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20 pages, 8356 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Thermo-Mechanical Recyclability of Additively Manufactured Polypropylene and Polylactic Acid Parts and Polypropylene Support Structures

by Niko Nagengast, Christian Bay, Frank Döpper, Hans-Werner Schmidt and Christian Neuber

Polymers 2023, 15(10), 2291; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15102291 - 12 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1499

Abstract

Polymers have a reputation for several advantageous characteristics like chemical resistance, weight reduction, and simple form-giving processes. The rise of additive manufacturing technologies such as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) has introduced an even more versatile production process that supported new product design and [...] Read more.

Polymers have a reputation for several advantageous characteristics like chemical resistance, weight reduction, and simple form-giving processes. The rise of additive manufacturing technologies such as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) has introduced an even more versatile production process that supported new product design and material concepts. This led to new investigations and innovations driven by the individualization of customized products. The other side of the coin contains an increasing resource and energy consumption satisfying the growing demand for polymer products. This turns into a magnitude of waste accumulation and increased resource consumption. Therefore, appropriate product and material design, taking into account end-of-life scenarios, is essential to limit or even close the loop of economically driven product systems. In this paper, a comparison of virgin and recycled biodegradable (polylactic acid (PLA)) and petroleum-based (polypropylene (PP) & support) filaments for extrusion-based Additive Manufacturing is presented. For the first time, the thermo-mechanical recycling setup contained a service-life simulation, shredding, and extrusion. Specimens and complex geometries with support materials were manufactured with both, virgin and recycled materials. An empirical assessment was executed through mechanical (ISO 527), rheological (ISO 1133), morphological, and dimensional testing. Furthermore, the surface properties of the PLA and PP printed parts were analyzed. In summary, PP parts and parts from its support structure showed, in consideration of all parameters, suitable recyclability with a marginal parameter variance in comparison to the virgin material. The PLA components showed an acceptable decline in the mechanical values but through thermo-mechanical degradation processes, rheological and dimensional properties of the filament dropped decently. This results in significantly identifiable artifacts of the product optics, based on an increase in surface roughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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12 pages, 8616 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

In-Process Orbiting Laser-Assisted Technique for the Surface Finish in Material Extrusion-Based 3D Printing

by Pu Han, Sihan Zhang, Zhong Yang, M. Faisal Riyad, Dan O. Popa and Keng Hsu

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2221; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092221 - 08 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1359

Abstract

Material extrusion-based polymer 3D printing, one of the most commonly used additive manufacturing processes for thermoplastics and composites, has drawn extensive attention due to its capability and cost effectiveness. However, the low surface finish quality of the printed parts remains a drawback due [...] Read more.

Material extrusion-based polymer 3D printing, one of the most commonly used additive manufacturing processes for thermoplastics and composites, has drawn extensive attention due to its capability and cost effectiveness. However, the low surface finish quality of the printed parts remains a drawback due to the nature of stacking successive layers along one direction and the nature of rastering of the extruded tracks of material. In this work, an in-process thermal radiation-assisted, surface reflow method is demonstrated that significantly improves the surface finish of the sidewalls of printed parts. It is observed that the surface finish of the printed part is drastically improved for both flat and curved surfaces. The effect of surface reflow on roughness reduction was characterized using optical profilometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), while the local heated spot temperature was quantified using a thermal camera. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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23 pages, 9212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards the Effectiveness of 3D Printing on Tactile Content Creation for Visually Impaired Users

by Gutenberg Barros, Walter Correia and João Marcelo Teixeira

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2180; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092180 - 03 May 2023

Viewed by 1672

Abstract

We have conducted research on how tactile content is created for visually impaired individuals. From the data collected, an experiment was developed and applied. It investigated alternative materials to serve as a basis for the use of 3D printing to reduce production costs. [...] Read more.

We have conducted research on how tactile content is created for visually impaired individuals. From the data collected, an experiment was developed and applied. It investigated alternative materials to serve as a basis for the use of 3D printing to reduce production costs. It also evaluated the adherence of different values of width, height, and angles of the contour lines, as well as different geometric shapes and top/bottom fill patterns on these materials. The results show it is possible to use cellulose-based materials weighing between 120 g/m² and 180 g/m² to support the prints instead of making a base for the information, with gains up to 40 times in production time and up to 29 times in the consumption of materials if there is no need to fold the manufactured content. Based on visually impaired every-day activities such as locating and following a line (exploration), discerning different textures (tactile discrimination), identifying figures (picture comprehension), and locating copies of them (spatial comprehension), the ideal line widths for 3D printing adherence regarding tactile content creation were found to be between 0.8 mm and 1.2 mm, while 0.4 mm was the maximum height that did not compromise adherence. When bending the 3D printed material on the surface, we found that lines with angles between 0° and 20° from the bending direction could keep their adherence as well. The shapes must receive a small rounding at the corners and preferably align themselves with the mentioned angles. The top/bottom fill patterns did not affect adhesion. The infill can be used as a texture generator and should be adjusted to densities of 10% to 50%, or 10% to 90% when combined with other textures. In the first case, users were able to perceive differences in the tactile content whenever a single infill pattern was used. In the latter, combining two infill patterns leads to a more discriminating surface, resulting in a higher number of textures to be used in tactile content production (analogous to the number of colors used in an image for a person with no visual impairment). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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14 pages, 1209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Open-Source ABAQUS Plug-In for Delamination Analysis of 3D Printed Composites

by Efstratios Polyzos, Danny Van Hemelrijck and Lincy Pyl

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2171; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092171 - 02 May 2023

Viewed by 2422

Abstract

This article presents the development and implementation of the Delamination Plug-in, an open-source tool for modeling delamination tests in the ABAQUS software. Specifically designed for stochastic modeling of 3D printed composites, the plug-in combines the benefits of the graphical user interface (GUI) and [...] Read more.

This article presents the development and implementation of the Delamination Plug-in, an open-source tool for modeling delamination tests in the ABAQUS software. Specifically designed for stochastic modeling of 3D printed composites, the plug-in combines the benefits of the graphical user interface (GUI) and the programming of commercial finite element (FE) software. The Delamination Plug-in offers an effortless alternative to the time-consuming analytical modeling and GUI work involved in delamination tests and includes algorithms for several tests, such as the double cantilever beam, end-loaded split, end-notched flexure, and modified end-loaded split tests, solved using the virtual crack closure technique and the cohesive zone method. It enables the user to develop simulations for both simple symmetric laminates and generally layered laminates with additional thermal stresses. The applicability of the tool is demonstrated through its use in two distinct delamination problems, one for conventional and one for 3D printed composite laminates, and its results are compared to analytical models and experimental data from the open literature. The results demonstrate that the Delamination Plug-in is efficient and applicable for such materials. This establishes the tool as an important means of automating delamination analysis and for the development and testing of 3D printed composites, making it a valuable tool for both researchers and industry professionals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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25 pages, 4132 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of FFF Process Conditions on the Thermal, Mechanical, and Rheological Properties of Poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxy Hexanoate)

by Maria Rosaria Caputo, Mercedes Fernández, Robert Aguirresarobe, Adriana Kovalcik, Haritz Sardon, María Virginia Candal and Alejandro J. Müller

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1817; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081817 - 07 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1892

Abstract

Polyhydroxyalkanoates are natural polyesters synthesized by microorganisms and bacteria. Due to their properties, they have been proposed as substitutes for petroleum derivatives. This work studies how the printing conditions employed in fuse filament fabrication (FFF) affect the properties of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxy hexanoate) or PHBH. [...] Read more.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates are natural polyesters synthesized by microorganisms and bacteria. Due to their properties, they have been proposed as substitutes for petroleum derivatives. This work studies how the printing conditions employed in fuse filament fabrication (FFF) affect the properties of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxy hexanoate) or PHBH. Firstly, rheological results predicted the printability of PHBH, which was successfully realized. Unlike what usually happens in FFF manufacturing or several semi-crystalline polymers, it was observed that the crystallization of PHBH occurs isothermally after deposition on the bed and not during the non-isothermal cooling stage, according to calorimetric measurements. A computational simulation of the temperature profile during the printing process was conducted to confirm this behavior, and the results support this hypothesis. Through the analysis of mechanical properties, it was shown that the nozzle and bed temperature increase improved the mechanical properties, reducing the void formation and improving interlayer adhesion, as shown by SEM. Intermediate printing velocities produced the best mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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13 pages, 1624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Denture Disinfectants on the Mechanical Performance of 3D-Printed Denture Base Materials

by Nora S. Alkaltham, Reem A. Aldhafiri, Ahmad M. Al-Thobity, Hassan Alramadan, Hussain Aljubran, Ijlal Shahrukh Ateeq, Soban Q. Khan, Sultan Akhtar and Mohammed M. Gad

Polymers 2023, 15(5), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051175 - 26 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2466

Abstract

Denture care and maintenance are necessary for both denture longevity and underlying tissue health. However, the effects of disinfectants on the strength of 3D-printed denture base resins are unclear. Herein, distilled water (DW), effervescent tablet, and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) immersion solutions were used [...] Read more.

Denture care and maintenance are necessary for both denture longevity and underlying tissue health. However, the effects of disinfectants on the strength of 3D-printed denture base resins are unclear. Herein, distilled water (DW), effervescent tablet, and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) immersion solutions were used to investigate the flexural properties and hardness of two 3D-printed resins (NextDent and FormLabs) compared with a heat-polymerized resin. The flexural strength and elastic modulus were investigated using the three-point bending test and Vickers hardness test before (baseline) immersion and 180 days after immersion. The data were analyzed using ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc test (α = 0.05), and further verified by using electron microscopy and infrared spectroscopy. The flexural strength of all the materials decreased after solution immersion (p < 0.001). The effervescent tablet and NaOCl immersion reduced the flexural strength (p < 0.001), with the lowest values recorded with the NaOCl immersion. The elastic modulus did not significantly differ between the baseline and after the DW immersion (p > 0.05), but significantly decreased after the effervescent tablet and NaOCl immersion (p < 0.001). The hardness significantly decreased after immersion in all the solutions (p < 0.001). The immersion of the heat-polymerized and 3D-printed resins in the DW and disinfectant solutions decreased the flexural properties and hardness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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18 pages, 2027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional-Printed Fabrication of POFs Using Different Filaments and Their Characterization for Sensing Applications

by Robertson Pires-Junior, Leandro Macedo, Anselmo Frizera, Maria José Pontes and Arnaldo Leal-Junior

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030640 - 26 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1254

Abstract

This paper presents the development and sensor applications of 3D-printed polymer optical fibers (POFs) using commercially available filaments. The well-known intensity variation sensor was developed using this fiber for temperature and curvature sensing, where the results indicate a linear response in the curvature [...] Read more.

This paper presents the development and sensor applications of 3D-printed polymer optical fibers (POFs) using commercially available filaments. The well-known intensity variation sensor was developed using this fiber for temperature and curvature sensing, where the results indicate a linear response in the curvature analysis, with a coefficient of determination (R

^{2}

) of 0.97 and sensitivity of 4.407 × 10

^{- 4}

mW/

^{\circ}

, whereas the temperature response was fitted to an R

^{2}

of 0.956 with a sensitivity of 5.718 × 10

^{- 3}

mW/

^{\circ}

C. Then, the POF was used in the development of a modal interferometer by splicing the POF in-between two single-mode fibers (SMFs), which result in a single-mode-multimode-single-mode (SMS) configuration. The such interferometer was tested for temperature and axial strain responses, where the temperature response presented a linear trend R

^{2}

of around 0.98 with a sensitivity of −78.8 pm/

^{\circ}

C. The negative value of the sensitivity is related to the negative thermo-optic coefficient commonly obtained in POFs. Furthermore, the strain response of the SMS interferometer showed a high sensitivity (9.5 pm/

μ ϵ

) with a quadratic behavior in which the R

^{2}

of around 0.99 was obtained. Therefore, the proposed approach is a low-cost, environmentally friendly and straightforward method for the production of highly sensitive optical fiber sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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19 pages, 5916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of 3D Printing Process Parameters on Damping Characteristic of Cantilever Beams Fabricated Using Material Extrusion

by Feiyang He, Haoran Ning and Muhammad Khan

Polymers 2023, 15(2), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020257 - 04 Jan 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2018

Abstract

The present paper aims to investigate the process parameters and damping behaviour of the acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) cantilever beam manufactured using material extrusion (MEX). The research outcome could guide the manufacture of MEX structures to suit specific operating scenarios such as energy [...] Read more.

The present paper aims to investigate the process parameters and damping behaviour of the acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) cantilever beam manufactured using material extrusion (MEX). The research outcome could guide the manufacture of MEX structures to suit specific operating scenarios such as energy absorption and artificially controlled vibration responses. Our research used an experimental approach to examine the interdependencies between process parameters (nozzle size, infill density and pattern) and the damping behaviour (first-order modal damping ratio and loss factor). The impact test was carried out to obtain the damping ratio from the accelerometer. A dynamic mechanical analysis was performed for the loss factor measurement. The paper used statistical analysis to reveal significant dependencies between the process parameters and the damping behaviour. The regression models were also utilised to evaluate the mentioned statistical findings. The multiple third-order polynomials were developed to represent the relation between process parameters and modal damping ratio using stiffness as the mediation variable. The obtained results showed that the infill density affected the damping behaviour significantly. Higher infill density yielded a lower damping ratio. Nozzle size also showed a notable effect on damping. A high damping ratio was observed at a significantly low value of nozzle size. The results were confirmed using the theoretical analysis based on the underlying causes due to porosity in the MEX structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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12 pages, 2370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Polymer Additives in Concrete for 3D Concrete Printing Using Fly Ash

by Leonid Dvorkin, Janusz Konkol, Vitaliy Marchuk and Andriy Huts

Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5467; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245467 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1497

Abstract

The article shows the effectiveness of the use of polymer additives for the production of fine-grained concrete mixtures and concretes based on using coal fly ash, which can be used as working mixtures for a 3D printer. Using mathematical planning of experiments, a [...] Read more.

The article shows the effectiveness of the use of polymer additives for the production of fine-grained concrete mixtures and concretes based on using coal fly ash, which can be used as working mixtures for a 3D printer. Using mathematical planning of experiments, a set of experimental–statistical models was obtained that describes the influence of mixture composition factors including copolymer additive on the most important properties of ash-containing concrete mixtures and concretes for 3D concrete printing in the presence of a hardening accelerator additive. It is shown that when the dry mixture is mixed in water, the redispersed polymer powders are converted into an adhesive polymer dispersion, which, when the solution cures, creates “rubber bridges” in its pores and at the border with the base. They have high tensile strength and elastically reinforce the cement stone; in addition, they are also capable of not only significantly increasing the adhesion between the layers of the extruded mixture, but also significantly smoothing out such shortcomings of the cement stone as increased brittleness, low ultimate elongation, and a tendency to cracking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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19 pages, 8480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Possibilities of FDM Direct Colour Printing and Its Implications on Mechanical Properties and Surface Quality of the Resulting Parts

by Ioan Tamașag, Cornel Suciu, Irina Beșliu-Băncescu, Constantin Dulucheanu and Delia-Aurora Cerlincă

Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5173; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235173 - 28 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1826

Abstract

The present paper aims to contribute to the methodology of 3D printing in-process colouring and study its implications and impact on the tensile strength and surface quality of the obtained parts. The proposed study was based on a Taguchi L27 DOE plan using [...] Read more.

The present paper aims to contribute to the methodology of 3D printing in-process colouring and study its implications and impact on the tensile strength and surface quality of the obtained parts. The proposed study was based on a Taguchi L27 DOE plan using standardised EN ISO 527-2 type 1B-shaped specimens, in which four factors on three levels were considered. The obtained results highlight the possibility of using the presented in-process colouring method. Different materials (PLA, PLA+, and PETG) with varying infill densities (15%, 30%, and 50%), colour distribution (33%, 66%, and 99%), and colour pigments (blue, green, and red) were studied and the results highlighted that the most influential parameter on the tensile strength of the parts was infill density, followed by the tested material, colour pigment, and colouring percentage; regarding surface roughness, the most influential parameter was infill density, followed by colouring percentage, colour pigment, and material. Moreover, the values resulting from the Taguchi DOE were compared to uncoloured parts, from which it could be concluded that the colouring of the parts had direct implications (negative for tensile strength and positive for surface roughness). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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15 pages, 6173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Mixing Order on the Synthesis of Geopolymer Concrete

by Timur Mukhametkaliyev, Md. Hazrat Ali, Viktor Kutugin, Olesya Savinova and Vladimir Vereschagin

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4777; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214777 - 07 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2641

Abstract

Geopolymers are high-performance, cost-effective materials made from industrial waste that ideally fit the needs of 3D printing technology used in construction. The novelty of the present work lies in the investigation of methods to mix geopolymer concrete from fly ash (FA) class F, [...] Read more.

Geopolymers are high-performance, cost-effective materials made from industrial waste that ideally fit the needs of 3D printing technology used in construction. The novelty of the present work lies in the investigation of methods to mix geopolymer concrete from fly ash (FA) class F, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), and raw calcined kaolin clay (RCKC) to determine the mixing procedure which provides the best mechanical strength and structural integrity. The experimental results show that aluminosilicates with different reaction parameters when mixed one after another provide the optimal results while the geopolymer concrete possesses the highest compressive strength and the denser structure. The results demonstrated that the reactivity of GGBS, FA, and RCKC increased for different depolymerization speeds of the selected aluminosilicates. This research will provide results on how to improve the mixing order for geopolymer synthesis for 3D printing demands. The highest compressive strength and denser structure of geopolymer concrete is achieved when each type of aluminosilicate is mixed with an alkaline medium separately. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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19 pages, 6299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Balancing Functionality and Printability: High-Loading Polymer Resins for Direct Ink Writing

by Shelbie A. Legett, Xavier Torres, Andrew M. Schmalzer, Adam Pacheco, John R. Stockdale, Samantha Talley, Tom Robison and Andrea Labouriau

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4661; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214661 - 01 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2355

Abstract

Although direct ink writing (DIW) allows the rapid fabrication of unique 3D printed objects, the resins—or “inks”—available for this technique are in short supply and often offer little functionality, leading to the development of new, custom inks. However, when creating new inks, the [...] Read more.

Although direct ink writing (DIW) allows the rapid fabrication of unique 3D printed objects, the resins—or “inks”—available for this technique are in short supply and often offer little functionality, leading to the development of new, custom inks. However, when creating new inks, the ability of the ink to lead to a successful print, or the “printability,” must be considered. Thus, this work examined the effect of filler composition/concentration, printing parameters, and lattice structure on the printability of new polysiloxane inks incorporating high concentrations (50–70 wt%) of metallic and ceramic fillers as well as emulsions. Results suggest that strut diameter and spacing ratio have the most influence on the printability of DIW materials and that the printability of silica- and metal-filled inks is more predictable than ceramic-filled inks. Additionally, higher filler loadings and SC geometries led to stiffer printed parts than lower loadings and FCT geometries, and metal-filled inks were more thermally stable than ceramic-filled inks. The findings in this work provide important insights into the tradeoffs associated with the development of unique and/or multifunctional DIW inks, printability, and the final material’s performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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13 pages, 2432 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Oxalic Acid as the Pre-Activator for the Electropolishing of Additive Manufactured Titanium-Based Materials and Its Characterization

by Chun-Hao Chen, Chia-Yu Lee, Ming-Der Ger, Shun-Yi Jian, Jung-Chou Hung, Po-Jen Yang, Chun-Hsiang Kao, Yi-Cherng Ferng, Ying-Sun Huang and Kuo-Kuang Jen

Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4198; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194198 - 06 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1864

Abstract

The use of additive manufactured (AM) titanium-based materials has increased substantially for medical implants and aerospace components. However, the inferior surface roughness of additive manufactured products affects the outward appearance and reduces performance. This study determines whether activation treatment prior to electropolishing produces [...] Read more.

The use of additive manufactured (AM) titanium-based materials has increased substantially for medical implants and aerospace components. However, the inferior surface roughness of additive manufactured products affects the outward appearance and reduces performance. This study determines whether activation treatment prior to electropolishing produces a better surface. Oxalic acid (OA) is used as a pre-activator using different experimental conditions and the surface roughness is reduced by electropolishing with an electrolyte of perchloric acid and glacial acetic acid. The SEM surface morphology, mechanical properties, phase transformation and electrochemical properties are measured to determine the effect of different degrees of roughness on the surface. The results show that the surface roughness of AM titanium-based samples decreases from 8.47 µm to 1.09 µm after activation using OA as a pre-treatment for electropolishing. After electropolishing using optimal parameters, the hardness and resistance to corrosion resistance are increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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25 pages, 10053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Testing of Multi-Hierarchical Porous Scaffolds Designed for Bone Regeneration via Additive Manufacturing Processes

by Carmen M. González-Henríquez, Fernando E. Rodríguez-Umanzor, Nicolas F. Acuña-Ruiz, Gloria E. Vera-Rojas, Claudio Terraza-Inostroza, Nicolas A. Cohn-Inostroza, Andrés Utrera, Mauricio A. Sarabia-Vallejos and Juan Rodríguez-Hernández

Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4041; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194041 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2237

Abstract

Bone implants or replacements are very scarce due to the low donor availability and the high rate of body rejection. For this reason, tissue engineering strategies have been developed as alternative solutions to this problem. This research sought to create a cellular scaffold [...] Read more.

Bone implants or replacements are very scarce due to the low donor availability and the high rate of body rejection. For this reason, tissue engineering strategies have been developed as alternative solutions to this problem. This research sought to create a cellular scaffold with an intricate and complex network of interconnected pores and microchannels using salt leaching and additive manufacturing (3D printing) methods that mimic the hierarchical internal structure of the bone. A biocompatible hydrogel film (based on poly-ethylene glycol) was used to cover the surface of different polymeric scaffolds. This thin film was then exposed to various stimuli to spontaneously form wrinkled micropatterns, with the aim of increasing the contact area and the material’s biocompatibility. The main innovation of this study was to include these wrinkled micropatterns on the surface of the scaffold by taking advantage of thin polymer film surface instabilities. On the other hand, salt and nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) particles were included in the polymeric matrix to create a modified filament for 3D printing. The printed part was leached to eliminate porogen particles, leaving homogenously distributed pores on the structure. The pores have a mean size of 26.4 ± 9.9 μm, resulting in a global scaffold porosity of ~42% (including pores and microchannels). The presence of nHA particles, which display a homogeneous distribution according to the FE-SEM and EDX results, have a slight influence on the mechanical resistance of the material, but incredibly, despite being a bioactive compound for bone cells, did not show a significant increase in cell viability on the scaffold surface. However, the synergistic effect between the presence of the hydrogel and the pores on the material does produce an increase in cell viability compared to the control sample and the bare PCL material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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18 pages, 14311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Polymer Composites Manufacturing through 3D Printing Technologies by Using Recycled Polymer and Filler

by Daniela Fico, Daniela Rizzo, Valentina De Carolis, Francesco Montagna and Carola Esposito Corcione

Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3756; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183756 - 08 Sep 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3521

Abstract

In the last years, the excessive use of plastic and other synthetic materials, that are generally difficult to dispose of, has caused growing ecological worries. These are contributing to redirecting the world’s attention to sustainable materials and a circular economy (CE) approach using [...] Read more.

In the last years, the excessive use of plastic and other synthetic materials, that are generally difficult to dispose of, has caused growing ecological worries. These are contributing to redirecting the world’s attention to sustainable materials and a circular economy (CE) approach using recycling routes. In this work, bio-filaments for the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) 3D printing technique were produced from recycled polylactic acid (PLA) and artisanal ceramic waste by an extrusion process and fully characterized from a physical, thermal, and mechanical point of view. The data showed different morphological, thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties of the two produced filaments. Furthermore, the 3D objects produced from the 100% recycled PLA filament showed lower mechanical performance. However, the results have demonstrated that all the produced filaments can be used in a low-cost FFF commercial printer that has been modified with simple hand-made operations in order to produce 3D-printed models. The main objective of this work is to propose an example of easy and low-cost application of 3D printing that involves operations such as the reprocessing and the recyclability of materials, that are also not perfectly mechanically performing but can still provide environmental and economic benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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Review

Jump to: Research

27 pages, 6796 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fused Deposition Modelling of Polymer Composite: A Progress

by J Mogan, W. S. W. Harun, K. Kadirgama, D. Ramasamy, F. M. Foudzi, A. B. Sulong, F. Tarlochan and F. Ahmad

Polymers 2023, 15(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15010028 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5606

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) highlights developing complex and efficient parts for various uses. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the most frequent fabrication procedure used to make polymer products. Although it is widely used, due to its low characteristics, such as weak mechanical properties and [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) highlights developing complex and efficient parts for various uses. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is the most frequent fabrication procedure used to make polymer products. Although it is widely used, due to its low characteristics, such as weak mechanical properties and poor surface, the types of polymer material that may be produced are limited, affecting the structural applications of FDM. Therefore, the FDM process utilises the polymer composition to produce a better physical product. The review’s objective is to systematically document all critical information on FDMed-polymer composite processing, specifically for part fabrication. The review covers the published works on the FDMed-polymer composite from 2011 to 2021 based on our systematic literature review of more than 150 high-impact related research articles. The base and filler material used, and the process parameters including layer height, nozzle temperature, bed temperature, and screw type are also discussed in this review. FDM is utilised in various biomedical, automotive, and other manufacturing industries. This study is expected to be one of the essential pit-stops for future related works in the FDMed-polymeric composite study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in 3D Printing)

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