Research

17 pages, 32244 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antarctolichenia onofrii gen. nov. sp. nov. from Antarctic Endolithic Communities Untangles the Evolution of Rock-Inhabiting and Lichenized Fungi in Arthoniomycetes

by Lucia Muggia, Claudia Coleine, Roberto De Carolis, Agnese Cometto and Laura Selbmann

J. Fungi 2021, 7(11), 935; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110935 - 03 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2440

Abstract

Microbial endolithic communities are the main and most widespread life forms in the coldest and hyper-arid desert of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and other ice-free areas across Victoria Land, Antarctica. There, the lichen-dominated communities are complex and self-supporting assemblages of phototrophic and heterotrophic [...] Read more.

Microbial endolithic communities are the main and most widespread life forms in the coldest and hyper-arid desert of the McMurdo Dry Valleys and other ice-free areas across Victoria Land, Antarctica. There, the lichen-dominated communities are complex and self-supporting assemblages of phototrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms, including bacteria, chlorophytes, and both free-living and lichen-forming fungi living at the edge of their physiological adaptability. In particular, among the free-living fungi, microcolonial, melanized, and anamorphic species are highly recurrent, while a few species were sometimes found to be associated with algae. One of these fungi is of paramount importance for its peculiar traits, i.e., a yeast-like habitus, co-growing with algae and being difficult to propagate in pure culture. In the present study, this taxon is herein described as the new genus Antarctolichenia and its type species is A. onofrii, which represents a transitional group between the free-living and symbiotic lifestyle in Arthoniomycetes. The phylogenetic placement of Antarctolichenia was studied using three rDNA molecular markers and morphological characters were described. In this study, we also reappraise the evolution and the connections linking the lichen-forming and rock-inhabiting lifestyles in the basal lineages of Arthoniomycetes (i.e., Lichenostigmatales) and Dothideomycetes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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14 pages, 1692 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Volatile Organic Compounds in the Azteca/Cecropia Ant-Plant Symbiosis and the Role of Black Fungi

by Veronika E. Mayer, Sybren de Hoog, Simona M. Cristescu, Luciano Vera and Francesc X. Prenafeta-Boldú

J. Fungi 2021, 7(10), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7100836 - 06 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2952

Abstract

Black fungi of the order Chaetothyriales are grown by many tropical plant-mutualistic ants as small so-called “patches” in their nests, which are located inside hollow structures provided by the host plant (“domatia”). These fungi are introduced and fostered by the ants, indicating that [...] Read more.

Black fungi of the order Chaetothyriales are grown by many tropical plant-mutualistic ants as small so-called “patches” in their nests, which are located inside hollow structures provided by the host plant (“domatia”). These fungi are introduced and fostered by the ants, indicating that they are important for the colony. As several species of Chaetothyriales tolerate, adsorb, and metabolize toxic volatiles, we investigated the composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of selected domatia in the Azteca/Cecropia ant-plant mutualism. Concentrations of VOCs in ant-inhabited domatia, empty domatia, and background air were compared. In total, 211 compounds belonging to 19 chemical families were identified. Ant-inhabited domatia were dominated by ketones with 2-heptanone, a well-known ant alarm semiochemical, as the most abundant volatile. Empty domatia were characterized by relatively high concentrations of the monoterpenes d-limonene, p-cymene and β-phellandrene, as well as the heterocyclic sulphur-containing compound, benzothiazole. These compounds have biocidal properties and are primarily biosynthesized by plants as a defense mechanism. Interestingly, most of the latter compounds were present at lower concentrations in ant inhabited domatia than in non-colonized ones. We suggest that Chaetothyriales may play a role in reducing the VOCs, underlining that the mutualistic nature of these fungi as VOCs accumulation might be detrimental for the ants, especially the larvae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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17 pages, 3292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Sites: Is There Something More Than Exophiala xenobiotica? New Insights into Black Fungal Diversity Using the Long Cold Incubation Method

by Daniela Isola, Alessandra Scano, Germano Orrù, Francesc Xavier Prenafeta-Boldú and Laura Zucconi

J. Fungi 2021, 7(10), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7100817 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2448

Abstract

Human-made hydrocarbon-rich environments are important reservoirs of microorganisms with specific degrading abilities and pathogenic potential. In particular, black fungi are of great interest, but their presence in the environment is frequently underestimated because they are difficult to isolate. In the frame of a [...] Read more.

Human-made hydrocarbon-rich environments are important reservoirs of microorganisms with specific degrading abilities and pathogenic potential. In particular, black fungi are of great interest, but their presence in the environment is frequently underestimated because they are difficult to isolate. In the frame of a biodiversity study from fuel-contaminated sites involving 30 diesel car tanks and 112 fuel pump dispensers (52 diesel and 60 gasoline, respectively), a total of 181 black fungal strains were isolated. The long cold incubation (LCI) of water-suspended samples, followed by plating on Dichloran Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol Agar (DRBC), gave isolation yields up to six times (6.6) higher than those of direct plating on DRBC, and those of enrichment with a phenolic mix. The sequencing of ITS and LSU-rDNA confirmed the dominance of potentially pathogenic fungi from the family Herpotrichiellaceae and Exophiala xenobiotica. Moreover, other opportunistic species were found, including E. opportunistica, E. oligosperma, E. phaeomuriformis, and Rhinocladiella similis. The recurrent presence of E. crusticola, Knufia epidermidis, Aureobasidium melanogenum, Cladosporium spp., and Scolecobasidium spp. was also recorded. Interestingly, 12% of total isolates, corresponding to 50% of taxa found (16/32), represent new species. All the novel taxa in this study were isolated by LCI. These findings suggest that black fungal diversity in hydrocarbon-rich niches remains largely unexplored and that LCI can be an efficient tool for further investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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22 pages, 4730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virulence Traits and Population Genomics of the Black Yeast Aureobasidium melanogenum

by Anja Černoša, Xiaohuan Sun, Cene Gostinčar, Chao Fang, Nina Gunde-Cimerman and Zewei Song

J. Fungi 2021, 7(8), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080665 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3601

Abstract

The black yeast-like fungus Aureobasidium melanogenum is an opportunistic human pathogen frequently found indoors. Its traits, potentially linked to pathogenesis, have never been systematically studied. Here, we examine 49 A. melanogenum strains for growth at 37 °C, siderophore production, hemolytic activity, and assimilation [...] Read more.

The black yeast-like fungus Aureobasidium melanogenum is an opportunistic human pathogen frequently found indoors. Its traits, potentially linked to pathogenesis, have never been systematically studied. Here, we examine 49 A. melanogenum strains for growth at 37 °C, siderophore production, hemolytic activity, and assimilation of hydrocarbons and human neurotransmitters and report within-species variability. All but one strain grew at 37 °C. All strains produced siderophores and showed some hemolytic activity. The largest differences between strains were observed in the assimilation of hydrocarbons and human neurotransmitters. We show for the first time that fungi from the order Dothideales can assimilate aromatic hydrocarbons. To explain the background, we sequenced the genomes of all 49 strains and identified genes putatively involved in siderophore production and hemolysis. Genomic analysis revealed a fairly structured population of A.melanogenum, raising the possibility that some phylogenetic lineages have higher virulence potential than others. Population genomics indicated that the species is strictly clonal, although more than half of the genomes were diploid. The existence of relatively heterozygous diploids in an otherwise clonal species is described for only the second time in fungi. The genomic and phenotypic data from this study should help to resolve the non-trivial taxonomy of the genus Aureobasidium and reduce the medical hazards of exploiting the biotechnological potential of other, non-pathogenic species of this genus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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14 pages, 2567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Clinical Features and Prognostic Factors for Treatment Outcomes of Dematiaceous Fungal Keratitis over 9 Years at a Tertiary Eye Care in Northern Thailand

by Chulaluck Tangmonkongvoragul, Susama Chokesuwattanaskul, Napaporn Tananuvat, Monsicha Pongpom, Phit Upaphong, Sinthirath Saysithidej, Muanploy Niparugs and Siriporn Chongkae

J. Fungi 2021, 7(7), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7070526 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2043

Abstract

Dematiaceous fungal keratitis is an important etiology of visual loss, particularly in an agricultural society. From a retrospective review of medical records from 2012 to 2020, 50 keratitis cases of cultured-positive for dematiaceous fungi were presented at a tertiary care hospital in Northern [...] Read more.

Dematiaceous fungal keratitis is an important etiology of visual loss, particularly in an agricultural society. From a retrospective review of medical records from 2012 to 2020, 50 keratitis cases of cultured-positive for dematiaceous fungi were presented at a tertiary care hospital in Northern Thailand. The study aimed to identify the isolated causative dematiaceous species using the PCR technique and to explore their related clinical features, including treatment prognoses. Sequencing of the amplified D1/D2 domains and/or ITS region were applied and sequenced. Of the 50 dematiaceous fungal keratitis cases, 41 patients were males (82%). In most cases, the onset happened during the monsoon season (June to September) (48%). The majority of the patients (72%) had a history of ocular trauma from an organic foreign body. The most common species identified were Lasiodiplodia spp. (19.35%), followed by Cladosporium spp. and Curvularia spp. (12.90% each). About half of the patients (52%) were in the medical failure group where surgical intervention was required. In summary, ocular trauma from an organic foreign body was the major risk factor of dematiaceous fungal keratitis in Northern Thailand. The brown pigmentation could be observed in only 26%. Significant prognostic factors for medical failure were visual acuity at presentation, area of infiltrate, depth of the lesions, and hypopyon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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11 pages, 1131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into the Survival Capabilities of Cryomyces antarcticus Hydrated Colonies after Exposure to Fe Particle Radiation

by Claudia Pacelli, Alessia Cassaro, Loke M. Siong, Lorenzo Aureli, Ralf Moeller, Akira Fujimori, Igor Shuryak and Silvano Onofri

J. Fungi 2021, 7(7), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7070495 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2757

Abstract

The modern concept of the evolution of Mars assumes that life could potentially have originated on the planet Mars, possibly during the end of the late heavy bombardment, and could then be transferred to other planets. Since then, physical and chemical conditions on [...] Read more.

The modern concept of the evolution of Mars assumes that life could potentially have originated on the planet Mars, possibly during the end of the late heavy bombardment, and could then be transferred to other planets. Since then, physical and chemical conditions on Mars changed and now strongly limit the presence of terrestrial-like life forms. These adverse conditions include scarcity of liquid water (although brine solutions may exist), low temperature and atmospheric pressure, and cosmic radiation. Ionizing radiation is very important among these life-constraining factors because it damages DNA and other cellular components, particularly in liquid conditions where radiation-induced reactive oxidants diffuse freely. Here, we investigated the impact of high doses (up to 2 kGy) of densely-ionizing (197.6 keV/µm), space-relevant iron ions (corresponding on the irradiation that reach the uppermost layer of the Mars subsurface) on the survival of an extremophilic terrestrial organism—Cryomyces antarcticus—in liquid medium and under atmospheric conditions, through different techniques. Results showed that it survived in a metabolically active state when subjected to high doses of Fe ions and was able to repair eventual DNA damages. It implies that some terrestrial life forms can withstand prolonged exposure to space-relevant ion radiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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15 pages, 7374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Culture-Dependent and Amplicon Sequencing Approaches Reveal Diversity and Distribution of Black Fungi in Antarctic Cryptoendolithic Communities

by Laura Selbmann, Gerardo A. Stoppiello, Silvano Onofri, Jason E. Stajich and Claudia Coleine

J. Fungi 2021, 7(3), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7030213 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3084

Abstract

In the harshest environmental conditions of the Antarctic desert, normally incompatible with active life, microbes are adapted to exploit the cryptoendolithic habitat (i.e., pore spaces of rocks) and represent the predominant life-forms. In the rocky niche, microbes take advantage of the thermal buffering, [...] Read more.

In the harshest environmental conditions of the Antarctic desert, normally incompatible with active life, microbes are adapted to exploit the cryptoendolithic habitat (i.e., pore spaces of rocks) and represent the predominant life-forms. In the rocky niche, microbes take advantage of the thermal buffering, physical stability, protection against UV radiation, excessive solar radiation, and water retention—of paramount importance in one of the driest environments on Earth. In this work, high-throughput sequencing and culture-dependent approaches have been combined, for the first time, to untangle the diversity and distribution of black fungi in the Antarctic cryptoendolithic microbial communities, hosting some of the most extreme-tolerant microorganisms. Rock samples were collected in a vast area, along an altitudinal gradient and opposite sun exposure—known to influence microbial diversity—with the aim to compare and integrate results gained with the two approaches. Among black fungi, Friedmanniomyces endolithicus was confirmed as the most abundant taxon. Despite the much stronger power of the high-throughput sequencing, several species were not retrieved with DNA sequencing and were detectable by cultivation only. We conclude that both culture-dependent and -independent analyses are needed for a complete overview of black fungi diversity. The reason why some species remain undetectable with molecular methods are speculated upon. The effect of environmental parameters such as sun exposure on relative abundance was clearer if based on the wider biodiversity detected with the molecular approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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18 pages, 4943 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Extremotolerant Ecotype of the Fungus Pseudotaeniolina globosa Isolated from Djoser Pyramid, Memphis Necropolis, Egypt

by Samah Mohamed Rizk, Mahmoud Magdy, Filomena De Leo, Olaf Werner, Mohamed Abdel-Salam Rashed, Rosa Maria Ros and Clara Urzì

J. Fungi 2021, 7(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7020104 - 02 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3145

Abstract

Most of the rock-inhabiting fungi are meristematic and melanized microorganisms often associated with monument biodeterioration. In previous microbial profiling of the Egyptian Djoser pyramid, a Pseudotaeniolina globosa isolate was found. The current study aimed to characterize the P. globosa isolated from the Djoser [...] Read more.

Most of the rock-inhabiting fungi are meristematic and melanized microorganisms often associated with monument biodeterioration. In previous microbial profiling of the Egyptian Djoser pyramid, a Pseudotaeniolina globosa isolate was found. The current study aimed to characterize the P. globosa isolated from the Djoser pyramid compared with an Italian isolate at morphological, physiological, and molecular levels. Experiments were carried out to test temperature, salinity, and pH preferences, as well as stress tolerance to UV radiation and high temperature, in addition to a multi-locus genotyping using ITS, nrSSU or 18S, nrLSU or 28S, BT2, and RPB2 markers. Morphological and molecular data confirmed the con-specificity of the two isolates. However, the Egyptian isolate showed a wider range of growth at different environmental conditions being much more tolerant to a wider range of temperature (4–37 °C) and pH values (3.0–9.0 pH) than the Italian (10–30 °C, 4.0–6.0 pH), and more tolerant to extreme salinity levels (5 M NaCl), compared to the lowest in the Italian isolate (0.2 M NaCl). Besides, the Egyptian isolate was more tolerant to high temperature than the Italian isolate since it was able to survive after exposure to up to 85 °C for 5 min, and was not affected for up to 9 h of UV exposure, while the Italian one could not regrow after the same treatments. The Pseudotaeniolina globosa species was attributed to the family Teratosphaeriaceae of the order Capnodiales, class Dothideomycetes. Our results demonstrated that the Egyptian isolate could be considered an ecotype well adapted to harsh and extreme environments. Its potential bio-deteriorating effect on such an important cultural heritage requires special attention to design and conservation plans and solutions to limit its presence and extension in the studied pyramid and surrounding archaeological sites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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14 pages, 4109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chromoblastomycosis Caused by Phialophora—Proven Cases from Mexico

by Sarah A. Ahmed, Alexandro Bonifaz, Gloria M. González, Leandro F. Moreno, Nickolas Menezes da Silva, Vania A. Vicente, Ruoyu Li and Sybren de Hoog

J. Fungi 2021, 7(2), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7020095 - 29 Jan 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4250

Abstract

Chromoblastomycosis is a chronic severely mutilating disease caused by fungi of the order Chaetothyriales. Classically, Phialophora verrucosa has been listed among these etiologic agents. This species is known to occur in the environment and has been found to cause other infections like [...] Read more.

Chromoblastomycosis is a chronic severely mutilating disease caused by fungi of the order Chaetothyriales. Classically, Phialophora verrucosa has been listed among these etiologic agents. This species is known to occur in the environment and has been found to cause other infections like phaeohyphomycosis, while reported cases of chromoblastomycosis are scant. Phialophora is phylogenetically diverse, and thus retrospective confirmation of etiology is necessary. We studied ten proven cases of chromoblastomycosis from Mexico and further analyzed the population genetics and genomics of the Phialophora species to understand their pathogenicity and predilection. The clinical strains were molecularly identified as Phialophora americana (n = 4), Phialophorachinensis (n = 4), and Phialophora macrospora (n = 2). No genetic distinction between clinical and environmental strains was possible. Further analysis of strains from diverse origins are needed to address eventual differences in virulence and niche predilection between the species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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11 pages, 6303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Transformation of Fonsecaea monophora and Fonsecaea erecta for Host-Environment Interaction Studies

by Cristina Isabel Ferrer Villena, Renata Rodrigues Gomes, Larissa Fernandes, Camille Silva Florencio, Amanda Bombassaro, Maria Eduarda Grisolia, Edvaldo da Silva Trindade, Sybren de Hoog and Vania Aparecida Vicente

J. Fungi 2020, 6(4), 325; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040325 - 30 Nov 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2470

Abstract

The fungal genus Fonsecaea contains etiological agents of human chromoblastomycosis, a (sub)tropical, (sub)cutaneous implantation disease caused by plant contact. The invasive potential differs significantly between species. Infections by Fonsecaea monophora are believed to originate from the environment and the species has been reported [...] Read more.

The fungal genus Fonsecaea contains etiological agents of human chromoblastomycosis, a (sub)tropical, (sub)cutaneous implantation disease caused by plant contact. The invasive potential differs significantly between species. Infections by Fonsecaea monophora are believed to originate from the environment and the species has been reported as one of the main causative agents of the disease, but also of cases of primary brain infection. The epidemiology of the disease has not been fully elucidated and questions related to its infection route and virulence are still to be clarified. The environmental species Fonsecaea erecta was isolated from organic material and living plants in endemic areas for chromoblastomycosis in Brazil. The present paper describes Agrobacteriumtumefaciens-mediated transformation (AMT) of the environmental species F. erecta and the pathogenic species F. monophora. We propose the use of Agrobacterium transformation for future gene function studies related to Fonsecaea virulence and pathogenicity. We evaluated the co-cultivation ratios 1:1, 10:1 and 100:1 (Agrobacterium:conidia) at 28 °C during 72 h. pAD1625 and pCAMDsRed plasmids were inserted into both species. Confirmation of transformation was realized by hph gene amplification and Southern blot determined the amount of foreign DNA integrated into the genome. In order to evaluate a potential link between environmental and clinical strains, we obtained red fluorescent transformants after pCAMDsRed insertion. We observed by confocal fluorescence microscopy that both F. monophora and F. erecta were able to colonize the palm Bactris gasipaes, penetrating the epidermis. These results contribute to understanding the ability of Fonsecaea species to adapt to different environmental and host conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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13 pages, 1801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Screening of Fonsecaea Agents of Chromoblastomycosis Using Rolling Circle Amplification

by Morgana Ferreira Voidaleski, Renata Rodrigues Gomes, Conceição de Maria Pedrozo e Silva de Azevedo, Bruna Jacomel Favoreto de Souza Lima, Flávia de Fátima Costa, Amanda Bombassaro, Gheniffer Fornari, Isabelle Cristina Lopes da Silva, Lucas Vicente Andrade, Bruno Paulo Rodrigues Lustosa, Mohammad J. Najafzadeh, G. Sybren de Hoog and Vânia Aparecida Vicente

J. Fungi 2020, 6(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040290 - 17 Nov 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2147

Abstract

Chromoblastomycosis is a chronic, cutaneous or subcutaneous mycosis characterized by the presence of muriform cells in host tissue. Implantation disease is caused by melanized fungi related to black yeasts, which, in humid tropical climates, are mainly members of the genus Fonsecaea. In [...] Read more.

Chromoblastomycosis is a chronic, cutaneous or subcutaneous mycosis characterized by the presence of muriform cells in host tissue. Implantation disease is caused by melanized fungi related to black yeasts, which, in humid tropical climates, are mainly members of the genus Fonsecaea. In endemic areas of Brazil, F. pedrosoi and F. monophora are the prevalent species. The current hypothesis of infection is traumatic introduction via plant materials, especially by plant thorns. However, isolation studies have demonstrated a low frequency of the agents in environmental substrates. The present study aimed to detect F. pedrosoi and F. monophora in shells of babassu coconuts, soil, plant debris, and thorns from endemic areas of chromoblastomycosis in Maranhão state, northern Brazil, using Rolling Circle Amplification (RCA) with padlock probes as a new environmental screening tool for agents of chromoblastomycosis. In addition to molecular screening, the environmental samples were analyzed by fungal isolation using mineral oil flotation. The limit of detection of the RCA method was 2.88 × 10⁷ copies of DNA per sample for the used padlock probes, indicating that this represents an efficient and sensitive molecular tool for the environmental screening of Fonsecaea agents. In contrast, with isolation from the same samples using several selective methods, no agents of chromoblastomycosis were recovered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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14 pages, 1082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chromoblastomycosis in an Endemic Area of Brazil: A Clinical-Epidemiological Analysis and a Worldwide Haplotype Network

by Daniel Wagner C. L. Santos, Vania Aparecida Vicente, Vinicius Almir Weiss, G. Sybren de Hoog, Renata R. Gomes, Edith M. M. Batista, Sirlei Garcia Marques, Flávio de Queiroz-Telles, Arnaldo Lopes Colombo and Conceição de Maria Pedrozo e Silva de Azevedo

J. Fungi 2020, 6(4), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040204 - 03 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2921

Abstract

Chromoblastomycosis (CBM) is a neglected implantation mycosis prevalent in tropical climate zones, considered an occupational disease that affects impoverished rural populations. This retrospective study described clinical aspects of CBM in a hyperendemic area in Brazil and constructed a worldwide haplotype network of Fonsecaea [...] Read more.

Chromoblastomycosis (CBM) is a neglected implantation mycosis prevalent in tropical climate zones, considered an occupational disease that affects impoverished rural populations. This retrospective study described clinical aspects of CBM in a hyperendemic area in Brazil and constructed a worldwide haplotype network of Fonsecaea spp. strains. The variables were collected from medical records using a standard report form, reporting 191 patients with CBM from Maranhão, Brazil. The mean age was 56.1 years, 168 (88%) patients were male and predominantly farmers (85.8%). The mean time of evolution of the disease until diagnosis was 9.4 years. Lower limbs (81.2%) and upper limbs (14.2%) were the main sites affected. Most patients exhibited verrucous (55%) and infiltrative plaque (48.2%). Fonsecaea spp. were identified in 136 cases and a haplotype network constructed with ITS sequences of 185 global strains revealed a total of 59 haplotypes exhibiting high haplotypic and low nucleotide diversities. No correlation was observed between the different haplotypes of Fonsecaea species and dermatological patterns, severity of disease or geographic distribution inside Maranhão. Data from this area contributed to better understanding the epidemiology of CBM. For the first time, a robust haplotype network with Fonsecaea strains reveals an evolutionary history with a recent population expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Evolution of Black Fungi)

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