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14 pages, 6189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PLA-Based Hybrid Biocomposites: Effects of Fiber Type, Fiber Content, and Annealing on Thermal and Mechanical Properties

by Supitcha Yaisun and Tatiya Trongsatitkul

Polymers 2023, 15(20), 4106; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15204106 - 16 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1562

Abstract

In this study, we utilized a hybridization approach for two different fibers to overcome the drawbacks of single-fiber-reinforced PLA composites. Coir fiber and bamboo leaf fiber were used as reinforcing natural fibers as their properties complement one another. Additionally, we combined thermal annealing [...] Read more.

In this study, we utilized a hybridization approach for two different fibers to overcome the drawbacks of single-fiber-reinforced PLA composites. Coir fiber and bamboo leaf fiber were used as reinforcing natural fibers as their properties complement one another. Additionally, we combined thermal annealing with hybridization techniques to further improve the overall properties of the composites. The results showed that the hybridization of BF: CF with a ratio of 1:2 gave PLA-based hybrid composites optimal mechanical and thermal properties. Furthermore, the improvement in the thermal stability of hybrid composites, attributable to an increase in crystallinity, was a result of thermal annealing. The improvement in HDT in annealed 1BF:2CF hybrid composite was about 13.76% higher than that of the neat PLA. Annealing of the composites led to increased crystallinity, which was confirmed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The synergistic effect of hybridization and annealing, leading to the improvement in the thermal properties, opened up the possibilities for the use of PLA-based composites. In this study, we demonstrated that a combined technique can be utilized as a strategy for improving the properties of 100% biocomposites and help overcome some limitations of the use of PLA in many applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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13 pages, 2714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Recyclability of an Epoxy Resin through the Addition of New Biobased Vitrimer

by Antonio Veloso-Fernández, Leire Ruiz-Rubio, Imanol Yugueros, M. Isabel Moreno-Benítez, José Manuel Laza and José Luis Vilas-Vilela

Polymers 2023, 15(18), 3737; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15183737 - 12 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1175

Abstract

In recent decades, the use of thermoset epoxy resins (ER) has spread to countless applications due to their mechanical properties, heat resistance and stability. However, these ERs are neither biodegradable nor recyclable due to their permanent crosslinked networks and usually, they are synthesized [...] Read more.

In recent decades, the use of thermoset epoxy resins (ER) has spread to countless applications due to their mechanical properties, heat resistance and stability. However, these ERs are neither biodegradable nor recyclable due to their permanent crosslinked networks and usually, they are synthesized from fossil and toxic precursors. Therefore, reducing its consumption is of vital importance to the environment. On the one hand, the solution to the recyclability problems of epoxy resins can be achieved through the use of vitrimers, which have thermoset properties and can be recycled as thermoplastic materials. On the other hand, vitrimers can be made from natural sources, reducing their toxicity. In this work, a sustainable epoxy vitrimer has been efficiently synthesized, VESOV, by curing epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) with a new vanillin-derived Schiff base (VSB) dynamic hardener, aliphatic diamine (1,4-butanediamine, BDA) and using 1,2-dimethylimidazole (DMI) as an accelerator. Likewise, using the same synthesized VSB agent, a commercial epoxy resin has also been cured and characterized as ESO. Finally, different percentages (30, 50 and 70 wt%) of the same ER have been included in the formulation of VESOV, demonstrating that only including 30 wt% of ER in the formulation is able to improve the thermo-mechanical properties, maintaining the VESOV’s inherent reprocessability or recyclability. In short, this is the first approach to achieve a new material that can be postulated in the future as a replacement for current commercial epoxy resins, although it still requires a minimum percentage of RE in the formulation, it makes it possible to recycle the material while maintaining good mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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15 pages, 5172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study of Flax and Pineapple Leaf Fiber Reinforced Poly(butylene succinate): Effect of Fiber Content on Mechanical Properties

by Taweechai Amornsakchai, Sorn Duangsuwan, Karine Mougin and Kheng Lim Goh

Polymers 2023, 15(18), 3691; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15183691 - 07 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1411

Abstract

In this study, we compare the reinforcing efficiency of pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) and cultivated flax fiber in unidirectional poly(butylene succinate) composites. Flax, known for robust mechanical properties, is contrasted with PALF, a less studied but potentially sustainable alternative. Short fibers (6 mm) [...] Read more.

In this study, we compare the reinforcing efficiency of pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) and cultivated flax fiber in unidirectional poly(butylene succinate) composites. Flax, known for robust mechanical properties, is contrasted with PALF, a less studied but potentially sustainable alternative. Short fibers (6 mm) were incorporated at 10 and 20% wt. levels. After two-roll mill mixing, uniaxially aligned prepreg sheets were compression molded into composites. At 10 wt.%, PALF and flax exhibited virtually the same stress–strain curve. Interestingly, PALF excelled at 20 wt.%, defying its inherently lower tensile properties compared to flax. PALF/PBS reached 70.7 MPa flexural strength, 2.0 GPa flexural modulus, and 107.3 °C heat distortion temperature. Comparable values for flax/PBS were 57.8 MPa, 1.7 GPa, and 103.7 °C. X-ray pole figures indicated similar matrix orientations in both composites. An analysis of extracted fibers revealed differences in breakage behavior. This study highlights the potential of PALF as a sustainable reinforcement option. Encouraging the use of PALF in high-performance bio-composites aligns with environmental goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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17 pages, 4468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Mechanical, Thermal, and Crystalline Properties of Raw and Potassium Hydroxide Treated Butea Parviflora Fibers for Green Polymer Composites

by Abisha Mohan, Retnam Krishna Priya, Krishna Prakash Arunachalam, Siva Avudaiappan, Nelson Maureira-Carsalade and Angel Roco-Videla

Polymers 2023, 15(17), 3522; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173522 - 24 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1156

Abstract

The only biotic factor that can satisfy the needs of human species are plants. In order to minimize plastic usage and spread an immediate require of environmental awareness, the globe urges for the development of green composite materials. Natural fibers show good renewability [...] Read more.

The only biotic factor that can satisfy the needs of human species are plants. In order to minimize plastic usage and spread an immediate require of environmental awareness, the globe urges for the development of green composite materials. Natural fibers show good renewability and sustainability and are hence utilized as reinforcements in polymer matrix composites. The present work concerns on the usage of Butea parviflora fiber (BP), a green material, for high end applications. The study throws light upon the characterization of raw and potassium hydroxide (KOH)–treated Butea Parviflora plant, where its physical, structural, morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties are analyzed using the powder XRD, FTIR spectroscopy, FESEM micrographs, tensile testing, Tg-DTA, Thermal conductivity, Chemical composition, and CHNS analysis. The density values of untreated and KOH-treated fibers are 1.238 g/cc and 1.340 g/cc, respectively. The crystallinity index of the treated fiber has significantly increased from 83.63% to 86.03%. The cellulose content of the treated fiber also experienced a substantial increase from 58.50% to 60.72%. Treated fibers exhibited a reduction in both hemicelluloses and wax content. Spectroscopic studies registered varying vibrations of functional groups residing on the fibers. SEM images distinguished specific changes on the raw and treated fiber surfaces. The Availability of elements Carbon, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen were analyzed using the CHNS studies. The tensile strength and modulus of treated fibers has risen to 192.97 MPa and 3.46 Gpa, respectively. Thermal conductivity (K) using Lee’s disc showed a decrement in the K values of alkalized BP. The activation energy E_a lies between 55.95 and 73.15 kJ/mol. The fibers can withstand a good temperature of up to 240 °C, presenting that it can be tuned in for making sustainable composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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36 pages, 7391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication, Characterization, and Microbial Biodegradation of Transparent Nanodehydrated Bioplastic (NDB) Membranes Using Novel Casting, Dehydration, and Peeling Techniques

by Sherif S. Hindi and Mona Othman I. Albureikan

Polymers 2023, 15(15), 3303; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153303 - 04 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1500

Abstract

NDBs were fabricated from gum Arabic (GA) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in different ratios using novel techniques (casting, dehydration, and peeling). The GA/PVA blends were cast with a novel vibration-free horizontal flow (VFHF) technique, producing membranes free of air bubble defects with a [...] Read more.

NDBs were fabricated from gum Arabic (GA) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in different ratios using novel techniques (casting, dehydration, and peeling). The GA/PVA blends were cast with a novel vibration-free horizontal flow (VFHF) technique, producing membranes free of air bubble defects with a homogenous texture, smooth surface, and constant thickness. The casting process was achieved on a self-electrostatic template (SET) made of poly-(methyl methacrylate), which made peeling the final product membranes easy due to its non-stick behavior. After settling the casting of the membranous, while blind, the sheets were dried using nanometric dehydration under a mild vacuum stream using a novel stratified nano-dehydrator (SND) loaded with P₂O₅. After drying the NDB, the dry, smooth membranes were peeled easily without scratching defects. The physicochemical properties of the NDBs were investigated using FTIR, XRD, TGA, DTA, and AFM to ensure that the novel techniques did not distort the product quality. The NDBs retained their virgin characteristics, namely, their chemical functional groups (FTIR results), crystallinity index (XRD data), thermal stability (TGA and DTA), and ultrastructural features (surface roughness and permeability), as well as their microbial biodegradation ability. Adding PVA enhanced the membrane’s properties except for mass loss, whereby increasing the GA allocation in the NDB blend reduces its mass loss at elevated temperatures. The produced bioplastic membranes showed suitable mechanical properties for food packaging applications and in the pharmaceutical industry for the controlled release of drugs. In comparison to control samples, the separated bacteria and fungi destroyed the bioplastic membranes. Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. were the two main strains of isolated bacteria, and Rhizobus spp. was the main fungus. The nano-dehydration method gave the best solution for the prompt drying of water-based biopolymers free of manufacturing defects, with simple and easily acquired machinery required for the casting and peeling tasks, in addition to its wonderful biodegradation behavior when buried in wet soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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15 pages, 4814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clinical Development and Evaluation of a Multi-Component Dissolving Microneedle Patch for Skin Pigmentation Disorders

by Chenxin Yan, Mengzhen Xing, Suohui Zhang and Yunhua Gao

Polymers 2023, 15(15), 3296; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153296 - 04 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1283

Abstract

Excessive melanin deposition in the skin leads to various skin pigmentation diseases, such as chloasma and age spots. The deposition is induced by several factors, including tyrosinase activities and ultraviolet-induced oxidative stress. Herein, we propose a multi-component, multi-pathway drug combination, with glabridin, 3-O-ethyl-L-ascorbic [...] Read more.

Excessive melanin deposition in the skin leads to various skin pigmentation diseases, such as chloasma and age spots. The deposition is induced by several factors, including tyrosinase activities and ultraviolet-induced oxidative stress. Herein, we propose a multi-component, multi-pathway drug combination, with glabridin, 3-O-ethyl-L-ascorbic acid, and tranexamic acid employed as, respectively, a tyrosinase inhibitor, an antioxidant, and a melanin transmission inhibitor. Considering the poor skin permeability associated with topical application, dissolving microneedles (MNs) prepared with hyaluronic acid/poly(vinyl alcohol)/poly(vinylpyrrolidone) were developed to load the drug combination. The drug-loaded microneedles (DMNs) presented outstanding skin insertion, dissolution, and drug delivery properties. In vitro experiments confirmed that DMNs loaded with active ingredients had significant antioxidant and inhibitory effects on tyrosinase activity. Furthermore, the production of melanin both in melanoma cells (B16-F10) and in zebrafish was directly reduced after using DMNs. Clinical studies demonstrated the DMNs’ safety and showed that they have the ability to effectively reduce chloasma and age spots. This study indicated that a complex DMN based on a multifunctional combination is a valuable depigmentation product worthy of clinical application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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16 pages, 1557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Dual-Modification by Heat-Moisture Treatment and Octenylsuccinylation on Physicochemical and Pasting Properties of Arrowroot Starch

by Herlina Marta, Ari Rismawati, Giffary Pramafisi Soeherman, Yana Cahyana, Mohamad Djali, Tri Yuliana and Dewi Sondari

Polymers 2023, 15(15), 3215; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153215 - 28 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 999

Abstract

Starch is widely applied in various industrial sectors, including the food industry. Starch is used as a thickener, stabilizer, or emulsifier. However, arrowroot starch generally has weaknesses, such as unstable under heating and acidic conditions, which are generally applied to processing in the [...] Read more.

Starch is widely applied in various industrial sectors, including the food industry. Starch is used as a thickener, stabilizer, or emulsifier. However, arrowroot starch generally has weaknesses, such as unstable under heating and acidic conditions, which are generally applied to processing in the food industry. Modifications were applied to improve the characteristics of native arrowroot starch. In this study, arrowroot starch was modified by heat-moisture treatment (HMT), octenylsuccinylation (OSA), and dual modification between OSA and HMT in a different sequence––namely, HMT followed by OSA, and OSA followed by HMT. This study aims to determine the effect of different modification methods on the physicochemical and functional properties of native arrowroot starch. The result shows that both single HMT and dual modification caused damage to native starch granules, such as the formation of cracks and roughness. For single OSA treatment, especially, there is no significant change in granule morphology after modification. All modification treatments did not change the crystalline type of starch but reduced the RC of native starch. Both single HMT and dual modifications (HMT-OSA, OSA-HMT) increased pasting temperature and setback, but, conversely, decreased the peak and the breakdown viscosity of native starch, whereas single OSA had the opposite trend compared with the other modifications. HMT played a greater role in increasing the thermal stability and the retrogradation ability of arrowroot starch. Both single modifications (HMT and OSA) increased the hardness and gumminess of native starch, and the opposite was true for the dual modifications. HMT had a greater effect on color characteristics, where the lightness and whiteness index of native arrowroot starch decreased. Single OSA modification increased swelling volume higher than dual modification. Both single HMT and dual modifications increased water absorption capacity and decreased the oil absorption capacity of native arrowroot starch. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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16 pages, 5405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Spent Coffee Grounds on the Crystallinity and Viscoelastic Behavior of Polylactic Acid Composites

by Anne Shayene Campos de Bomfim, Daniel Magalhães de Oliveira, Kelly Cristina Coelho de Carvalho Benini, Maria Odila Hilário Cioffi, Herman Jacobus Cornelis Voorwald and Denis Rodrigue

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2719; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122719 - 17 Jun 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1737

Abstract

This work investigated the addition of spent coffee grounds (SCG) as a valuable resource to produce biocomposites based on polylactic acid (PLA). PLA has a positive biodegradation effect but generates poor proprieties, depending on its molecular structure. The PLA and SCG (0, 10, [...] Read more.

This work investigated the addition of spent coffee grounds (SCG) as a valuable resource to produce biocomposites based on polylactic acid (PLA). PLA has a positive biodegradation effect but generates poor proprieties, depending on its molecular structure. The PLA and SCG (0, 10, 20 and 30 wt.%) were mixed via twin-screw extrusion and molded by compression to determine the effect of composition on several properties, including mechanical (impact strength), physical (density and porosity), thermal (crystallinity and transition temperature) and rheological (melt and solid state). The PLA crystallinity was found to increase after processing and filler addition (34–70% in the 1st heating) due to a heterogeneous nucleation effect, leading to composites with lower glass transition temperature (1–3 °C) and higher stiffness (~15%). Moreover, the composites had lower density (1.29, 1.24 and 1.16 g/cm³) and toughness (30.2, 26.8 and 19.2 J/m) as the filler content increased, which is associated with the presence of rigid particles and residual extractives from SCG. In the melt state, polymeric chain mobility was enhanced, and composites with a higher filler content became less viscous. Overall, the composite with 20 wt.% SCG provided the most balanced properties being similar to or better than neat PLA but at a lower cost. This composite could be applied not only to replace conventional PLA products, such as packaging and 3D printing, but also to other applications requiring lower density and higher stiffness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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17 pages, 5459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial and Antifungal Fabrication of Natural Lining Leather Using Bio-Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles from Piper Betle L. Leaf Extract

by Ngoc-Thang Nguyen, Tien-Hieu Vu and Van-Huan Bui

Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2634; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122634 - 09 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1870

Abstract

Leather is often used to make comfortable shoes due to its soft and breathable nature. However, its innate ability to retain moisture, oxygen and nutrients renders it a suitable medium for the adsorption, growth, and survival of potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Consequently, the intimate [...] Read more.

Leather is often used to make comfortable shoes due to its soft and breathable nature. However, its innate ability to retain moisture, oxygen and nutrients renders it a suitable medium for the adsorption, growth, and survival of potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Consequently, the intimate contact between the foot skin and the leather lining surface in shoes, which are subject to prolonged periods of sweating, may result in the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms and cause discomfort for the wearer. To address such issues, we modified pig leather with silver nanoparticles (AgPBL) that were bio-synthesized from Piper betle L. leaf extract as an antimicrobial agent via the padding method. The evidence of AgPBL embedded into the leather matrix, leather surface morphology and element profile of AgPBL-modified leather samples (pLeAg) was investigated using colorimetry, SEM, EDX, AAS and FTIR analyses. The colorimetric data confirmed that the pLeAg samples changed to a more brown color with higher wet pickup and AgPBL concentration, owing to the higher quantity of AgPBL uptake onto the leather surfaces. The antibacterial and antifungal activities of the pLeAg samples were both qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated using AATCC TM90, AATCC TM30 and ISO 16187:2013 test methods, approving a good synergistic antimicrobial efficiency of the modified leather against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, a yeast Candida albicans and a mold Aspergillus niger. Additionally, the antimicrobial treatments of pig leather did not negatively impact its physico-mechanical properties, including tear strength, abrasion resistance, flex resistance, water vapour permeability and absorption, water absorption and desorption. These findings affirmed that the AgPBL-modified leather met all the requirements of upper lining according to the standard ISO 20882:2007 for making hygienic shoes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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17 pages, 6475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toward a Circular Bioeconomy: Development of Pineapple Stem Starch Composite as a Plastic-Sheet Substitute for Single-Use Applications

by Chanaporn Thongphang, Atitiya Namphonsane, Sombat Thanawan, Chin Hua Chia, Rungtiwa Wongsagonsup, Siwaporn Meejoo Smith and Taweechai Amornsakchai

Polymers 2023, 15(10), 2388; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15102388 - 19 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3241

Abstract

Plastic waste poses a significant challenge for the environment, particularly smaller plastic products that are often difficult to recycle or collect. In this study, we developed a fully biodegradable composite material from pineapple field waste that is suitable for small-sized plastic products that [...] Read more.

Plastic waste poses a significant challenge for the environment, particularly smaller plastic products that are often difficult to recycle or collect. In this study, we developed a fully biodegradable composite material from pineapple field waste that is suitable for small-sized plastic products that are difficult to recycle, such as bread clips. We utilized starch from waste pineapple stems, which is high in amylose content, as the matrix, and added glycerol and calcium carbonate as the plasticizer and filler, respectively, to improve the material’s moldability and hardness. We varied the amounts of glycerol (20–50% by weight) and calcium carbonate (0–30 wt.%) to produce composite samples with a wide range of mechanical properties. The tensile moduli were in the range of 45–1100 MPa, with tensile strengths of 2–17 MPa and an elongation at break of 10–50%. The resulting materials exhibited good water resistance and had lower water absorption (~30–60%) than other types of starch-based materials. Soil burial tests showed that the material completely disintegrated into particles smaller than 1 mm within 14 days. We also created a bread clip prototype to test the material’s ability to hold a filled bag tightly. The obtained results demonstrate the potential of using pineapple stem starch as a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based and biobased synthetic materials in small-sized plastic products while promoting a circular bioeconomy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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18 pages, 6142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biopolymer Based Multifunctional Films Loaded with Anthocyanin Rich Floral Extract and ZnO Nano Particles for Smart Packaging and Wound Healing Applications

by Jijo Thomas Koshy, Devipriya Vasudevan, Dhanaraj Sangeetha and Arun Anand Prabu

Polymers 2023, 15(10), 2372; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15102372 - 19 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1414

Abstract

There are significant societal repercussions from our excessive use of plastic products derived from petroleum. In response to the increasing environmental implications of plastic wastes, biodegradable materials have been proven to be an effective means of mitigating environmental issues. Therefore, protein- and polysaccharide-based [...] Read more.

There are significant societal repercussions from our excessive use of plastic products derived from petroleum. In response to the increasing environmental implications of plastic wastes, biodegradable materials have been proven to be an effective means of mitigating environmental issues. Therefore, protein- and polysaccharide-based polymers have gained widespread attention recently. In our study, for increasing the strength of a biopolymer (Starch), we used ZnO dispersed nanoparticles (NPs), which resulted in the enhancement of other functional properties of the polymer. The synthesized NPs were characterized using SEM, XRD, and Zeta potential values. The preparation techniques are completely green, with no hazardous chemicals employed. The floral extract employed in this study is Torenia fournieri (TFE), which is prepared using a mixture of ethanol and water and possesses diverse bioactive features and pH-sensitive characteristics. The prepared films were characterized using SEM, XRD, FTIR, contact angle and TGA. The incorporation of TFE and ZnO (SEZ) NPs was found to increase the overall nature of the control film. The results obtained from this study confirmed that the developed material is suitable for wound healing and can also be used as a smart packaging material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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20 pages, 7172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Part B: Improvement of the Optical Properties of Cellulose Nanocrystals Reinforced Thermoplastic Starch Bio-Composite Films by Ex Situ Incorporation of Green Silver Nanoparticles from Chaetomorpha linum

by Nour Houda M’sakni and Taghreed Alsufyani

Polymers 2023, 15(9), 2148; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15092148 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1675

Abstract

The study was used in the context of realigning novel low-cost materials for their better and improved optical properties. Emphasis was placed on the bio-nanocomposite approach for producing cellulose/starch/silver nanoparticle films. These polymeric films were produced using the solution casting technique followed by [...] Read more.

The study was used in the context of realigning novel low-cost materials for their better and improved optical properties. Emphasis was placed on the bio-nanocomposite approach for producing cellulose/starch/silver nanoparticle films. These polymeric films were produced using the solution casting technique followed by the thermal evaporation process. The structural model of the bio-composite films (CS:CL-CNC7:3–50%) was developed from our previous study. Subsequently, in order to improve the optical properties of bio-composite films, bio-nanocomposites were prepared by incorporating silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) ex situ at various concentrations (5–50% w/w). Characterization was conducted using UV-Visible (UV-Vis), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) to understand the structure–property relationships. The FTIR analysis indicated a reduction in the number of waves associated with the OH functional groups by adding AgNPs due to the formation of new hydrogen bonds between the bio-composite matrix and the CL-WE-AgNPs. Based on mathematical equations, the optical bandgap energy, the energy of Urbach, the edge of absorption (Ed), and the carbon clusters (N) were estimated for CS:CL-CNC and CS:CL-CNC-AgNPs (5–50%) nanocomposite films. Furthermore, the optical bandgap values were shifted to the lower photon energy from 3.12 to 2.58 eV by increasing the AgNPs content, which indicates the semi-conductor effect on the composite system. The decrease in Urbach’s energy is the result of a decrease in the disorder of the biopolymer matrix and/or attributed to an increase in crystalline size. In addition, the cluster carbon number increased from 121.56 to 177.75, respectively, from bio-composite to bio-nanocomposite with 50% AgNPs. This is due to the presence of a strong H-binding interaction between the bio-composite matrix and the AgNPs molecules. The results revealed that the incorporation of 20% AgNPs into the CS:CL-CNC7:3–50% bio-composite film could be the best candidate composition for all optical properties. It can be used for potential applications in the area of food packaging as well as successfully on opto-electronic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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12 pages, 4499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Durability, Strength, and Erosion Resistance Assessment of Lignin Biopolymer Treated Soil

by Pouyan Bagheri, Ivan Gratchev, Suwon Son and Maksym Rybachuk

Polymers 2023, 15(6), 1556; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061556 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1520

Abstract

To mitigate the negative environmental effects of the overuse of conventional materials—such as cement—in soil improvement, sustainable engineering techniques need to be applied. The use of biopolymers as an alternative, environmentally friendly solution has received a great deal of attention recently. The application [...] Read more.

To mitigate the negative environmental effects of the overuse of conventional materials—such as cement—in soil improvement, sustainable engineering techniques need to be applied. The use of biopolymers as an alternative, environmentally friendly solution has received a great deal of attention recently. The application of lignin, a sustainable and ecofriendly biobased adhesive, to enhance soil mechanical properties has been investigated. The changes to engineering properties of lignin-infused soil relative to a lignin addition to soil at 0.5, 1, and 3.0 wt.% (including Atterberg limits, unconfined compression strength, consolidated undrained triaxial characteristics, and mechanical properties under wetting and drying cycles that mimic atmospheric conditions) have been studied. Our findings reveal that the soil’s physical and strength characteristics, including unconfined compressive strength and soil cohesion, were improved by adding lignin through the aggregated soil particle process. While the internal friction angle of the soil was slightly decreased, the lignin additive significantly increased soil cohesion; the addition of 3% lignin to the soil doubled the soil’s compressive strength and cohesion. Lignin-treated samples experienced less strength loss during wetting and drying cycles. After six repeated wetting and drying cycles, the strength of the 3% lignin-treated sample was twice that of the untreated sample. Soil treated with 3% lignin displayed the highest erosion resistance and minimal soil mass loss of ca. 10% under emulated atmospheric conditions. This study offers useful insights into the utilization of lignin biopolymer in practical engineering applications, such as road stabilization, slope reinforcement, and erosion prevention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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16 pages, 3764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biochemical and Microstructural Characteristics of Collagen Biopolymer from Unicornfish (Naso reticulatus Randall, 2001) Bone Prepared with Various Acid Types

by Nurul Syazwanie Fatiroi, Abdul Aziz Jaziri, Rossita Shapawi, Ruzaidi Azli Mohd Mokhtar, Wan Norhana Md. Noordin and Nurul Huda

Polymers 2023, 15(4), 1054; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15041054 - 20 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1219

Abstract

Biopolymer-like collagen has great industrial potential in terms of its excellent properties, such as strong biocompatibility, high degradability, and low antigenicity. Collagen derived from fish by-products is preferable as it is safer (free from transmittable diseases) and acceptable to most religious beliefs. This [...] Read more.

Biopolymer-like collagen has great industrial potential in terms of its excellent properties, such as strong biocompatibility, high degradability, and low antigenicity. Collagen derived from fish by-products is preferable as it is safer (free from transmittable diseases) and acceptable to most religious beliefs. This study aimed to characterize the unicornfish (Naso reticulatus Randall, 2001) bone collagens prepared with different type of acids, i.e., acetic acid, lactic acid, and citric acid. A higher yield (Y) (p < 0.05) was obtained in the citric-acid-soluble collagen (CASC) (Y = 1.36%), followed by the lactic-acid-soluble collagen (LASC) (Y = 1.08%) and acetic-acid-soluble collagen (AASC) (Y = 0.40%). All extracted collagens were classified as type I due to the presence of 2-alpha chains (α1 and α2). Their prominent absorption spectra were located at the wavelengths of 229.83 nm to 231.17 nm. This is similar to wavelengths reported for other fish collagens. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) and infrared (IR) data demonstrated that the triple-helical structure of type I collagens was still preserved after the acid-extraction process. In terms of thermal stability, all samples had similar maximum transition temperatures (T_max = 33.34–33.51 °C). A higher relative solubility (RS) of the unicornfish bone collagens was observed at low salt concentration (0–10 g/L) (RS > 80%) and at acidic condition (pH 1.0 to pH 3.0) (RS > 75%). The extracted collagen samples had an irregular and dense flake structure with random coiled filaments. Overall, bones of unicornfish may be used as a substitute source of collagen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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14 pages, 3519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Rubber Reinforced with Bio-Hydroxyapatite from Fish Scale

by Namthip Bureewong, Preeyaporn Injorhor, Saifa Krasaekun, Pawida Munchan, Oatsaraphan Waengdongbang, Jatuporn Wittayakun, Chaiwat Ruksakulpiwat and Yupaporn Ruksakulpiwat

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 729; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030729 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1502

Abstract

This work aims to enhance the mechanical properties, oil resistance, and thermal properties of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) by using the Nile tilapia fish scales as a filler and using bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide (TESPT) as a coupling agent (CA). The prepared fish scale particles (FSp) [...] Read more.

This work aims to enhance the mechanical properties, oil resistance, and thermal properties of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) by using the Nile tilapia fish scales as a filler and using bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide (TESPT) as a coupling agent (CA). The prepared fish scale particles (FSp) are B-type hydroxyapatite and the particle shape is rod-like. The filled NBR with FSp at 10 phr increased tensile strength up to 180% (4.56 ± 0.48 MPa), reduced oil absorption up to 155%, and increased the decomposition temperature up to 4 °C, relative to the unfilled NBR. The addition of CA into filled NBR with FSp at 10 phr increased tensile strength up to 123% (5.62 ± 0.42 MPa) and percentage of elongation at break up to 122% relative to the filled NBR with FSp at 10 phr. This work demonstrated that the prepared FSp from the Nile tilapia fish scales can be used as a reinforcement filler to enhance the NBR properties for use in many high-performance applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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15 pages, 5247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Cellulose Nanofiber Loading and Processing Conditions during Melt Extrusion of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) Bionanocomposites

by Siti Shazra Shazleen, Fatimah Athiyah Sabaruddin, Yoshito Ando and Hidayah Ariffin

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030671 - 28 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1213

Abstract

This present study optimized the cellulose nanofiber (CNF) loading and melt processing conditions of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) P(HB-co-11% HHx) bionanocomposite fabrication in twin screw extruder by using the response surface methodology (RSM). A face-centered central composite design (CCD) was applied to [...] Read more.

This present study optimized the cellulose nanofiber (CNF) loading and melt processing conditions of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) P(HB-co-11% HHx) bionanocomposite fabrication in twin screw extruder by using the response surface methodology (RSM). A face-centered central composite design (CCD) was applied to statistically specify the important parameters, namely CNF loading (1–9 wt.%), rotational speed (20–60 rpm), and temperature (135–175 °C), on the mechanical properties of the P(HB-co-11% HHx) bionanocomposites. The developed model reveals that CNF loading and temperature were the dominating parameters that enhanced the mechanical properties of the P(HB-co-11% HHx)/CNF bionanocomposites. The optimal CNF loading, rotational speed, and temperature for P(HB-co-11% HHx) bionanocomposite fabrication were 1.5 wt.%, 20 rpm, and 160 °C, respectively. The predicted tensile strength, flexural strength, and flexural modulus for these optimum conditions were 22.96 MPa, 33.91 MPa, and 1.02 GPa, respectively, with maximum desirability of 0.929. P(HB-co-11% HHx)/CNF bionanocomposites exhibited improved tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus by 17, 6, and 20%, respectively, as compared to the neat P(HB-co-11% HHx). While the crystallinity of P(HB-co-11% HHx)/CNF bionanocomposites increased by 17% under the optimal fabrication conditions, the thermal stability of the P(HB-co-11% HHx)/CNF bionanocomposites was not significantly different from neat P(HB-co-11% HHx). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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12 pages, 5102 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Marginal Micro-Seal and Tensile Bond Strength of a Biopolymer Hybrid Layer Coupled with Dental Prosthesis Using a Primerless-Wet System

by Morakot Piemjai, Onusa Waleepitackdej and Franklin Garcia-Godoy

Polymers 2023, 15(2), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020283 - 05 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1226

Abstract

The aim of this study is to compare the marginal seal and tensile bond strength (TBS) of prostheses fixed to enamel-dentin using different adhesive systems. Resin-composite inlays directly fabricated from Class V cavities of extracted human molars/premolars and mini-dumbbell-shaped specimens of bonded enamel-dentin [...] Read more.

The aim of this study is to compare the marginal seal and tensile bond strength (TBS) of prostheses fixed to enamel-dentin using different adhesive systems. Resin-composite inlays directly fabricated from Class V cavities of extracted human molars/premolars and mini-dumbbell-shaped specimens of bonded enamel-dentin were prepared for microleakage and tensile tests, respectively. Four adhesive systems were used: primerless-wet (1-1 etching for 10-, 30-, or 60-s, and 4-META/MMA-TBB), primer-moist (All-Bond2 + Duolink or Single-Bond2 + RelyX ARC), self-etch (AQ-Bond + Metafil FLO), and dry (Super-Bond C&B) bonding. Dye penetration distance and TBS data were recorded. Failure modes and characteristics of the tooth-resin interface were examined on the fractured specimens. All specimens in 10-, 30-, and 60-s etching primerless-wet, Super-Bond, and AQ-Bond had a microleakage-free tooth-resin interface. Primer-moist groups showed microleakage at the cementum/dentin-resin margin/interface. Significantly higher TBSs (p < 0.05) were recorded in primer-less-wet and Super-Bond groups with the consistent hybridized biopolymer layer after the chemical challenge and mixed failure in tooth structure, luting-resin, and at the PMMA-rod interface. There was no correlation between microleakage and TBS data (p = −0.148). A 1–3 µm hybrid layer created in the 10–60 s primerless-wet technique, producing complete micro-seal and higher tensile strength than enamel and cured 4-META/MMA-TBB, may enhance clinical performances like Super-Bond C&B, the sustainable luting resin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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12 pages, 1610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Gelatin Hydrogel Films Loaded with Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Sustainable Food Packaging Applications

by Aqsa Zafar, Muhammad Kaleem Khosa, Awal Noor, Sadaf Qayyum and Muhammad Jawwad Saif

Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5201; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235201 - 29 Nov 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2743

Abstract

The current research work presented the synthesis of carboxymethyl cellulose–gelatin (CMC/GEL) blend and CMC/GEL/ZnO-Nps hydrogel films which were characterized by FT-IR and XRD, and applied to antibacterial and antioxidant activities for food preservation as well as for biomedical applications. ZnO-Nps were incorporated into [...] Read more.

The current research work presented the synthesis of carboxymethyl cellulose–gelatin (CMC/GEL) blend and CMC/GEL/ZnO-Nps hydrogel films which were characterized by FT-IR and XRD, and applied to antibacterial and antioxidant activities for food preservation as well as for biomedical applications. ZnO-Nps were incorporated into the carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and gelatin (GEL) film-forming solution by solution casting followed by sonication. Homogenous mixing of ZnO-Nps with CMC/GEL blend improved thermal stability, mechanical properties, and moisture content of the neat CMC/GEL films. Further, a significant improvement was observed in the antibacterial activity and antioxidant properties of CMC/GEL/ZnO films against two food pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Overall, CMC/GEL/ZnO films are eco-friendly and can be applied in sustainable food packaging materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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18 pages, 5535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physico-Mechanical, Thermal, Morphological, and Aging Characteristics of Green Hybrid Composites Prepared from Wool-Sisal and Wool-Palf with Natural Rubber

by Seiko Jose, Puthenpurackal Shajimon Shanumon, Annmi Paul, Jessen Mathew and Sabu Thomas

Polymers 2022, 14(22), 4882; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224882 - 12 Nov 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1452

Abstract

In the reported study, two composites, namely sisal-wool hybrid composite (SWHC) and pineapple leaf fibre(PALF)-wool hybrid composite (PWHC) were prepared by mixing natural rubber with equal quantities of wool with sisal/PALF in a two-roll mixing mill. The mixture was subjected to curing at [...] Read more.

In the reported study, two composites, namely sisal-wool hybrid composite (SWHC) and pineapple leaf fibre(PALF)-wool hybrid composite (PWHC) were prepared by mixing natural rubber with equal quantities of wool with sisal/PALF in a two-roll mixing mill. The mixture was subjected to curing at 150 °C inside a 2 mm thick mold, according to the curing time provided by the MDR. The physico-mechanical properties of the composite viz., the tensile strength, elongation, modulus, areal density, relative density, and hardness were determined and compared in addition to the solvent diffusion and thermal degradation properties. The hybrid composite samples were subjected to accelerated aging, owing to temperature, UV radiation, and soil burial tests. The cross-sectional images of the composites were compared with a scanning electron microscopic analysis at different magnifications. A Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analysis was conducted on the hybrid composite to determine the possible chemical interaction of the fibres with the natural rubber matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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14 pages, 3320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Durability against Wetting-Drying Cycles of Sustainable Biopolymer-Treated Soil

by Antonio Soldo and Marta Miletic

Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4247; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14194247 - 10 Oct 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2122

Abstract

The world today is more oriented towards sustainable and environmental-friendly solutions in every field of science, technology, and engineering. Therefore, novel sustainable and eco-friendly approaches for soil improvement have also emerged. One of the effective, promising, and green solutions is the utilization of [...] Read more.

The world today is more oriented towards sustainable and environmental-friendly solutions in every field of science, technology, and engineering. Therefore, novel sustainable and eco-friendly approaches for soil improvement have also emerged. One of the effective, promising, and green solutions is the utilization of biopolymers. However, even though the biopolymers proved to be effective in enhancing the soil-mechanical properties, it is still unknown how they behave under real environmental conditions, such as fluctuating temperatures, moisture, plants, microorganisms, to name a few. The main research aim is to investigate the durability of biopolymer-improved soil on the cyclic processes of wetting and drying. Two types of biopolymers (Xanthan Gum and Guar Gum), and two types of soils (clean sand and silty sand) were investigated in this study. The results indicated that some biopolymer-amended specimens kept more than 70% of their original mass during wetting-drying cycles. During the compressive strength analysis, some biopolymer-treated specimens kept up to 45% of their initial strength during seven wetting-drying cycles. Furthermore, this study showed that certain damaged soil-biopolymer bonds could be restored with proper treatment. Repeating the process of wetting and drying can reactivate the bonding properties of biopolymers, which amends the broken bonds in soil. The regenerative property of biopolymers is an important feature that should not be neglected. It gives a clearer picture of the biopolymer utilization and makes it a good option for rapid temporary construction or long-standing construction in the areas with an arid climate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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Review

Jump to: Research

27 pages, 1532 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymeric Materials Obtained by Extrusion and Injection Molding from Lignocellulosic Agroindustrial Biomass

by Ada Pacheco, Arian Evangelista-Osorio, Katherine Gabriela Muchaypiña-Flores, Luis Alejandro Marzano-Barreda, Perla Paredes-Concepción, Heidy Palacin-Baldeón, Maicon Sérgio Nascimento Dos Santos, Marcus Vinícius Tres, Giovani Leone Zabot and Luis Olivera-Montenegro

Polymers 2023, 15(20), 4046; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15204046 - 10 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2150

Abstract

This review presents the advances in polymeric materials achieved by extrusion and injection molding from lignocellulosic agroindustrial biomass. Biomass, which is derived from agricultural and industrial waste, is a renewable and abundant feedstock that contains mainly cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. To improve the [...] Read more.

This review presents the advances in polymeric materials achieved by extrusion and injection molding from lignocellulosic agroindustrial biomass. Biomass, which is derived from agricultural and industrial waste, is a renewable and abundant feedstock that contains mainly cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. To improve the properties and functions of polymeric materials, cellulose is subjected to a variety of modifications. The most common modifications are surface modification, grafting, chemical procedures, and molecule chemical grafting. Injection molding and extrusion technologies are crucial in shaping and manufacturing polymer composites, with precise control over the process and material selection. Furthermore, injection molding involves four phases: plasticization, injection, cooling, and ejection, with a focus on energy efficiency. Fundamental aspects of an injection molding machine, such as the motor, hopper, heating units, nozzle, and clamping unit, are discussed. Extrusion technology, commonly used as a preliminary step to injection molding, presents challenges regarding fiber reinforcement and stress accumulation, while lignin-based polymeric materials are challenging due to their hydrophobicity. The diverse applications of these biodegradable materials include automotive industries, construction, food packaging, and various consumer goods. Polymeric materials are positioned to offer even bigger contributions to sustainable and eco-friendly solutions in the future, as research and development continues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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17 pages, 2254 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biodegradable Polylactic Acid and Its Composites: Characteristics, Processing, and Sustainable Applications in Sports

by Yueting Wu, Xing Gao, Jie Wu, Tongxi Zhou, Tat Thang Nguyen and Yutong Wang

Polymers 2023, 15(14), 3096; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15143096 - 19 Jul 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5473

Abstract

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polyester polymer that is produced from renewable resources, such as corn or other carbohydrate sources. However, its poor toughness limits its commercialization. PLA composites can meet the growing performance needs of various fields, but limited research has [...] Read more.

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polyester polymer that is produced from renewable resources, such as corn or other carbohydrate sources. However, its poor toughness limits its commercialization. PLA composites can meet the growing performance needs of various fields, but limited research has focused on their sustainable applications in sports. This paper reviews the latest research on PLA and its composites by describing the characteristics, production, degradation process, and the latest modification methods of PLA. Then, it discusses the inherent advantages of PLA composites and expounds on different biodegradable materials and their relationship with the properties of PLA composites. Finally, the importance and application prospects of PLA composites in the field of sports are emphasized. Although PLA composites mixed with natural biomass materials have not been mass produced, they are expected to be sustainable materials used in various industries because of their simple process, nontoxicity, biodegradability, and low cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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23 pages, 3847 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymer-Based Hydrogel Loaded with Honey in Drug Delivery System for Wound Healing Applications

by Siti Nor Najihah Yasin, Zulfahmi Said, Nadia Halib, Zulaiha A Rahman and Noor Izzati Mokhzani

Polymers 2023, 15(14), 3085; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15143085 - 18 Jul 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3697

Abstract

Excellent wound dressings should have crucial components, including high porosity, non-toxicity, high water absorption, and the ability to retain a humid environment in the wound area and facilitate wound healing. Unfortunately, current wound dressings hamper the healing process, with poor antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and [...] Read more.

Excellent wound dressings should have crucial components, including high porosity, non-toxicity, high water absorption, and the ability to retain a humid environment in the wound area and facilitate wound healing. Unfortunately, current wound dressings hamper the healing process, with poor antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity, frequent dressing changes, low biodegradability, and poor mechanical properties. Hydrogels are crosslinked polymer chains with three-dimensional (3D) networks that have been applicable as wound dressings. They could retain a humid environment on the wound site, provide a protective barrier against pathogenic infections, and provide pain relief. Hydrogel can be obtained from natural, synthetic, or hybrid polymers. Honey is a natural substance that has demonstrated several therapeutic efficacies, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant activity, which makes it beneficial for wound treatment. Honey-based hydrogel wound dressings demonstrated excellent characteristics, including good biodegradability and biocompatibility, stimulated cell proliferation and reepithelization, inhibited bacterial growth, and accelerated wound healing. This review aimed to demonstrate the potential of honey-based hydrogel in wound healing applications and complement the studies accessible regarding implementing honey-based hydrogel dressing for wound healing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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34 pages, 3214 KiB

Open AccessReview

Modification of Starches and Flours by Acetylation and Its Dual Modifications: A Review of Impact on Physicochemical Properties and Their Applications

by Edy Subroto, Yana Cahyana, Rossi Indiarto and Tiara Aray Rahmah

Polymers 2023, 15(14), 2990; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15142990 - 09 Jul 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2986

Abstract

Various modification treatments have been carried out to improve the physicochemical and functional properties of various types of starch and flour. Modification by acetylation has been widely used to improve the quality and stability of starch. This review describes the effects of acetylation [...] Read more.

Various modification treatments have been carried out to improve the physicochemical and functional properties of various types of starch and flour. Modification by acetylation has been widely used to improve the quality and stability of starch. This review describes the effects of acetylation modification and its dual modifications on the physicochemical properties of starch/flour and their applications. Acetylation can increase swelling power, swelling volume, water/oil absorption capacity, and retrogradation stability. The dual modification of acetylation with cross-linking or hydrothermal treatment can improve the thermal stability of starch/flour. However, the results of the modifications may vary depending on the type of starch, reagents, and processing methods. Acetylated starch can be used as an encapsulant for nanoparticles, biofilms, adhesives, fat replacers, and other products with better paste stability and clarity. A comparison of various characteristics of acetylated starches and their dual modifications is expected to be a reference for developing and applying acetylated starches/flours in various fields and products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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35 pages, 5499 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Chitosan and Chitosan Nanofiber: Preparation, Characterization, and Its Potential Applications

by Marwan A. Ibrahim, Mona H. Alhalafi, El-Amir M. Emam, Hassan Ibrahim and Rehab M. Mosaad

Polymers 2023, 15(13), 2820; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15132820 - 26 Jun 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4138

Abstract

Chitosan is produced by deacetylating the abundant natural chitin polymer. It has been employed in a variety of applications due to its unique solubility as well as its chemical and biological properties. In addition to being biodegradable and biocompatible, it also possesses a [...] Read more.

Chitosan is produced by deacetylating the abundant natural chitin polymer. It has been employed in a variety of applications due to its unique solubility as well as its chemical and biological properties. In addition to being biodegradable and biocompatible, it also possesses a lot of reactive amino side groups that allow for chemical modification and the creation of a wide range of useful derivatives. The physical and chemical characteristics of chitosan, as well as how it is used in the food, environmental, and medical industries, have all been covered in a number of academic publications. Chitosan offers a wide range of possibilities in environmentally friendly textile processes because of its superior absorption and biological characteristics. Chitosan has the ability to give textile fibers and fabrics antibacterial, antiviral, anti-odor, and other biological functions. One of the most well-known and frequently used methods to create nanofibers is electrospinning. This technique is adaptable and effective for creating continuous nanofibers. In the field of biomaterials, new materials include nanofibers made of chitosan. Numerous medications, including antibiotics, chemotherapeutic agents, proteins, and analgesics for inflammatory pain, have been successfully loaded onto electro-spun nanofibers, according to recent investigations. Chitosan nanofibers have several exceptional qualities that make them ideal for use in important pharmaceutical applications, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery systems, wound dressing, and enzyme immobilization. The preparation of chitosan nanofibers, followed by a discussion of the biocompatibility and degradation of chitosan nanofibers, followed by a description of how to load the drug into the nanofibers, are the first issues highlighted by this review of chitosan nanofibers in drug delivery applications. The main uses of chitosan nanofibers in drug delivery systems will be discussed last. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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17 pages, 557 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymeric Scaffolds Used in Dental Pulp Regeneration by Tissue Engineering Approach

by Vinna K. Sugiaman, Jeffrey, Silvia Naliani, Natallia Pranata, Rudy Djuanda and Rosalina Intan Saputri

Polymers 2023, 15(5), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051082 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3781

Abstract

Currently, the challenge in dentistry is to revitalize dental pulp by utilizing tissue engineering technology; thus, a biomaterial is needed to facilitate the process. One of the three essential elements in tissue engineering technology is a scaffold. A scaffold acts as a three-dimensional [...] Read more.

Currently, the challenge in dentistry is to revitalize dental pulp by utilizing tissue engineering technology; thus, a biomaterial is needed to facilitate the process. One of the three essential elements in tissue engineering technology is a scaffold. A scaffold acts as a three-dimensional (3D) framework that provides structural and biological support and creates a good environment for cell activation, communication between cells, and inducing cell organization. Therefore, the selection of a scaffold represents a challenge in regenerative endodontics. A scaffold must be safe, biodegradable, and biocompatible, with low immunogenicity, and must be able to support cell growth. Moreover, it must be supported by adequate scaffold characteristics, which include the level of porosity, pore size, and interconnectivity; these factors ultimately play an essential role in cell behavior and tissue formation. The use of natural or synthetic polymer scaffolds with excellent mechanical properties, such as small pore size and a high surface-to-volume ratio, as a matrix in dental tissue engineering has recently received a lot of attention because it shows great potential with good biological characteristics for cell regeneration. This review describes the latest developments regarding the usage of natural or synthetic scaffold polymers that have the ideal biomaterial properties to facilitate tissue regeneration when combined with stem cells and growth factors in revitalizing dental pulp tissue. The utilization of polymer scaffolds in tissue engineering can help the pulp tissue regeneration process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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28 pages, 3995 KiB

Open AccessReview

Collagen Derived from Fish Industry Waste: Progresses and Challenges

by Zahra Rajabimashhadi, Nunzia Gallo, Luca Salvatore and Francesca Lionetto

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030544 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 10623

Abstract

Fish collagen garnered significant academic and commercial focus in the last decades featuring prospective applications in a variety of health-related industries, including food, medicine, pharmaceutics, and cosmetics. Due to its distinct advantages over mammalian-based collagen, including the reduced zoonosis transmission risk, the absence [...] Read more.

Fish collagen garnered significant academic and commercial focus in the last decades featuring prospective applications in a variety of health-related industries, including food, medicine, pharmaceutics, and cosmetics. Due to its distinct advantages over mammalian-based collagen, including the reduced zoonosis transmission risk, the absence of cultural-religious limitations, the cost-effectiveness of manufacturing process, and its superior bioavailability, the use of collagen derived from fish wastes (i.e., skin, scales) quickly expanded. Moreover, by-products are low cost and the need to minimize fish industry waste’s environmental impact paved the way for the use of discards in the development of collagen-based products with remarkable added value. This review summarizes the recent advances in the valorization of fish industry wastes for the extraction of collagen used in several applications. Issues related to processing and characterization of collagen were presented. Moreover, an overview of the most relevant applications in food industry, nutraceutical, cosmetics, tissue engineering, and food packaging of the last three years was introduced. Lastly, the fish-collagen market and the open technological challenges to a reliable recovery and exploitation of this biopolymer were discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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34 pages, 8194 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bioplastics: Innovation for Green Transition

by Ana Costa, Telma Encarnação, Rafael Tavares, Tiago Todo Bom and Artur Mateus

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030517 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 10493

Abstract

Bioplastics are one of the possible alternative solutions to the polymers of petrochemical origins. Bioplastics have several advantages over traditional plastics in terms of low carbon footprint, energy efficiency, biodegradability and versatility. Although they have numerous benefits and are revolutionizing many application fields, [...] Read more.

Bioplastics are one of the possible alternative solutions to the polymers of petrochemical origins. Bioplastics have several advantages over traditional plastics in terms of low carbon footprint, energy efficiency, biodegradability and versatility. Although they have numerous benefits and are revolutionizing many application fields, they also have several weaknesses, such as brittleness, high-water absorption, low crystallization ability and low thermal degradation temperature. These drawbacks can be a limiting factor that prevents their use in many applications. Nonetheless, reinforcements and plasticizers can be added to bioplastic production as a way to overcome such limitations. Bioplastics materials are not yet studied in depth, but it is with great optimism that their industrial use and market scenarios are increasing; such growth can be a positive driver for more research in this field. National and international investments in the bioplastics industry can also promote the green transition. International projects, such as EcoPlast and Animpol, aim to study and develop new polymeric materials made from alternative sources. One of their biggest problems is their waste management; there is no separation process yet to recycle the nonbiodegradable bioplastics, and they are considered contaminants when mixed with other polymers. Some materials use additives, and their impact on the microplastics they leave after breaking apart is subject to debate. For this reason, it is important to consider their life cycle analysis and assess their environmental viability. These are materials that can possibly be processed in various ways, including conventional processes used for petrochemical ones. Those include injection moulding and extrusion, as well as digital manufacturing. This and the possibility to use these materials in several applications is one of their greatest strengths. All these aspects will be discussed in this review. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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37 pages, 3662 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Overview on Wood Waste Valorization as Biopolymers and Biocomposites: Definition, Classification, Production, Properties and Applications

by Francesca Ferrari, Raffaella Striani, Daniela Fico, Mohammad Mahbubul Alam, Antonio Greco and Carola Esposito Corcione

Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5519; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245519 - 16 Dec 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5552

Abstract

Bio-based polymers, obtained from natural biomass, are nowadays considered good candidates for the replacement of traditional fossil-derived plastics. The need for substituting traditional synthetic plastics is mainly driven by many concerns about their detrimental effects on the environment and human health. The most [...] Read more.

Bio-based polymers, obtained from natural biomass, are nowadays considered good candidates for the replacement of traditional fossil-derived plastics. The need for substituting traditional synthetic plastics is mainly driven by many concerns about their detrimental effects on the environment and human health. The most innovative way to produce bioplastics involves the use of raw materials derived from wastes. Raw materials are of vital importance for human and animal health and due to their economic and environmental benefits. Among these, wood waste is gaining popularity as an innovative raw material for biopolymer manufacturing. On the other hand, the use of wastes as a source to produce biopolymers and biocomposites is still under development and the processing methods are currently being studied in order to reach a high reproducibility and thus increase the yield of production. This study therefore aimed to cover the current developments in the classification, manufacturing, performances and fields of application of bio-based polymers, especially focusing on wood waste sources. The work was carried out using both a descriptive and an analytical methodology: first, a description of the state of art as it exists at present was reported, then the available information was analyzed to make a critical evaluation of the results. A second way to employ wood scraps involves their use as bio-reinforcements for composites; therefore, the increase in the mechanical response obtained by the addition of wood waste in different bio-based matrices was explored in this work. Results showed an increase in Young’s modulus up to 9 GPa for wood-reinforced PLA and up to 6 GPa for wood-reinforced PHA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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19 pages, 2479 KiB

Open AccessReview

Role of Polymers in Microfluidic Devices

by Laila A. Damiati, Marwa El-Yaagoubi, Safa A. Damiati, Rimantas Kodzius, Farshid Sefat and Samar Damiati

Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5132; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235132 - 25 Nov 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2778

Abstract

Polymers are sustainable and renewable materials that are in high demand due to their excellent properties. Natural and synthetic polymers with high flexibility, good biocompatibility, good degradation rate, and stiffness are widely used for various applications, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, and [...] Read more.

Polymers are sustainable and renewable materials that are in high demand due to their excellent properties. Natural and synthetic polymers with high flexibility, good biocompatibility, good degradation rate, and stiffness are widely used for various applications, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, and microfluidic chip fabrication. Indeed, recent advances in microfluidic technology allow the fabrication of polymeric matrix to construct microfluidic scaffolds for tissue engineering and to set up a well-controlled microenvironment for manipulating fluids and particles. In this review, polymers as materials for the fabrication of microfluidic chips have been highlighted. Successful models exploiting polymers in microfluidic devices to generate uniform particles as drug vehicles or artificial cells have been also discussed. Additionally, using polymers as bioink for 3D printing or as a matrix to functionalize the sensing surface in microfluidic devices has also been mentioned. The rapid progress made in the combination of polymers and microfluidics presents a low-cost, reproducible, and scalable approach for a promising future in the manufacturing of biomimetic scaffolds for tissue engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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29 pages, 3440 KiB

Open AccessReview

Polymers Use as Mulch Films in Agriculture—A Review of History, Problems and Current Trends

by Zinnia Mansoor, Fideline Tchuenbou-Magaia, Marek Kowalczuk, Grazyna Adamus, Georgina Manning, Mattia Parati, Iza Radecka and Habib Khan

Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5062; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14235062 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6127

Abstract

The application of mulch films for preserving soil moisture and preventing weed growth has been a part of agricultural practice for decades. Different materials have been used as mulch films, but polyethylene plastic has been considered most effective due to its excellent mechanical [...] Read more.

The application of mulch films for preserving soil moisture and preventing weed growth has been a part of agricultural practice for decades. Different materials have been used as mulch films, but polyethylene plastic has been considered most effective due to its excellent mechanical strength, low cost and ability to act as a barrier for sunlight and water. However, its use carries a risk of plastic pollution and health hazards, hence new laws have been passed to replace it completely with other materials over the next few years. Research to find out about new biodegradable polymers for this purpose has gained impetus in the past few years, driven by regulations and the United Nations Organization’s Sustainable Development Goals. The primary requisite for these polymers is biodegradability under natural climatic conditions without the production of any toxic residual compounds. Therefore, biodegradable polymers developed from fossil fuels, microorganisms, animals and plants are viable options for using as mulching material. However, the solution is not as simple since each polymer has different mechanical properties and a compromise has to be made in terms of strength, cost and biodegradability of the polymer for its use as mulch film. This review discusses the history of mulching materials, the gradual evolution in the choice of materials, the process of biodegradation of mulch films, the regulations passed regarding material to be used, types of polymers that can be explored as potential mulch films and the future prospects in the area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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29 pages, 2988 KiB

Open AccessReview

Environmental Properties and Applications of Biodegradable Starch-Based Nanocomposites

by Ashoka Gamage, Punniamoorthy Thiviya, Sudhagar Mani, Prabaharan Graceraj Ponnusamy, Asanga Manamperi, Philippe Evon, Othmane Merah and Terrence Madhujith

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4578; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214578 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4822

Abstract

In recent years, the demand for environmental sustainability has caused a great interest in finding novel polymer materials from natural resources that are both biodegradable and eco-friendly. Natural biodegradable polymers can displace the usage of petroleum-based synthetic polymers due to their renewability, low [...] Read more.

In recent years, the demand for environmental sustainability has caused a great interest in finding novel polymer materials from natural resources that are both biodegradable and eco-friendly. Natural biodegradable polymers can displace the usage of petroleum-based synthetic polymers due to their renewability, low toxicity, low costs, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. The development of novel starch-based bionanocomposites with improved properties has drawn specific attention recently in many applications, including food, agriculture, packaging, environmental remediation, textile, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and biomedical fields. This paper discusses starch-based nanocomposites, mainly with nanocellulose, chitin nanoparticles, nanoclay, and carbon-based materials, and their applications in the agriculture, packaging, biomedical, and environment fields. This paper also focused on the lifecycle analysis and degradation of various starch-based nanocomposites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer-Based Composites: Processing, Characterization, and Application)

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