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3 pages, 202 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations: A Challenge for Plants, a Challenge for Researchers

by Lorenzo Ferroni and Marek Živčak

Plants 2023, 12(24), 4146; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12244146 - 13 Dec 2023

Viewed by 686

Abstract

The ability of plants to cope successfully with environmental fluctuations is a result of their evolution in subaerial environments, where fluctuations in parameters such as temperature, light, and water availability, are the norm and stable states are the exception [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

Research

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16 pages, 1117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Light of Different Spectral Compositions on Pro/Antioxidant Status, Content of Some Pigments and Secondary Metabolites and Expression of Related Genes in Scots Pine

by Pavel Pashkovskiy, Yury Ivanov, Alexandra Ivanova, Alexander Kartashov, Ilya Zlobin, Valery Lyubimov, Aleksandr Ashikhmin, Maksim Bolshakov, Vladimir Kreslavski, Vladimir Kuznetsov and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev

Plants 2023, 12(13), 2552; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12132552 - 05 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1407

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of light quality (white fluorescent light, WFL, containing UV components), red light (RL, 660 nm), blue light (BL, 450 nm), and white LED light (WL, 450 + 580 nm) on the components of [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of light quality (white fluorescent light, WFL, containing UV components), red light (RL, 660 nm), blue light (BL, 450 nm), and white LED light (WL, 450 + 580 nm) on the components of the cellular antioxidant system in Pinus sylvestris L. in needles, roots, and hypocotyls, focusing on the accumulation of key secondary metabolites and the expression of related genes. The qualitative and quantitative composition of carotenoids; the content of the main photosynthetic pigments, phenolic compounds, flavonoids (catechins, proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins), ascorbate, and glutathione; the activity of the main antioxidant enzymes; the content of hydrogen peroxide; and the intensity of lipid peroxidation (MDA and 4-HNE contents) were determined. RL resulted in an increase in the content of hydrogen peroxide and 4-HNE, as well as the total fraction of flavonoids in the needles. It also enhanced the expression of several PR (pathogen-related) genes compared to BL and WL. WFL increased the content of phenols, including flavonoids, and enhanced the overall activity of low-molecular antioxidants in needles and hypocotyls. BL increased the content of ascorbate and glutathione, including reduced glutathione, in the needles and simultaneously decreased the activity of peroxidases. Thus, by modifying the light quality, it is possible to regulate the accumulation of secondary metabolites in pine roots and needles, thereby influencing their resistance to various biotic and abiotic stressors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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10 pages, 4043 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Leaf Gas Exchange and Photosystem II Fluorescence Responses to CO₂ Cycling

by James Bunce

Plants 2023, 12(8), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12081620 - 11 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 853

Abstract

Experimental systems to simulate future elevated CO₂ conditions in the field often have large, rapid fluctuations in CO₂. To examine possible impacts of such fluctuations on photosynthesis, the intact leaves of the field-grown plants of five species were exposed to [...] Read more.

Experimental systems to simulate future elevated CO₂ conditions in the field often have large, rapid fluctuations in CO₂. To examine possible impacts of such fluctuations on photosynthesis, the intact leaves of the field-grown plants of five species were exposed to two-minute cycles of CO₂ between 400 and 800 μmol mol⁻¹, lasting a total of 10 min, with photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and PSII fluorescence measured at the end of each half-cycle and also 10 min after the end of the cycling. Prior to the cyclic CO₂ treatments, the steady-state responses of leaf gas exchange and fluorescence to CO₂ were determined. In four of the five species, in which stomatal conductance decreased with increasing CO₂, the cyclic CO₂ treatments reduced stomatal conductance. In those species, both photosynthesis and the photochemical efficiency of PSII were reduced at limiting internal CO₂ levels, but not at saturating CO₂. In the fifth species, there was no change in stomatal conductance with CO₂ and no change in either photosynthesis or PSII efficiency at any CO₂ level with CO₂ cycling. It is concluded that in many, but not all, species, fluctuations in CO₂ may reduce photosynthesis at low CO₂, partly by decreasing the photochemical efficiency of photosystem II as well as by decreasing stomatal conductance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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15 pages, 2132 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variation in Photosynthetic Efficiency under Fluctuating Light between Rose Cultivars and its Potential for Improving Dynamic Photosynthesis

by Xiao-Qian Wang, Zhi-Lan Zeng, Zi-Ming Shi, Ji-Hua Wang and Wei Huang

Plants 2023, 12(5), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051186 - 06 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1708

Abstract

Photosynthetic efficiency under both steady-state and fluctuating light can significantly affect plant growth under naturally fluctuating light conditions. However, the difference in photosynthetic performance between different rose genotypes is little known. This study compared the photosynthetic performance under steady-state and fluctuating light in [...] Read more.

Photosynthetic efficiency under both steady-state and fluctuating light can significantly affect plant growth under naturally fluctuating light conditions. However, the difference in photosynthetic performance between different rose genotypes is little known. This study compared the photosynthetic performance under steady-state and fluctuating light in two modern rose cultivars (Rose hybrida), “Orange Reeva” and “Gelato”, and an old Chinese rose plant Rosa chinensis cultivar, “Slater’s crimson China”. The light and CO₂ response curves indicated that they showed similar photosynthetic capacity under steady state. The light-saturated steady-state photosynthesis in these three rose genotypes was mainly limited by biochemistry (60%) rather than diffusional conductance. Under fluctuating light conditions (alternated between 100 and 1500 μmol photons m⁻² m⁻¹ every 5 min), stomatal conductance gradually decreased in these three rose genotypes, while mesophyll conductance (g_m) was maintained stable in Orange Reeva and Gelato but decreased by 23% in R. chinensis, resulting in a stronger loss of CO₂ assimilation under high-light phases in R. chinensis (25%) than in Orange Reeva and Gelato (13%). As a result, the variation in photosynthetic efficiency under fluctuating light among rose cultivars was tightly related to g_m. These results highlight the importance of g_m in dynamic photosynthesis and provide new traits for improving photosynthetic efficiency in rose cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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15 pages, 1773 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Short-Term Heating on Photosynthetic Activity, Pigment Content, and Pro-/Antioxidant Balance of A. thaliana Phytochrome Mutants

by Vladimir D. Kreslavski, Alexandra Y. Khudyakova, Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov, Tamara I. Balakhnina, Galina N. Shirshikova, Hesham F. Alharby and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev

Plants 2023, 12(4), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040867 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1247

Abstract

The effects of heating (40 °C, 1 and 2 h) in dark and light conditions on the photosynthetic activity (photosynthesis rate and photosystem II activity), content of photosynthetic pigments, activity of antioxidant enzymes, content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs), and expression of [...] Read more.

The effects of heating (40 °C, 1 and 2 h) in dark and light conditions on the photosynthetic activity (photosynthesis rate and photosystem II activity), content of photosynthetic pigments, activity of antioxidant enzymes, content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs), and expression of a number of key genes of antioxidant enzymes and photosynthetic proteins were studied. It was shown that, in darkness, heating reduced CO₂ gas exchange, photosystem II activity, and the content of photosynthetic pigments to a greater extent in the phyB mutant than in the wild type (WT). The content of TBARs increased only in the phyB mutant, which is apparently associated with a sharp increase in the total peroxidase activity in WT and its decrease in the phyB mutant, which is consistent with a noticeable decrease in photosynthetic activity and the content of photosynthetic pigments in the mutant. No differences were indicated in all heated samples under light. It is assumed that the resistance of the photosynthetic apparatus to a short-term elevated temperature depends on the content of PHYB active form and is probably determined by the effect of phytochrome on the content of low-molecular weight antioxidants and the activity of antioxidant enzymes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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22 pages, 4139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Alleviation of the Functional Phenotype in Chlorophyll-Deficient Wheat and Impact on Productivity: A Semi-Field Phenotyping Experiment

by Andrea Colpo, Sara Demaria, Costanza Baldisserotto, Simonetta Pancaldi, Marian Brestič, Marek Živčak and Lorenzo Ferroni

Plants 2023, 12(4), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040822 - 12 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1574

Abstract

Wheat mutants with a reduced chlorophyll synthesis are affected by a defective control of the photosynthetic electron flow, but tend to recover a wild-type phenotype. The sensitivity of some mutants to light fluctuations suggested that cultivation outdoors could significantly impact productivity. Six mutant [...] Read more.

Wheat mutants with a reduced chlorophyll synthesis are affected by a defective control of the photosynthetic electron flow, but tend to recover a wild-type phenotype. The sensitivity of some mutants to light fluctuations suggested that cultivation outdoors could significantly impact productivity. Six mutant lines of Triticum durum or Triticum aestivum with their respective wild-type cultivars were cultivated with a regular seasonal cycle (October–May) in a semi-field experiment. Leaf chlorophyll content and fluorescence parameters were analysed at the early (November) and late (May) developmental stages, and checked for correlation with morphometric and grain-production parameters. The alleviation of the phenotype severity concerned primarily the recovery of the photosynthetic-membrane functionality, but not the leaf chlorophyll content. Photosystem II (PSII) was less photoprotected in the mutants, but a moderate PSII photoinhibition could help control the electron flow into the chain. The accumulation of interchain electron carriers was a primary acclimative response towards the naturally fluctuating environment, maximally exploited by the mature durum-wheat mutants. The mutation itself and/or the energy-consuming compensatory mechanisms markedly influenced the plant morphogenesis, leading especially to reduced tillering, which in turn resulted in lower grain production per plant. Consistently with the interrelation between early photosynthetic phenotype and grain-yield per plant, chlorophyll-fluorescence indexes related to the level of photoprotective thermal dissipation (pNPQ), photosystem II antenna size (ABS/RC), and pool of electron carriers (Sm) are proposed as good candidates for the in-field phenotyping of chlorophyll-deficient wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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13 pages, 1791 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pre-Acclimation to Elevated Temperature Stabilizes the Activity of Photosystem I in Wheat Plants Exposed to an Episode of Severe Heat Stress

by Andrej Filaček, Marek Živčák, Lorenzo Ferroni, Mária Barboričová, Kristína Gašparovič, Xinghong Yang, Marco Landi and Marián Brestič

Plants 2022, 11(5), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11050616 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2285

Abstract

The importance of high temperature as an environmental factor is growing in proportion to deepening global climate change. The study aims to evaluate the effects of long-term acclimation of plants to elevated temperature on the tolerance of their photosynthetic apparatus to heat stress. [...] Read more.

The importance of high temperature as an environmental factor is growing in proportion to deepening global climate change. The study aims to evaluate the effects of long-term acclimation of plants to elevated temperature on the tolerance of their photosynthetic apparatus to heat stress. Three wheat (Triticum sp. L.) genotypes differing in leaf and photosynthetic traits were analyzed: Thesee, Roter Samtiger Kolbenweizen, and ANK 32A. The pot experiment was established in natural conditions outdoors (non-acclimated variant), from which a part of the plants was placed in foil tunnel with elevated temperature for 14 days (high temperature-acclimated variant). A severe heat stress screening experiment was induced by an exposition of the plans in a growth chamber with artificial light and air temperature up to 45 °C for ~12 h before the measurements. The measurements of leaf photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation, stomatal conductance, and rapid kinetics of chlorophyll a fluorescence was performed. The results confirmed that a high temperature drastically reduced the photosynthetic assimilation rate caused by the non-stomatal (biochemical) limitation of photosynthetic processes. On the other hand, the chlorophyll fluorescence indicated only a moderate level of decrease of quantum efficiency of photosystem (PS) II (Fv/Fm parameter), indicating mostly reversible heat stress effects. The heat stress led to a decrease in the number of active PS II reaction centers (RC/ABS) and overall activity o PSII (PI_abs) in all genotypes, whereas the PS I (parameter ψ_REo) was negatively influenced by heat stress in the non-acclimated variant only. Our results showed that the genotypes differ in acclimation capacity to heat stress, and rapid noninvasive techniques may help screen the stress effects and identify more tolerant crop genotypes. The acclimation was demonstrated more at the PS I level, which may be associated with the upregulation of alternative photosynthetic electron transport pathways with clearly protective functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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13 pages, 2752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photosynthetic and Morphological Responses of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) to Waterlogging Stress

by Chyi-Chuann Chen, Ming-Sheng Li, Kuan-Ting Chen, Yueh-Hua Lin and Swee-Suak Ko

Plants 2022, 11(3), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11030249 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2326

Abstract

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) is an important oilseed crop that is rich in fatty acids and protein. Climate-change-related stresses, such as chilling, high temperature, and waterlogging can cause severe production loss in this crop. In this study, we investigated the photosynthetic [...] Read more.

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) is an important oilseed crop that is rich in fatty acids and protein. Climate-change-related stresses, such as chilling, high temperature, and waterlogging can cause severe production loss in this crop. In this study, we investigated the photosynthetic responses of sacha inchi seedlings to short-term waterlogging and their morphological changes after long-term waterlogging stress. Sacha inchi CO₂ uptake, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate are affected by temperature and light intensity. The seedlings had a high CO₂ uptake (>10 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹) during the daytime (08:00 to 15:00), and at 32 and 36 °C. At 32 °C, CO₂ uptake peaked at irradiations of 1000 and 1500 µmol m⁻²s⁻¹, and plants could still perform photosynthesis at high-intensity radiation of 2000–3000 µmol m⁻²s⁻¹. However, after 5 days of waterlogging (5 DAF) sacha inchi seedlings significantly reduced their photosynthetic ability. The CO₂ uptake, stomatal conductance, Fv/Fm, ETR, and qP, etc., of the susceptible genotypes, were significantly decreased and their wilting percentage was higher than 50% at 5 DAF. This led to a higher wilting percentage at 7 days post-recovery. Among the four lines assessed, Line 27 had a high photosynthetic capability and showed the best waterlogging tolerance. We screened many seedlings for long-term waterlogging tolerance and discovered that some seedlings can produce adventitious roots (AR) and survive after two weeks of waterlogging. Hence, AR could be a critical morphological adaptation to waterlogging in this crop. In summary, these results suggest that improvement in waterlogging tolerance has considerable potential for increasing the sustainable production of sacha inchi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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17 pages, 1967 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Down-Regulation of Photosynthetic Electron Transport and Decline in CO₂ Assimilation under Low Frequencies of Pulsed Lights

by Marguerite Cinq-Mars and Guy Samson

Plants 2021, 10(10), 2033; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102033 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1940

Abstract

The decline in CO₂ assimilation in leaves exposed to decreasing frequencies of pulsed light is well characterized, in contrast to the regulation of photosynthetic electron transport under these conditions. Thus, we exposed sunflower leaves to pulsed lights of different frequencies but with [...] Read more.

The decline in CO₂ assimilation in leaves exposed to decreasing frequencies of pulsed light is well characterized, in contrast to the regulation of photosynthetic electron transport under these conditions. Thus, we exposed sunflower leaves to pulsed lights of different frequencies but with the same duty ratio (25%) and averaged light intensity (575 μmoles photons m⁻² s⁻¹). The rates of net photosynthesis Pn were constant from 125 to 10 Hz, and declined by 70% from 10 to 0.1 Hz. This decline coincided with (1) a marked increase in nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ), and (2) the completion after 25 ms of illumination of the first phase of P₇₀₀ photooxidation, the primary electron donor of PSI. Under longer light pulses (<5 Hz), there was a slower and larger P₇₀₀ photooxidation phase that could be attributed to the larger NPQ and to a resistance of electron flow on the PSI donor side indicated by 44% slower kinetics of a P₇₀₀⁺ dark reduction. In addition, at low frequencies, the decrease in quantum yield of photochemistry was 2.3-times larger for PSII than for PSI. Globally, our results indicate that the decline in CO₂ assimilation at 10 Hz and lower frequencies coincide with the formation of NPQ and a restriction of electron flows toward PSI, favoring the accumulation of harmless P₇₀₀⁺. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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19 pages, 4106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Light Harvesting in Fluctuating Environments: Evolution and Function of Antenna Proteins across Photosynthetic Lineage

by Pushan Bag

Plants 2021, 10(6), 1184; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061184 - 10 Jun 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6187

Abstract

Photosynthesis is the major natural process that can harvest and harness solar energy into chemical energy. Photosynthesis is performed by a vast number of organisms from single cellular bacteria to higher plants and to make the process efficient, all photosynthetic organisms possess a [...] Read more.

Photosynthesis is the major natural process that can harvest and harness solar energy into chemical energy. Photosynthesis is performed by a vast number of organisms from single cellular bacteria to higher plants and to make the process efficient, all photosynthetic organisms possess a special type of pigment protein complex(es) that is (are) capable of trapping light energy, known as photosynthetic light-harvesting antennae. From an evolutionary point of view, simpler (unicellular) organisms typically have a simple antenna, whereas higher plants possess complex antenna systems. The higher complexity of the antenna systems provides efficient fine tuning of photosynthesis. This relationship between the complexity of the antenna and the increasing complexity of the organism is mainly related to the remarkable acclimation capability of complex organisms under fluctuating environmental conditions. These antenna complexes not only harvest light, but also provide photoprotection under fluctuating light conditions. In this review, the evolution, structure, and function of different antenna complexes, from single cellular organisms to higher plants, are discussed in the context of the ability to acclimate and adapt to cope under fluctuating environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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15 pages, 2164 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Coordination of Cyclic Electron Flow and Water–Water Cycle Facilitates Photoprotection under Fluctuating Light and Temperature Stress in the Epiphytic Orchid Dendrobium officinale

by Hu Sun, Qi Shi, Shi-Bao Zhang and Wei Huang

Plants 2021, 10(3), 606; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10030606 - 23 Mar 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2366

Abstract

Photosystem I (PSI) is the primary target of photoinhibition under fluctuating light (FL). Photosynthetic organisms employ alternative electron flows to protect PSI under FL. However, the understanding of the coordination of alternative electron flows under FL at temperature stresses is limited. To address [...] Read more.

Photosystem I (PSI) is the primary target of photoinhibition under fluctuating light (FL). Photosynthetic organisms employ alternative electron flows to protect PSI under FL. However, the understanding of the coordination of alternative electron flows under FL at temperature stresses is limited. To address this question, we measured the chlorophyll fluorescence, P700 redox state, and electrochromic shift signal in leaves of Dendrobium officinale exposed to FL at 42 °C, 25 °C, and 4 °C. Upon a sudden increase in illumination at 42 °C and 25 °C, the water–water cycle (WWC) consumed a significant fraction of the extra reducing power, and thus avoided an over-reduction of PSI. However, WWC was inactivated at 4 °C, leading to an over-reduction of PSI within the first seconds after light increased. Therefore, the role of WWC under FL is largely dependent on temperature conditions. After an abrupt increase in light intensity, cyclic electron flow (CEF) around PSI was stimulated at any temperature. Therefore, CEF and WWC showed different temperature responses under FL. Furthermore, the enhancement of CEF and WWC at 42 °C quickly generated a sufficient trans-thylakoid proton gradient (ΔpH). The inactivation of WWC at 4 °C was partially compensated for by an increased CEF activity. These findings indicate that CEF and WWC coordinate to protect PSI under FL at temperature stresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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Review

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14 pages, 761 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Effects of Environmental and Non-Environmental Factors on Dynamic Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation in Leaves under Changing Light

by Yu-Ting Li, Hui-Yuan Gao and Zi-Shan Zhang

Plants 2023, 12(10), 2015; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12102015 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2355

Abstract

Major research on photosynthesis has been carried out under steady light. However, in the natural environment, steady light is rare, and light intensity is always changing. Changing light affects (usually reduces) photosynthetic carbon assimilation and causes decreases in biomass and yield. Ecologists first [...] Read more.

Major research on photosynthesis has been carried out under steady light. However, in the natural environment, steady light is rare, and light intensity is always changing. Changing light affects (usually reduces) photosynthetic carbon assimilation and causes decreases in biomass and yield. Ecologists first observed the importance of changing light for plant growth in the understory; other researchers noticed that changing light in the crop canopy also seriously affects yield. Here, we review the effects of environmental and non-environmental factors on dynamic photosynthetic carbon assimilation under changing light in higher plants. In general, dynamic photosynthesis is more sensitive to environmental and non-environmental factors than steady photosynthesis, and dynamic photosynthesis is more diverse than steady photosynthesis. Finally, we discuss the challenges of photosynthetic research under changing light. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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17 pages, 1791 KiB

Open AccessReview

Terrestrial and Floating Aquatic Plants Differ in Acclimation to Light Environment

by Marina López-Pozo, William W. Adams III, Stephanie K. Polutchko and Barbara Demmig-Adams

Plants 2023, 12(10), 1928; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12101928 - 09 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1704

Abstract

The ability of plants to respond to environmental fluctuations is supported by acclimatory adjustments in plant form and function that may require several days and development of a new leaf. We review adjustments in photosynthetic, photoprotective, and foliar vascular capacity in response to [...] Read more.

The ability of plants to respond to environmental fluctuations is supported by acclimatory adjustments in plant form and function that may require several days and development of a new leaf. We review adjustments in photosynthetic, photoprotective, and foliar vascular capacity in response to variation in light and temperature in terrestrial plants. The requirement for extensive acclimation to these environmental conditions in terrestrial plants is contrasted with an apparent lesser need for acclimation to different light environments, including rapid light fluctuations, in floating aquatic plants for the duckweed Lemna minor. Relevant features of L. minor include unusually high growth rates and photosynthetic capacities coupled with the ability to produce high levels of photoprotective xanthophylls across a wide range of growth light environments without compromising photosynthetic efficiency. These features also allow L. minor to maximize productivity and avoid problems during an abrupt experimental transfer of low-light-grown plants to high light. The contrasting responses of land plants and floating aquatic plants to the light environment further emphasize the need of land plants to, e.g., experience light fluctuations in their growth environment before they induce acclimatory adjustments that allow them to take full advantage of natural settings with such fluctuations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photosynthesis under Environmental Fluctuations)

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