Editorial

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3 pages, 180 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: “Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover”

by Giovanni Cilia

Pathogens 2022, 11(1), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11010077 - 08 Jan 2022

Viewed by 1562

Abstract

Honey bee health is a very important topic that has recently raised the interest of researchers [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

Research

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17 pages, 472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Screening of Dietary Ingredients against the Honey Bee Parasite Nosema ceranae

by Chiara Braglia, Daniele Alberoni, Martin Pablo Porrini, Paula Melisa Garrido, Loredana Baffoni and Diana Di Gioia

Pathogens 2021, 10(9), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091117 - 01 Sep 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5624

Abstract

Nosema ceranae is a major pathogen in the beekeeping sector, responsible for nosemosis. This disease is hard to manage since its symptomatology is masked until a strong collapse of the colony population occurs. Conversely, no medicaments are available in the market to counteract [...] Read more.

Nosema ceranae is a major pathogen in the beekeeping sector, responsible for nosemosis. This disease is hard to manage since its symptomatology is masked until a strong collapse of the colony population occurs. Conversely, no medicaments are available in the market to counteract nosemosis, and only a few feed additives, with claimed antifungal action, are available. New solutions are strongly required, especially based on natural methods alternative to veterinary drugs that might develop resistance or strongly pollute honey bees and the environment. This study aims at investigating the nosemosis antiparasitic potential of some plant extracts, microbial fermentation products, organic acids, food chain waste products, bacteriocins, and fungi. Honey bees were singularly infected with 5 × 10

^{4}

freshly prepared N. ceranae spores, reared in cages and fed ad libitum with sugar syrup solution containing the active ingredient. N. ceranae in the gut of honey bees was estimated using qPCR. The results showed that some of the ingredients administered, such as acetic acid at high concentration, p-coumaric acid, and Saccharomyces sp. strain KIA1, were effective in the control of nosemosis. On the other hand, wine acetic acid strongly increased the N. ceranae amount. This study investigates the possibility of using compounds such as organic acids or biological agents including those at the base of the circular economy, i.e., wine waste production, in order to improve honeybee health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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10 pages, 2286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Bee Population Decline in Lombardy during the Period 2014–2016 and Identification of High-Risk Areas

by Veronica Cappa, Monica Pierangela Cerioli, Alessandra Scaburri, Marco Tironi, Marco Farioli, Claudia Nassuato and Silvia Bellini

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10081004 - 09 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2429

Abstract

The first events of bee decline in Italy were reported during 1999. Since then, population decline has frequently been reported in Lombardy. In this study, the association between bee decline and the type of land surrounding the apiary was evaluated. A risk map [...] Read more.

The first events of bee decline in Italy were reported during 1999. Since then, population decline has frequently been reported in Lombardy. In this study, the association between bee decline and the type of land surrounding the apiary was evaluated. A risk map was developed to identify areas with the highest risk of decline. Apiaries in Lombardy were selected from the national beekeeping database (BDA). The study period was from 2014 to 2016. Apiaries were deemed “declined” if they reported at least one event of decline or tested positive for plant protection products; apiaries were “not declined” if they did not report any events of bee decline during the study period. Out of 14,188 apiaries extracted from the BDA, 80 were considered declined. The probability of an apiary being declined increases by 10% in orchards and by 2% in arable land for each additional km² of land occupied by these crops. The study showed an association between bee decline and the type of territory surrounding the apiaries, and the areas at the greatest risk of decline in Lombardy were identified. This information can be used by Veterinary Services as a predictive parameter for planning prevention and control activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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12 pages, 1996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Pathogens Spillover and Incidence Correlation in Bumblebees and Honeybees in Slovenia

by Metka Pislak Ocepek, Ivan Toplak, Urška Zajc and Danilo Bevk

Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070884 - 12 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2846

Abstract

Slovenia has a long tradition of beekeeping and a high density of honeybee colonies, but less is known about bumblebees and their pathogens. Therefore, a study was conducted to define the incidence and prevalence of pathogens in bumblebees and to determine whether there [...] Read more.

Slovenia has a long tradition of beekeeping and a high density of honeybee colonies, but less is known about bumblebees and their pathogens. Therefore, a study was conducted to define the incidence and prevalence of pathogens in bumblebees and to determine whether there are links between infections in bumblebees and honeybees. In 2017 and 2018, clinically healthy workers of bumblebees (Bombus spp.) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) were collected on flowers at four different locations in Slovenia. In addition, bumblebee queens were also collected in 2018. Several pathogens were detected in the bumblebee workers using PCR and RT-PCR methods: 8.8% on acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), 58.5% on black queen cell virus (BQCV), 6.8% on deformed wing virus (DWV), 24.5% on sacbrood bee virus (SBV), 15.6% on Lake Sinai virus (LSV), 16.3% on Nosema bombi, 8.2% on Nosema ceranae, 15.0% on Apicystis bombi and 17.0% on Crithidia bombi. In bumblebee queens, only the presence of BQCV, A. bombi and C. bombi was detected with 73.3, 26.3 and 33.3% positive samples, respectively. This study confirmed that several pathogens are regularly detected in both bumblebees and honeybees. Further studies on the pathogen transmission routes are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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13 pages, 1805 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Histopathological Features of Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Honeybees Naturally Infected by Deformed Wing Virus

by Karen Power, Manuela Martano, Gennaro Altamura, Nadia Piscopo and Paola Maiolino

Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070874 - 10 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2257

Abstract

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is capable of infecting honeybees at every stage of development causing symptomatic and asymptomatic infections. To date, very little is known about the histopathological lesions caused by the virus. Therefore, 40 honeybee samples were randomly collected from a naturally [...] Read more.

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is capable of infecting honeybees at every stage of development causing symptomatic and asymptomatic infections. To date, very little is known about the histopathological lesions caused by the virus. Therefore, 40 honeybee samples were randomly collected from a naturally DWV infected hive and subjected to anatomopathological examination to discriminate between symptomatic (29) and asymptomatic (11) honeybees. Subsequently, 15 honeybee samples were frozen at −80° and analyzed by PCR and RTqPCR to determinate the presence/absence of the virus and the relative viral load, while 25 honeybee samples were analyzed by histopathological techniques. Biomolecular results showed a fragment of the expected size (69bp) of DWV in all samples and the viral load was higher in symptomatic honeybees compared to the asymptomatic group. Histopathological results showed degenerative alterations of the hypopharyngeal glands (19/25) and flight muscles (6/25) in symptomatic samples while 4/25 asymptomatic samples showed an inflammatory response in the midgut and the hemocele. Results suggest a possible pathogenic action of DWV in both symptomatic and asymptomatic honeybees, and a role of the immune response in keeping under control the virus in asymptomatic individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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11 pages, 4660 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The First Detection and Genetic Characterization of Four Different Honeybee Viruses in Wild Bumblebees from Croatia

by Ivana Tlak Gajger, Laura Šimenc and Ivan Toplak

Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070808 - 25 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2260

Abstract

To determine the presence and the prevalence of four different honeybee viruses (acute bee paralysis virus—ABPV, black queen cell virus—BQCV, chronic bee paralysis virus—CBPV, deformed wing virus—DWV) in wild bumblebees, pooled randomly selected bumblebee samples were collected from twenty-seven different locations in the [...] Read more.

To determine the presence and the prevalence of four different honeybee viruses (acute bee paralysis virus—ABPV, black queen cell virus—BQCV, chronic bee paralysis virus—CBPV, deformed wing virus—DWV) in wild bumblebees, pooled randomly selected bumblebee samples were collected from twenty-seven different locations in the territory of Croatia. All samples were prepared and examined using the RT-PCR methods for quantification of mentioned honeybee viruses. Determined prevalence (%) of identified positive viruses were in the following decreasing order: BQCV > DWV > ABPV, CBPV. Additionally, direct sequencing of samples positive for BQCV (n = 24) and DWV (n = 2) was performed, as well as a test of molecular phylogeny comparison with those available in GenBank. Selected positive field viruses’ strains showed 95.7 to 100% (BQCV) and 98.09% (DWV) nucleotide identity with previously detected and deposited honeybee virus strains in the geographic areas in Croatia and neighboring Slovenia. In this article, the first detection of four honeybee viruses with genetic characterization of high diversity strains circulating in wild bumblebees in Croatia is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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17 pages, 5329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Propolis Extract and Chitosan Improve Health of Nosema ceranae Infected Giant Honey Bees, Apis dorsata Fabricius, 1793

by Sanchai Naree, Rujira Ponkit, Evada Chotiaroonrat, Christopher L. Mayack and Guntima Suwannapong

Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070785 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3089

Abstract

Nosema ceranae is a large contributing factor to the most recent decline in honey bee health worldwide. Developing new alternative treatments against N. ceranae is particularly pressing because there are few treatment options available and therefore the risk of increased antibiotic resistance is [...] Read more.

Nosema ceranae is a large contributing factor to the most recent decline in honey bee health worldwide. Developing new alternative treatments against N. ceranae is particularly pressing because there are few treatment options available and therefore the risk of increased antibiotic resistance is quite high. Recently, natural products have demonstrated to be a promising avenue for finding new effective treatments against N. ceranae. We evaluated the effects of propolis extract of stingless bee, Tetrigona apicalis and chito-oligosaccharide (COS) on giant honey bees, Apis dorsata, experimentally infected with N. ceranae to determine if these treatments could improve the health of the infected individuals. Newly emerged Nosema-free bees were individually inoculated with 10⁶N. ceranae spores per bee. We fed infected and control bees the following treatments consisting of 0%, 50%, propolis extracts, 0 ppm and 0.5 ppm COS in honey solution (w/v). Propolis extracts and COS caused a significant increase in trehalose levels in hemolymph, protein contents, survival rates and acini diameters of the hypopharyngeal glands in infected bees. Our results suggest that propolis and COS could improve the health of infected bees. Further research is needed to determine the underlying mechanisms responsible for the improved health of the infected bees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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12 pages, 494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

To Treat or Not to Treat Bees? Handy VarLoad: A Predictive Model for Varroa destructor Load

by Hélène Dechatre, Lucie Michel, Samuel Soubeyrand, Alban Maisonnasse, Pierre Moreau, Yannick Poquet, Maryline Pioz, Cyril Vidau, Benjamin Basso, Fanny Mondet and André Kretzschmar

Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060678 - 30 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2989

Abstract

The parasitic Varroa destructor is considered a major pathogenic threat to honey bees and to beekeeping. Without regular treatment against this mite, honey bee colonies can collapse within a 2–3-year period in temperate climates. Beyond this dramatic scenario, Varroa induces reductions in colony [...] Read more.

The parasitic Varroa destructor is considered a major pathogenic threat to honey bees and to beekeeping. Without regular treatment against this mite, honey bee colonies can collapse within a 2–3-year period in temperate climates. Beyond this dramatic scenario, Varroa induces reductions in colony performance, which can have significant economic impacts for beekeepers. Unfortunately, until now, it has not been possible to predict the summer Varroa population size from its initial load in early spring. Here, we present models that use the Varroa load observed in the spring to predict the Varroa load one or three months later by using easily and quickly measurable data: phoretic Varroa load and capped brood cell numbers. Built on 1030 commercial colonies located in three regions in the south of France and sampled over a three-year period, these predictive models are tools designed to help professional beekeepers’ decision making regarding treatments against Varroa. Using these models, beekeepers will either be able to evaluate the risks and benefits of treating against Varroa or to anticipate the reduction in colony performance due to the mite during the beekeeping season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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17 pages, 1583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amplicon Sequencing of Variable 16S rRNA from Bacteria and ITS2 Regions from Fungi and Plants, Reveals Honeybee Susceptibility to Diseases Results from Their Forage Availability under Anthropogenic Landscapes

by Aneta A. Ptaszyńska, Przemyslaw Latoch, Paul J. Hurd, Andrew Polaszek, Joanna Michalska-Madej, Łukasz Grochowalski, Dominik Strapagiel, Sebastian Gnat, Daniel Załuski, Marek Gancarz, Robert Rusinek, Patcharin Krutmuang, Raquel Martín Hernández, Mariano Higes Pascual and Agata L. Starosta

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030381 - 22 Mar 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5296

Abstract

European Apis mellifera and Asian Apis cerana honeybees are essential crop pollinators. Microbiome studies can provide complex information on health and fitness of these insects in relation to environmental changes, and plant availability. Amplicon sequencing of variable regions of the 16S rRNA from [...] Read more.

European Apis mellifera and Asian Apis cerana honeybees are essential crop pollinators. Microbiome studies can provide complex information on health and fitness of these insects in relation to environmental changes, and plant availability. Amplicon sequencing of variable regions of the 16S rRNA from bacteria and the internally transcribed spacer (ITS) regions from fungi and plants allow identification of the metabiome. These methods provide a tool for monitoring otherwise uncultured microbes isolated from the gut of the honeybees. They also help monitor the composition of the gut fungi and, intriguingly, pollen collected by the insect. Here, we present data from amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA from bacteria and ITS2 regions from fungi and plants derived from honeybees collected at various time points from anthropogenic landscapes such as urban areas in Poland, UK, Spain, Greece, and Thailand. We have analysed microbial content of honeybee intestine as well as fungi and pollens. Furthermore, isolated DNA was used as the template for screening pathogens: Nosema apis, N. ceranae, N. bombi, tracheal mite (Acarapis woodi), any organism in the parasitic order Trypanosomatida, including Crithidia spp. (i.e., Crithidia mellificae), neogregarines including Mattesia and Apicystis spp. (i.e., Apicistis bombi). We conclude that differences between samples were mainly influenced by the bacteria, plant pollen and fungi, respectively. Moreover, honeybees feeding on a sugar based diet were more prone to fungal pathogens (Nosema ceranae) and neogregarines. In most samples Nosema sp. and neogregarines parasitized the host bee at the same time. A higher load of fungi, and bacteria groups such as Firmicutes (Lactobacillus); γ-proteobacteria, Neisseriaceae, and other unidentified bacteria was observed for Nosema ceranae and neogregarine infected honeybees. Healthy honeybees had a higher load of plant pollen, and bacteria groups such as: Orbales, Gilliamella, Snodgrassella, and Enterobacteriaceae. Finally, the period when honeybees switch to the winter generation (longer-lived forager honeybees) is the most sensitive to diet perturbations, and hence pathogen attack, for the whole beekeeping season. It is possible that evolutionary adaptation of bees fails to benefit them in the modern anthropomorphised environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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11 pages, 950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae and Replicative Forms of Deformed Wing Virus and Kashmir Bee Virus in the Small Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida)

by Antonio Nanetti, James D. Ellis, Ilaria Cardaio and Giovanni Cilia

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030372 - 19 Mar 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3229

Abstract

Knowledge regarding the honey bee pathogens borne by invasive bee pests remains scarce. This investigation aimed to assess the presence in Aethina tumida (small hive beetle, SHB) adults of honey bee pathogens belonging to the following groups: (i) bacteria (Paenibacillus larvae and [...] Read more.

Knowledge regarding the honey bee pathogens borne by invasive bee pests remains scarce. This investigation aimed to assess the presence in Aethina tumida (small hive beetle, SHB) adults of honey bee pathogens belonging to the following groups: (i) bacteria (Paenibacillus larvae and Melissococcus plutonius), (ii) trypanosomatids (Lotmaria passim and Crithidia mellificae), and (iii) viruses (black queen cell virus, Kashmir bee virus, deformed wing virus, slow paralysis virus, sacbrood virus, Israeli acute paralysis virus, acute bee paralysis virus, chronic bee paralysis virus). Specimens were collected from free-flying colonies in Gainesville (Florida, USA) in summer 2017. The results of the molecular analysis show the presence of L. passim, C. mellificae, and replicative forms of deformed wing virus (DWV) and Kashmir bee virus (KBV). Replicative forms of KBV have not previously been reported. These results support the hypothesis of pathogen spillover between managed honey bees and the SHB, and these dynamics require further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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18 pages, 1345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Herbal Supplements NOZEMAT HERB^® and NOZEMAT HERB PLUS^®: An Alternative Therapy for N. ceranae Infection and Its Effects on Honey Bee Strength and Production Traits

by Rositsa Shumkova, Ralitsa Balkanska and Peter Hristov

Pathogens 2021, 10(2), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020234 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4728

Abstract

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are the most effective pollinators for different crops and wild flowering plants, thus maintaining numerous ecosystems in the world. However, honey bee colonies often suffer from stress or even death due to various pests and diseases. Among [...] Read more.

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are the most effective pollinators for different crops and wild flowering plants, thus maintaining numerous ecosystems in the world. However, honey bee colonies often suffer from stress or even death due to various pests and diseases. Among the latter, nosemosis is considered to be one of the most common diseases, causing serious damage to beekeeping every year. Here, we present, for the first time, the effects from the application of the herbal supplements NOZEMAT HERB^® (NH) and NOZEMAT HERB PLUS^® (NHP) for treating N. ceranae infection and positively influencing the general development of honey bee colonies. To achieve this, in autumn 2019, 45 colonies were selected based on the presence of N. ceranae infections. The treatment was carried out for 11 months (August 2019–June 2020). All colonies were sampled pre- and post-treatment for the presence of N. ceranae by means of light microscopy and PCR analysis. The honey bee colonies’ performance and health were evaluated pre- and post-treatment. The obtained results have shown that both supplements have exhibited statistically significant biological activity against N. ceranae in infected apiaries. Considerable enhancement in the strength of honey bee colonies and the amount of sealed workers was observed just one month after the application of NH and NHP. Although the mechanisms of action of NH and NHP against N. ceranae infection are yet to be completely elucidated, our results suggest a new holistic approach as an alternative therapy to control nosemosis and to improve honey bee colonies’ performance and health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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18 pages, 2480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Sequencing and Comparison of Sacbrood Viruses from Apis cerana and Apis mellifera in Taiwan

by Ju-Chun Chang, Zih-Ting Chang, Chong-Yu Ko, Yue-Wen Chen and Yu-Shin Nai

Pathogens 2021, 10(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10010014 - 28 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2665

Abstract

Sacbrood virus (SBV) was the first identified bee virus and shown to cause serious epizootic infections in the population of Apis cerana in Taiwan in 2015. Herein, the whole genome sequences of SBVs in A. cerana and A. mellifera were decoded and designated [...] Read more.

Sacbrood virus (SBV) was the first identified bee virus and shown to cause serious epizootic infections in the population of Apis cerana in Taiwan in 2015. Herein, the whole genome sequences of SBVs in A. cerana and A. mellifera were decoded and designated AcSBV-TW and AmSBV-TW, respectively. The whole genomes of AcSBV-TW and AmSBV-TW were 8776 and 8885 bp, respectively, and shared 90% identity. Each viral genome encoded a polyprotein, which consisted of 2841 aa in AcSBV-TW and 2859 aa in AmSBV-TW, and these sequences shared 95% identity. Compared to 54 other SBVs, the structural protein and protease regions showed high variation, while the helicase was the most highly conserved region among SBVs. Moreover, a 17-amino-acid deletion was found in viral protein 1 (VP1) region of AcSBV-TW compared to AmSBV-TW. The phylogenetic analysis based on the polyprotein sequences and partial VP1 region indicated that AcSBV-TW was grouped into the SBV clade with the AC-genotype (17-aa deletion) and was closely related to AmSBV-SDLY and CSBV-FZ, while AmSBV-TW was grouped into the AM-genotype clade but branched independently from other AmSBVs, indicating that the divergent genomic characteristics of AmSBV-TW might be a consequence of geographic distance driving evolution, and AcSBV-TW was closely related to CSBV-FZ, which originated from China. This 17-amino-acid deletion could be found in either AcSBV or AmSBV in Taiwan, indicating cross-infection between the two viruses. Our data revealed geographic and host specificities between SBVs. The amino acid difference in the VP1 region might serve as a molecular marker for describing SBV cross-infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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23 pages, 3866 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Pathogens Spillover from Honey Bees to Other Arthropods

by Antonio Nanetti, Laura Bortolotti and Giovanni Cilia

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10081044 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 7500

Abstract

Honey bees, and pollinators in general, play a major role in the health of ecosystems. There is a consensus about the steady decrease in pollinator populations, which raises global ecological concern. Several drivers are implicated in this threat. Among them, honey bee pathogens [...] Read more.

Honey bees, and pollinators in general, play a major role in the health of ecosystems. There is a consensus about the steady decrease in pollinator populations, which raises global ecological concern. Several drivers are implicated in this threat. Among them, honey bee pathogens are transmitted to other arthropods populations, including wild and managed pollinators. The western honey bee, Apis mellifera, is quasi-globally spread. This successful species acted as and, in some cases, became a maintenance host for pathogens. This systematic review collects and summarizes spillover cases having in common Apis mellifera as the mainteinance host and some of its pathogens. The reports are grouped by final host species and condition, year, and geographic area of detection and the co-occurrence in the same host. A total of eighty-one articles in the time frame 1960–2021 were included. The reported spillover cases cover a wide range of hymenopteran host species, generally living in close contact with or sharing the same environmental resources as the honey bees. They also involve non-hymenopteran arthropods, like spiders and roaches, which are either likely or unlikely to live in close proximity to honey bees. Specific studies should consider host-dependent pathogen modifications and effects on involved host species. Both the plasticity of bee pathogens and the ecological consequences of spillover suggest a holistic approach to bee health and the implementation of a One Health approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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13 pages, 775 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

A Case Report of Chronic Stress in Honey Bee Colonies Induced by Pathogens and Acaricide Residues

by Elena Alonso-Prados, Amelia-Virginia González-Porto, José Luis Bernal, José Bernal, Raquel Martín-Hernández and Mariano Higes

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 955; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080955 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2406

Abstract

In this case report, we analyze the possible causes of the poor health status of a professional Apis mellifera iberiensis apiary located in Gajanejos (Guadalajara, Spain). Several factors that potentially favor colony collapse were identified, including Nosema ceranae infection, alone or in combination [...] Read more.

In this case report, we analyze the possible causes of the poor health status of a professional Apis mellifera iberiensis apiary located in Gajanejos (Guadalajara, Spain). Several factors that potentially favor colony collapse were identified, including Nosema ceranae infection, alone or in combination with other factors (e.g., BQCV and DWV infection), and the accumulation of acaricides commonly used to control Varroa destructor in the beebread (coumaphos and tau-fluvalinate). Based on the levels of residues, the average toxic unit estimated for the apiary suggests a possible increase in vulnerability to infection by N. ceranae due to the presence of high levels of acaricides and the unusual climatic conditions of the year of the collapse event. These data highlight the importance of evaluating these factors in future monitoring programs, as well as the need to adopt adequate preventive measures as part of national and international welfare programs aimed at guaranteeing the health and fitness of bees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infection in Honey Bees: Host–Pathogen Interaction and Spillover)

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