Research

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21 pages, 9987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermo-Mechanical Study of TIG Welding of Ti-6Al-4V for Residual Stresses Considering Solid State Phase Transformation

by Jingang Liu, Jianyun Zheng, Bing Fu, Lei Bu, Ruiqi Li and Songye Liu

Metals 2023, 13(5), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13051001 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1173

To overcome the detrimental effect of residual stress in welded joints, which affects the overall performance of the welded structure, this paper studies the magnitude and distribution of residual stress after welding and local post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). The coupled thermo-metallurgical-mechanical model for [...] Read more.

To overcome the detrimental effect of residual stress in welded joints, which affects the overall performance of the welded structure, this paper studies the magnitude and distribution of residual stress after welding and local post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). The coupled thermo-metallurgical-mechanical model for welding 6 mm thick Ti-6Al-4V (TC4) titanium alloy plates was established, the evolution of the SSPT and its effect on the residual stress were quantitatively analyzed, and a parametric analysis of local PWHT was performed. The results demonstrated that there was good agreement between the numerical results and the experimental data. Due to the cooling rate reaching 327 °C/s, the volume fraction of α^、 in the fusion zone (FZ) reached 0.218 after welding and decreased by 90.83% after PWHT when the heating temperature was 700 °C. The peak value of the longitudinal residual stress can reach 686.4 MPa after welding with SSPT, which was 11.38% lower than that without SSPT, and it decreased by 65.6% after PWHT when the heating temperature was 900 °C. The research results demonstrate that SSPT has a significant effect on residual stress, and PWHT can obviously reduce the residual stress, which provides a certain reference for welding TC4 titanium alloy plates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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20 pages, 4568 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Transient Strain Monitoring of Weldments Using Distributed Fiber Optic System

by David Mackey, Marcias Martinez, John Goldak, Stanislav Tchernov and Daryush K. Aidun

Metals 2023, 13(5), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050865 - 29 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1030

Abstract

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the capability of a distributed fiber optic sensor to capture in situ dynamic transient strain formation during and post-weldment on the surface of a steel plate. The study involved a vertical manual weld of [...] Read more.

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the capability of a distributed fiber optic sensor to capture in situ dynamic transient strain formation during and post-weldment on the surface of a steel plate. The study involved a vertical manual weld of a bead on a plate on a 300 mm × 300 mm × 6.35 mm A36 steel plate (European equivalent S235J2; Chinese equivalent Q235B) clamped at the corners. A fiber optic distributed sensor was used to measure the surface total and thermal strains on the welded side of the plate adjacent to the weld path. Experimental results show a complex behavior of strain changes during the welding process and the residual strain formation post-welding. This study aims to document the use of distributed fiber optic sensing techniques in welding applications. Validations of the experimental data were performed using VrWeld, a commercial software framework for computational weld mechanics, and an iPhone FLIR One Pro. thermographic camera. The experimental results demonstrated that although distributed fiber optic sensing based on Rayleigh backscattering is an appropriate and useful technique for total strain measurements, the manufacturing and the materials used for the thermal sensors are critical in obtaining optimal results. Finally, this study highlights the challenges encountered in synchronizing large experimental data sets captured with different instruments with computational welding mechanic (CWM) models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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18 pages, 8334 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Simulation and Optimization of Traveling Induction Heating Process for Welding Deformation Rectification in High Strength Steel Sheet

by Yulong Feng, Yujun Liu, Ji Wang and Rui Li

Metals 2023, 13(2), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13020425 - 18 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1382

Abstract

To observe the evolution mechanism of physical fields in the welding deformation rectification process by a traveling induction heating, research on simulation models of welding—induction heating continuous process were carried out. High-strength steel plates were selected for welding deformation experiment and induction heating [...] Read more.

To observe the evolution mechanism of physical fields in the welding deformation rectification process by a traveling induction heating, research on simulation models of welding—induction heating continuous process were carried out. High-strength steel plates were selected for welding deformation experiment and induction heating rectification experiment in turn, and the stress field and strain field distribution after various processes were measured and recorded. Then, according to the construction process, an integrated model of welding-induction heating based on moving mesh method was analyzed and established by Ansys FE software, moreover, another progressive integrated model established based on the re-defined element attributes method was studied, and the calculation accuracy of these models were compared as well as the characteristics were analyzed. The research results show that these two integrated models can accurately reflect the evolution law of each physical field in the process of welding and induction heating, and the re-defined element attributes method is more suitable for the research of welding deformation and induction heating rectification process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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15 pages, 8330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of the Donor-Assisted Stir Material for Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys and Carbon Steel

by Joseph Maniscalco, Abdelmageed A. Elmustafa, Srinivasa Bhukya and Zhenhua Wu

Metals 2023, 13(1), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13010164 - 13 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1437

Abstract

In this research effort, we explore the use of a donor material to help heat workpieces without wearing the tool or adding more heat than necessary to the system. The donor material would typically be a small piece (or pieces) of material, presumably [...] Read more.

In this research effort, we explore the use of a donor material to help heat workpieces without wearing the tool or adding more heat than necessary to the system. The donor material would typically be a small piece (or pieces) of material, presumably of lower strength than the workpiece but with a comparable melting point. The donor, a sandwich material, is positioned between the tool head and the material to be welded, where the tool initially plunges and heats up in the same manner as the parent material that is intended for welding. The donor material heats up subsequent to tool penetration due to friction and as a result heats up the material beneath it. This preheating technique softens the harder parent material, which helps to minimize tool wear and produce better weld performance. The goal is to investigate the use of the donor material as a preheating technique that minimizes wear and tear on the tool head without negatively impacting the structural properties of the weld. To demonstrate the donor material concept, a combination of Cu-Al, Cu-1045 Carbon steel (CS), and Al-1045 CS sets of donor and parent materials were used in the simulation, in addition to control samples Al-Al and CS-CS. We simulated two thicknesses of donor material 25 and 50% of the parent material thickness, respectively. The simulation suggests that the donor material concept generates phenomenal results by reducing the temperature and axial forces for the friction stir welding of aluminum AA6061 and carbon steel 1045. It also assists downstream during welding, resulting from frictional mechanical work which is converted into stored heat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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23 pages, 8433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of the Tool Tilt Angle on the Heat Generation and the Material Behavior in Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

by Bahman Meyghani and Mokhtar Awang

Metals 2022, 12(11), 1837; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111837 - 28 Oct 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1675

Abstract

To improve the accuracy of numerical simulation of friction stir welding (FSW) process, the tool tilt angle must be considered as a significant parameter. In this study, specific considerations for mechanical boundary conditions in Eulerian domain is employed to investigate the tool tilt [...] Read more.

To improve the accuracy of numerical simulation of friction stir welding (FSW) process, the tool tilt angle must be considered as a significant parameter. In this study, specific considerations for mechanical boundary conditions in Eulerian domain is employed to investigate the tool tilt angle influence on the thermomechanical behavior in FSW. Aluminum 6061-T6 with a thickness of 6 mm under a rotational speed of 800 RPM, a transverse speed of 120 mm/min, and a plunging depth of 0.1 mm were employed for the simulations. Results showed an almost symmetric temperature profile predicted by the model without considering the tool tilt angle, while after incorporating the tool tilt angle, the peak temperature point is moved to the tool backside (around 400 °C), resulting in better material bonding, enhancing the weld joint quality. Without accounting for the tool tilt angle, the highest temperature of 389 °C is observed, while with the tilt angle the maximum temperature of 413 °C is achieved. The temperature variations at different points of the leading (around 360 °C) and the trailing sides (around 400 °C) of the welding tool were measured. It was observed that, after considering the tilt angle, as the tool moves, a smooth and quick increase for the temperature at the tool trailing side is achieved. This smooth and quick increasing of the temperature at the trailing side results in reducing the possibility of the formation of defects, cracks, and voids. Finally, comparisons showed that the model computational time is acceptable, and using Eulerian formulation leads to achieving a remarkable accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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14 pages, 7261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation and Experimental Measurement of Residual Stresses in a Thick-Walled Buried-Arc Welded Pipe Structure

by Mato Perić, Ivica Garašić, Nenad Gubeljak, Zdenko Tonković, Sandro Nižetić and Krešimir Osman

Metals 2022, 12(7), 1102; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12071102 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2116

Abstract

In this study, a numerical simulation of a single pass welding of two thick-walled pipes with the buried-arc method was performed in order to determine the residual stresses caused by welding. The numerical simulation procedure in the thermal analysis was performed by the [...] Read more.

In this study, a numerical simulation of a single pass welding of two thick-walled pipes with the buried-arc method was performed in order to determine the residual stresses caused by welding. The numerical simulation procedure in the thermal analysis was performed by the element birth and death method while the structural analysis was performed simultaneously, without the application of the element birth and death technique in order to reduce the duration of the numerical simulation. The simulation results were validated by experimental residual stress measurements on the outside surfaces of the welded model using the X-ray diffraction technique. A good agreement between the results of the numerical simulation and experimental measurements was confirmed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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20 pages, 4573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Grey-Based Taguchi Multiobjective Optimization and Artificial Intelligence-Based Prediction of Dissimilar Gas Metal Arc Welding Process Performance

by Jeyaganesh Devaraj, Aiman Ziout and Jaber E. Abu Qudeiri

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1858; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111858 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1983

Abstract

The quality of a welded joint is determined by key attributes such as dilution and the weld bead geometry. Achieving optimal values associated with the above-mentioned attributes of welding is a challenging task. Selecting an appropriate method to derive the parameter optimality is [...] Read more.

The quality of a welded joint is determined by key attributes such as dilution and the weld bead geometry. Achieving optimal values associated with the above-mentioned attributes of welding is a challenging task. Selecting an appropriate method to derive the parameter optimality is the key focus of this paper. This study analyzes several versatile parametric optimization and prediction models as well as uses statistical and machine learning models for further processing. Statistical methods like grey-based Taguchi optimization is used to optimize the input parameters such as welding current, wire feed rate, welding speed, and contact tip to work distance (CTWD). Advanced features of artificial neural network (ANN) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy interface system (ANFIS) models are used to predict the values of dilution and the bead geometry obtained during the welding process. The results corresponding to the initial design of the welding process are used as training and testing data for ANN and ANFIS models. The proposed methodology is validated with various experimental results outside as well as inside the initial design. From the observations, the prediction results produced by machine learning models delivered significantly high relevance with the experimental data over the regression analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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16 pages, 3937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors for Semi-Elliptical Surface Cracks in Buried-Arc Welded Thick Plates

by Krešimir Jukić, Mato Perić, Zdenko Tonković, Ivica Skozrit and Tomislav Jarak

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1809; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111809 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2079

Abstract

The present study deals with the influence of residual stresses induced by the buried-arc welding on the crack behavior in two butt-welded 20 mm thick plates. The following steps were undertaken: the thermo-mechanical simulation of the welding process, the mapping of stress results [...] Read more.

The present study deals with the influence of residual stresses induced by the buried-arc welding on the crack behavior in two butt-welded 20 mm thick plates. The following steps were undertaken: the thermo-mechanical simulation of the welding process, the mapping of stress results from a finite element (FE) mesh used for the welding simulation to a new FE mesh with a crack, the stress balancing, and the stress intensity factor (SIF) calculation. The FE and weight function (WF) methods were used to investigate the SIFs at the deepest point of semi-elliptical surface cracks with different geometries, orientations, and positions in relation to the weld line. In the case of cracks perpendicular to the weld line, the FE and WF results showed a good agreement for smaller cracks, while deviation between the results increases with the size of the crack. Considering the SIF solutions for the cracks of arbitrary orientation, it was observed that for some cases, the SIF value for mode III of crack opening can be of significant influence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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15 pages, 7590 KiB

Open AccessArticle

FEM Simulation and Experimental Tests on the SMAW Welding of a Dissimilar T-Joint

by Raffaele Sepe, Venanzio Giannella, Alessandro Greco and Alessandro De Luca

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1016; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071016 - 24 Jun 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3334

Abstract

Residual stresses induced by the welding processes may, in some cases, result in significant warping and distortions that can endanger the integrity of the welded structures. This document reports an investigation of the welding process to make a dissimilar T-joint through an advanced [...] Read more.

Residual stresses induced by the welding processes may, in some cases, result in significant warping and distortions that can endanger the integrity of the welded structures. This document reports an investigation of the welding process to make a dissimilar T-joint through an advanced Finite Element (FE) modelling and a dedicated laboratory test. The T-joint consisted of two plates of dissimilar materials, AISI304 and S275JR steels, both having a thickness of 5 mm, welded through a Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). Thermocouples were used to acquire the temperature variations during welding. In parallel, an FE model was built and the welding process was simulated through the “element birth and death” technique. Numerical and experimental outcomes were compared in terms of temperature distributions during welding and in terms of distortion at the end of the final cooling, showing that the FE model was able to provide a high level of accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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22 pages, 12690 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Laser Welding of Al Ribbon to Cu Sheet: Weldability, Microstructure, and Mechanical and Electrical Properties

by Won-Sang Shin, Dae-Won Cho, Donghyuck Jung, Heeshin Kang, Jeng O Kim, Yoon-Jun Kim and Changkyoo Park

Metals 2021, 11(5), 831; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11050831 - 19 May 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3607

Abstract

The pulsed laser welding of Al ribbon to Cu sheet was investigated for the electrical interconnections in power electronic modules. The various experimental conditions with the different laser powers, scan speeds, and heat inputs were employed for obtaining the defect-free Al/Cu joints. During [...] Read more.

The pulsed laser welding of Al ribbon to Cu sheet was investigated for the electrical interconnections in power electronic modules. The various experimental conditions with the different laser powers, scan speeds, and heat inputs were employed for obtaining the defect-free Al/Cu joints. During the Al/Cu laser welding, the intermetallic compounds were formed in the welding zone. An electron probe microanalyzer and transmission electron microscopy confirmed the phases of intermetallic compounds, which were found to be Al₄Cu₉, Al₂Cu, AlCu, etc. The computational fluid dynamics simulation revealed that the Marangoni effect induced the circulation of the molten pool, resulting in the mixture of Al and Cu and the formation of swirl-like structures at the Al/Cu joints. The tensile shear strengths and electrical resistances of the Al/Cu joints were measured, and they showed a strong correlation with the welding area. A decrease in mechanical strength and an increase in electrical resistance were measured with increasing the welding area of Al/Cu joints. Moreover, the process window for the defect-free Al/Cu joints was developed, and the experimental conditions for Al/Cu laser braze-welding were examined to minimize the intermetallic compounds formation at the Al/Cu joints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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15 pages, 6708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Analysis of the Welding Behaviors in Micro-Copper Bumps

by Yeong-Maw Hwang, Cheng-Tang Pan, Bo-Syun Chen and Sheng-Rui Jian

Metals 2021, 11(3), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11030460 - 11 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1773

Abstract

In this study, three-dimensional simulations of the ultrasonic vibration bonding process of micro-copper blocks were conducted using the finite element method. We analyzed the effects of ultrasonic vibration frequency on the stress field, strain field, and temperature field at the copper bump joint [...] Read more.

In this study, three-dimensional simulations of the ultrasonic vibration bonding process of micro-copper blocks were conducted using the finite element method. We analyzed the effects of ultrasonic vibration frequency on the stress field, strain field, and temperature field at the copper bump joint surface. The results showed that the bonding process is successfully simulated at room temperature. The stress curve of the bonding process could be divided into three stages: stress rising stage, stress falling stage, and stress stabilization stage. Moreover, it was found that the end of the curve exhibited characteristics of a solid solution phase at higher frequencies. It is hypothesized that the high-density dislocations formed at this stage may result in conveyance channels that facilitate the atomic diffusion at the contact surface. The simulation results indicated that copper micro-bump bonding occurs at an ultrasonic frequency of 50 kHz or higher. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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Review

Jump to: Research

31 pages, 10317 KiB

Open AccessReview

by Jeyaganesh Devaraj, Aiman Ziout and Jaber E. Abu Qudeiri

Metals 2021, 11(9), 1486; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091486 - 18 Sep 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4935

Abstract

In recent years Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) technology has expanded its functionalities in various areas which have further motivated its usage in several emerging manufacturing industries. There are several issues and challenges associated with this technology, especially in dissimilar metal welding (DMW). [...] Read more.

In recent years Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) technology has expanded its functionalities in various areas which have further motivated its usage in several emerging manufacturing industries. There are several issues and challenges associated with this technology, especially in dissimilar metal welding (DMW). One of the predominant challenges is selecting appropriate welding parameters which influence the efficiency of this technology. To explore several modern advancements in this expertise, this paper has done an exclusive survey on various standards of GMAW and its variants for selecting suitable parameters for welding dissimilar nonferrous metals. This review summarizes various experimental and numerical results along with related illustrations to highlight the feasibility of welding dissimilar nonferrous metals using traditional GMAW and investigations on advanced GMAW processes such as cold metal transfer (CMT) and pulsed GMAW (P-GMAW). Simulation and modeling of nonferrous DMW have identified several research gaps and modeling problems. Researchers and manufacturers can use this review as a guideline to choose appropriate welding parameters to implement GMAW and its variants for non-ferrous dissimilar welding. It found that by controlling the heat input and effective post-heat treatments, adequate joint properties can be achieved. Automated large -scale manufacturing will widen the utilization scope of GMAW and avoid some costly methods such as laser welding, ultrasonic welding, and friction stir welding etc. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulation of Metals Welding Process)

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