai, Rasiravathanahalli Kaveriyappan Govindarajan, Dharman Kalaimurugan and Chartchai Khanongnuch

Processes 2020, 8(9), 1143; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8091143 - 13 Sep 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3176

Abstract

The present study aims to examine the process for L-lactic acid production from low-grade cassava chips (LGC) using a two-step fermentation approach (TSF) and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) by proficient, newly isolated Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain SCJ9. The optimized medium composition revealed by response surface methodology for TSF was 166 g/L LGC hydrolysate and 20 g/L yeast extract (YE), while other medium components were fixed (g/L) as follows: tween80 (2.0), (NH₄)₂HPO₄ (2.0), CH₃COONa∙3H₂O (6.0), (NH₄)₂HC₆H₅O₇ (2.0), MgSO₄∙7H₂O (0.5), and MnSO₄∙H₂O (0.3). Based on the optimization conditions, the maximum experimental L-lactic acid of 134.6 g/L was achieved at 60 h fermentation time with a production efficiency of 89.73%, 0.95 g/g yield and 2.24 g/L/h productivity. In contrast, L-lactic acid production by SSF under optimized concentrations of thermostable-α-amylase (AA) and glucoamylase (GA) gave maximum L-lactic acid of 125.79 g/L at only 36 h fermentation time which calculated to the production efficiency, yield and productivity of 83.86%, 0.93 g/g and 3.49 g/L/h, respectively. The L-lactic acid production obtained from SSF was significantly improved when compared to TSF based on lower enzyme loading usage, shorter hydrolysis time and increase in production efficiency and productivity. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in the production by SSF between experiments conducted in laboratory bottle and 10-L fermenter. The results indicated the success of up-scaling for L-lactic acid production by SSF which could be developed for a further pilot-scale production of L-lactic acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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18 pages, 4919 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response Surface Optimization of Culture Conditions for Cyclic Lipopeptide MS07 from Bacillus siamensis Reveals Diverse Insights Targeting Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activity

by Md Maruf Khan, Young Kyun Kim, Seung Sik Cho, Ying-Yu Jin, Joo-Won Suh, Dae Young Lee and Jin Cheol Yoo

Processes 2020, 8(6), 744; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060744 - 26 Jun 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3956

Abstract

Efforts to isolate a broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide (AMP) from microbial sources have been on the rise recently. Here, we report the identification, the optimization of the culture conditions, and the characterization of an efficient AMP from the Bacillus strain designated MS07 that exhibits antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity. The production of MS07 was maximized by evaluating the culture conditions by the response surface methodology to obtain optimum media compositions. The biochemical integrity of MS07 was assessed by a bioassay indicating inhibition at ~6 kDa, like tricine-SDS-PAGE. MALDI-TOF confirmed the molecular weight and purity, showing a molecular mass of 6.099 kDa. Peptide MS07 exhibited antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The MIC of MS07 for Escherichia coli, Alcaligenes faecalis, MRSA, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ranged from 16–32 µg/mL, demonstrating superior potency. The biomass was diminished by about 15% and 11%, with rising concentrations up to 8 × MIC, for P. aeruginosa and E. coli biofilm, respectively. MS07 exhibited an 8 µM and 6 µM minimum bactericidal concentration against the biofilm of the Gram-negative strains P. aeruginosa and E. coli, respectively. Peptide MS07 reduced and interrupted the biofilm development in a concentration-dependent manner, as determined by BacLight live/dead staining using confocal microscopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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17 pages, 3648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Process Optimization of Palm Oil Mill Effluent-Based Biosurfactant of Halomonas meridiana BK-AB4 Originated from Bledug Kuwu Mud Volcano in Central Java for Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery

by Cut Nanda Sari, Rukman Hertadi, Andre Fahriz Perdana Harahap, Muhammad Yusuf Arya Ramadhan and Misri Gozan

Processes 2020, 8(6), 716; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060716 - 20 Jun 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3440

Abstract

Biosurfactants are one of the microbial bioproducts that are in most demand from microbial-enhanced oil recovery (MEOR). The production of biosurfactant is still a relatively high cost. Therefore, this study aims to reduce production costs by utilizing palm oil mill effluent (POME) as the main carbon source. This work examines the optimal conditions of biosurfactant production by Halomonas meridiana BK-AB4 isolated from the Bledug Kuwu mud volcano in Central Java Indonesia and studies it for EOR applications. The biosurfactant production stage was optimized by varying POME concentration, incubation time, NaCl concentration, and pH to obtain the maximum oil displacement area (ODA) values. A response surface methodology (RSM) and a central composite design (CCD) were used to identify the influence of each variable and to trace the relationship between variables. Optimum biosurfactant production was found at a POME concentration (v/v) of 16%, incubation (h) of 112, NaCl concentration (w/v) of 4.7%, pH of 6.5, with an oil displacement area of 3.642 cm. The LC-MS and FTIR analysis revealed the functional groups of carboxylic acid or esters, which indicated that the biosurfactant produced belonged to the fatty acid class. The lowest IFT value was obtained at the second and seventh-day observations at a concentration of 500 mg/L, i.e., 0.03 mN/m and 0.06 mN/m. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) of biosurfactant was about 350 mg/L with a surface tension value of about 54.16 mN/m. The highest emulsification activity (E₂₄ = 76%) in light crude oil (naphthenic–naphthenic) and could reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water up to 0.18 mN/m. The imbibition experiment with biosurfactant results in 23.89% additional oil recovery for 60 h of observation, with the highest increase in oil recovery occurring at the 18th hour, which is 2.72%. Therefore, this bacterium and its biosurfactant show potential, and the bacterium are suitable for use in MEOR applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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Review

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21 pages, 37037 KiB

Open AccessReview

A 3D Food Printing Process for the New Normal Era: A Review

by Jinyoung Lee

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1495; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9091495 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 18511

Abstract

Owing to COVID-19, the world has advanced faster in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, along with the 3D printing technology that has achieved innovation in personalized manufacturing. Three-dimensional printing technology has been utilized across various fields such as environmental fields, medical systems, and military materials. Recently, the 3D food printer global market has shown a high annual growth rate and is a huge industry of approximately one billion dollars. Three-dimensional food printing technology can be applied to various food ranges based on the advantages of designing existing food to suit one’s taste and purpose. Currently, many countries worldwide produce various 3D food printers, developing special foods such as combat food, space food, restaurants, floating food, and elderly food. Many people are unaware of the utilization of the 3D food printing technology industry as it is in its early stages. There are various cases using 3D food printing technology in various parts of the world. Three-dimensional food printing technology is expected to become a new trend in the new normal era after COVID-19. Compared to other 3D printing industries, food 3D printing technology has a relatively small overall 3D printing utilization and industry size because of problems such as insufficient institutionalization and limitation of standardized food materials for 3D food printing. In this review, the current industrial status of 3D food printing technology was investigated with suggestions for the improvement of the food 3D printing market in the new normal era. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioprocess Design and Optimization)

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