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Marine Drugs
Special Issues
Emerging Toxins Accumulation in Shellfish
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Emerging Toxins Accumulation in Shellfish

A special issue of Marine Drugs (ISSN 1660-3397). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2024 | Viewed by 8476

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sandra Lage

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CCMAR—Center of Marine Sciences, Campus of Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
Interests: microalgae; metabolites; biotoxins; chemical-interactions
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

While the most common harmful algal bloom (HAB) toxins have been widely reported and explored, a huge range of “emerging toxins” constitute a substantial gap in our understanding. These “emerging toxins” are defined as (i) toxins that appear in waters and seafood where they were previously absent, (ii) non-regulated known toxins, which are considered to be of concern but require additional toxicological evidence before establishing further regulations, and (iii) recently discovered toxins. The lack of occurrence data makes it difficult to fully comprehend the potential impacts of these toxins. Therefore, the purpose of this Special Issue is to encourage the publication of research articles devoted to the detection and quantification of emerging toxins in commercially important shellfish species.

Dr. Sandra Lage
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Marine Drugs is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • spirolides
  • yessotoxins
  • pectenotoxins
  • palytoxins
  • tetrodotoxins
  • ciguatoxins
  • saxitoxins
  • BMAA
  • occurrence data
  • seafood safety
  • harmful algal blooms

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 5294 KiB  
Communication
First Report of Pinnatoxin-G (PnTX-G) in a Marine–Coastal Area of the Adriatic Sea Associated with the Presence of the Dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum
by Monica Cangini, Sonia Dall’Ara, Silva Rubini, Barbara Bertasi, Paolo Rizzi, Giovanni Dell’Orfano, Stefania Milandri, Stefano Manfredini, Erika Baldini and Silvia Vertuani
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(3), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22030122 - 05 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1004
Abstract
This study reports the first detection of the marine neurotoxin pinnatoxin-G (PnTX-G) in clams collected in the northwestern Adriatic Sea (Italy). It also represents the first report of the potential toxin-producing dinoflagellate, Vulcanodinium rugosum, in Italian seas. This result, from the coasts [...] Read more.
This study reports the first detection of the marine neurotoxin pinnatoxin-G (PnTX-G) in clams collected in the northwestern Adriatic Sea (Italy). It also represents the first report of the potential toxin-producing dinoflagellate, Vulcanodinium rugosum, in Italian seas. This result, from the coasts of the Emilia-Romagna Region, indicates a successful colonization process, reflecting conditions in France where V. rugosum was initially documented. In this case, the concentration of PnTXs was very low, making further sampling necessary to fully understand the extent of the phenomenon. Discussions on the need to obtain more data to support a proper risk assessment and the need to implement a monitoring program that includes emerging marine biotoxins are also included. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Toxins Accumulation in Shellfish)
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19 pages, 2499 KiB  
Article
Acute Effects of Brevetoxin-3 Administered via Oral Gavage to Mice
by Peggy Barbe, Jordi Molgó, Robert Thai, Apolline Urman, Denis Servent, Nathalie Arnich and Mathilde Keck
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(12), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21120644 - 16 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1522
Abstract
Brevetoxins (BTXs) constitute a family of lipid-soluble toxic cyclic polyethers mainly produced by Karenia brevis, which is the main vector for a foodborne syndrome known as neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) in humans. To prevent health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated shellfish [...] Read more.
Brevetoxins (BTXs) constitute a family of lipid-soluble toxic cyclic polyethers mainly produced by Karenia brevis, which is the main vector for a foodborne syndrome known as neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) in humans. To prevent health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated shellfish in France, the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) recommended assessing the effects of BTXs via an acute oral toxicity study in rodents. Here, we investigated the effect of a single oral administration in both male and female mice with several doses of BTX-3 (100 to 1,500 µg kg−1 bw) during a 48 h observation period in order to provide toxicity data to be used as a starting point for establishing an acute oral reference dose (ARfD). We monitored biological parameters and observed symptomatology, revealing different effects of this toxin depending on the sex. Females were more sensitive than males to the impact of BTX-3 at the lowest doses on weight loss. For both males and females, BTX-3 induced a rapid, transient and dose-dependent decrease in body temperature, and a transient dose-dependent reduced muscle activity. Males were more sensitive to BTX-3 than females with more frequent observations of failures in the grip test, convulsive jaw movements, and tremors. BTX-3’s impacts on symptomatology were rapid, appearing during the 2 h after administration, and were transient, disappearing 24 h after administration. The highest dose of BTX-3 administered in this study, 1,500 µg kg−1 bw, was more toxic to males, leading to the euthanasia of three out of five males only 4 h after administration. BTX-3 had no effect on water intake, and affected neither the plasma chemistry parameters nor the organs’ weight. We identified potential points of departure that could be used to establish an ARfD (decrease in body weight, body temperature, and muscle activity). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Toxins Accumulation in Shellfish)
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23 pages, 3670 KiB  
Article
Five Years Monitoring the Emergence of Unregulated Toxins in Shellfish in France (EMERGTOX 2018–2022)
by Zouher Amzil, Amélie Derrien, Aouregan Terre Terrillon, Véronique Savar, Thomas Bertin, Marion Peyrat, Audrey Duval, Korian Lhaute, Nathalie Arnich, Vincent Hort and Marina Nicolas
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(8), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21080435 - 31 Jul 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1640
Abstract
Shellfish accumulate microalgal toxins, which can make them unsafe for human consumption. In France, in accordance with EU regulations, three groups of marine toxins are currently under official monitoring: lipophilic toxins, saxitoxins, and domoic acid. Other unregulated toxin groups are also present in [...] Read more.
Shellfish accumulate microalgal toxins, which can make them unsafe for human consumption. In France, in accordance with EU regulations, three groups of marine toxins are currently under official monitoring: lipophilic toxins, saxitoxins, and domoic acid. Other unregulated toxin groups are also present in European shellfish, including emerging lipophilic and hydrophilic marine toxins (e.g., pinnatoxins, brevetoxins) and the neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA). To acquire data on emerging toxins in France, the monitoring program EMERGTOX was set up along the French coasts in 2018. Three new broad-spectrum LC-MS/MS methods were developed to quantify regulated and unregulated lipophilic and hydrophilic toxins and the BMAA group in shellfish (bivalve mollusks and gastropods). A single-laboratory validation of each of these methods was performed. Additionally, these specific, reliable, and sensitive operating procedures allowed the detection of groups of EU unregulated toxins in shellfish samples from French coasts: spirolides (SPX-13-DesMeC, SPX-DesMeD), pinnatoxins (PnTX-G, PnTX-A), gymnodimines (GYM-A), brevetoxins (BTX-2, BTX-3), microcystins (dmMC-RR, MC-RR), anatoxin, cylindrospermopsin and BMAA/DAB. Here, we present essentially the results of the unregulated toxins obtained from the French EMERGTOX monitoring plan during the past five years (2018–2022). Based on our findings, we outline future needs for monitoring to protect consumers from emerging unregulated toxins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Toxins Accumulation in Shellfish)
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20 pages, 2551 KiB  
Article
Exploration of Vulcanodinium rugosum Toxins and their Metabolism Products in Mussels from the Ingril Lagoon Hotspot in France
by Vincent Hort, Isabel Bastardo-Fernández and Marina Nicolas
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(8), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21080429 - 29 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2557
Abstract
Over the year 2018, we assessed toxin contamination of shellfish collected on a monthly basis in Ingril Lagoon, France, a site known as a hotspot for Vulcanodinium rugosum growth. This short time-series study gave an overview of the presence and seasonal variability of [...] Read more.
Over the year 2018, we assessed toxin contamination of shellfish collected on a monthly basis in Ingril Lagoon, France, a site known as a hotspot for Vulcanodinium rugosum growth. This short time-series study gave an overview of the presence and seasonal variability of pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, portimines and kabirimine, all associated with V. rugosum, in shellfish. Suspect screening and targeted analysis approaches were implemented by means of liquid chromatography coupled to both low- and high-resolution mass spectrometry. We detected pinnatoxin-A and pinnatoxin-G throughout the year, with maximum levels for each one observed in June (6.7 µg/kg for pinnatoxin-A; 467.5 µg/kg for pinnatoxin-G), whereas portimine-A was detected between May and September (maximum level = 75.6 µg/kg). One of the main findings was the identification of a series of fatty acid esters of pinnatoxin-G (n = 13) although the levels detected were low. The profile was dominated by the palmitic acid conjugation of pinnatoxin-G. The other 12 fatty acid esters had not been reported in European shellfish to date. In addition, after thorough investigations, two compounds were detected, with one being probably identified as portimine-B, and the other one putatively attributed to pteriatoxins. If available, reference materials would have ensured full identification. Monitoring of these V. rugosum emerging toxins and their biotransformation products will contribute towards filling the data gaps pointed out in risk assessments and in particular the need for more contamination data for shellfish. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Toxins Accumulation in Shellfish)
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Review

Jump to: Research

18 pages, 535 KiB  
Review
A Review of Cyclic Imines in Shellfish: Worldwide Occurrence, Toxicity and Assessment of the Risk to Consumers
by Sarah C. Finch, D. Tim Harwood, Michael J. Boundy and Andrew I. Selwood
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(3), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22030129 - 11 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1091
Abstract
Cyclic imines are a class of lipophilic shellfish toxins comprising gymnodimines, spirolides, pinnatoxins, portimines, pteriatoxins, prorocentrolides, spiro-prorocentrimine, symbiomines and kabirimine. They are structurally diverse, but all share an imine moiety as part of a bicyclic ring system. These compounds are produced by marine [...] Read more.
Cyclic imines are a class of lipophilic shellfish toxins comprising gymnodimines, spirolides, pinnatoxins, portimines, pteriatoxins, prorocentrolides, spiro-prorocentrimine, symbiomines and kabirimine. They are structurally diverse, but all share an imine moiety as part of a bicyclic ring system. These compounds are produced by marine microalgal species and are characterized by the rapid death that they induce when injected into mice. Cyclic imines have been detected in a range of shellfish species collected from all over the world, which raises the question as to whether they present a food safety risk. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) considers them to be an emerging food safety issue, and in this review, the risk posed by these toxins to shellfish consumers is assessed by collating all available occurrence and toxicity data. Except for pinnatoxins, the risk posed to human health by the cyclic imines appears low, although this is based on only a limited dataset. For pinnatoxins, two different health-based guidance values have been proposed at which the concentration should not be exceeded in shellfish (268 and 23 µg PnTX/kg shellfish flesh), with the discrepancy caused by the application of different uncertainty factors. Pinnatoxins have been recorded globally in multiple shellfish species at concentrations of up to 54 times higher than the lower guidance figure. Despite this observation, pinnatoxins have not been associated with recorded human illness, so it appears that the lower guidance value may be conservative. However, there is insufficient data to generate a more robust guidance value, so additional occurrence data and toxicity information are needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Toxins Accumulation in Shellfish)
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