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PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles
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PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "E: Electric Vehicles".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2020) | Viewed by 50093

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Pavol Bauer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
DC systems, Energy conversion and Storage group, Department of Electrical Sustainable Energy, Delft University of Technology, 2600AA Delft, The Netherlands
Interests: power grids; electric vehicle charging; photovoltaic power systems; power convertors; battery powered vehicles; DC-DC power convertors; HVDC power convertors; distributed power generation; inductive power transmission; AC-DC power convertors; distribution networks; solar power stations; HVDC power transmission; load flow control; optimisation; power generation control; power system stability; pricing; secondary cells; voltage control; voltage-source convertors; arcs (electric) ; battery chargers; battery storage plants; building integrated photovoltaics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Gautham Ram Chandra Mouli

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
DC systems, Energy conversion and Storage group, Department of Electrical Sustainable Energy, Delft University of Technology, 2600AA Delft, The Netherlands
Interests: electric vehicles; EV charging; power electronics; PV system; power management

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Two major trends in energy usage that are expected for the future are the increase in distributed renewable generation like solar energy and the emergence of electric vehicles (EV) as the future mode of transportation. At the same time, there are many challenges for the integration of these two technologies. Firstly, electric vehicles are only ‘green’ as long as the source of electricity is ‘green’ as well. Secondly, photovoltaic (PV) power production suffers from diurnal and seasonal variations, creating the need for energy storage technology. Thirdly, overloading and voltage problems are expected in the distributed network due to high penetration of distributed generation and increased power demand from the charging of electric vehicles.

To overcome the above challenges, charging electric vehicles using distributed solar energy would be an excellent solution, resulting in net-zero emissions. Through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and vehicle-to-home/building (V2H/V2B), the EV can be used as storage for PV and support the grid via ancillary services. With on-board solar panels, the driving range of electric cars can be increased by several km per day. Finally, intelligent control techniques combined with communication protocols can facilitate the intelligent charging of electric vehicles and offer of V2G services based on solar generations, grid congestion, and energy prices. Finally, in places with a lack of grid access, solar-powered charging can be the key enabler for the electrification of transportation.

The energy and mobility transition calls for novel technological innovations in the field of sustainable electric mobility powered from renewable energy. This Special Issue focuses on recent advances in technology for PV charging and storage for electric vehicles and includes, but is not limited to, the following topics:

  • Power electronic converter for (DC) charging of EVs from solar (with bidirectional capability to feed energy back to the grid);
  • Investigation of the synergy between solar electricity generation and EV charging demand;
  • Innovative design of electric vehicles with on-board solar power for increased driving range;
  • Intelligent systems for off-grid (stand-alone) solar charging of EVs;
  • Power management techniques for solar EV systems to reduce grid congestion, increase solar self-consumption, reduce energy costs, and increase grid stability;
  • Optimal sizing, location, and control of energy storage to manage diurnal and seasonal solar variations in order to meet EV charging requirements;
  • Charging electric vehicles from solar energy in microgrids;
  • Recent developments in ICT protocols for solar-powered smart charging of EVs (with V2G);
  • Novel solar-powered contactless EV charging system (with bidirectional power capability to feed energy back to the grid);
  • Solar-powered electrified public transportation (e.g., trams, buses, trains);
  • Using the EV as energy storage for PV via Vehicle-to-X (e.g., V2G, V2H, V2B, V2L);
  • State-of-the-art reviews on solar charging of EVs.

Prof. Dr. Pavol Bauer
Prof. Gautham Ram Chandra Mouli
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Energy storage
  • Electric vehicle
  • Power electronics
  • Energy management systems
  • Electric vehicles charging
  • Solar energy
  • Photovoltaic system
  • V2G, V2H, V2B, V2L
  • Distributed energy resources
  • Microgrid
  • Smart grid

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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38 pages, 4031 KiB  
Article
A Model for Cost–Benefit Analysis of Privately Owned Vehicle-to-Grid Solutions
by Jesús Rodríguez-Molina, Pedro Castillejo, Victoria Beltran and Margarita Martínez-Núñez
Energies 2020, 13(21), 5814; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13215814 - 06 Nov 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2209
Abstract
Although the increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is overall positive for the environment and for the sustainable use of resources, the extra effort that requires purchasing an EV when compared to an equivalent internal combustion engine (ICE) competitor make them less appealing [...] Read more.
Although the increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is overall positive for the environment and for the sustainable use of resources, the extra effort that requires purchasing an EV when compared to an equivalent internal combustion engine (ICE) competitor make them less appealing from an economical point of view. In addition to that, there are other challenges in EVs (autonomy, battery, recharge time, etc.) that are non-existent in ICE vehicles. Nevertheless, the possibility of providing electricity to the power grid via vehicle-to-grid technology (V2G), along with lower maintenance costs, could prove that EVs are the most economically efficient option in the long run. Indeed, enabling V2G would make EVs capable of saving some costs for their vehicle owners, thus making them a better long-term mobility choice that could trigger deep changes in habits of vehicle owners. This paper describes a cost–benefit analysis of how consumers can make use of V2G solutions, in a way that they can use their vehicle for transport purposes and obtain revenues when injecting energy into the power grid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles)
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14 pages, 5431 KiB  
Article
Environmental Impacts of Integrated Photovoltaic Modules in Light Utility Electric Vehicles
by Olga Kanz, Angèle Reinders, Johanna May and Kaining Ding
Energies 2020, 13(19), 5120; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13195120 - 01 Oct 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4032
Abstract
This paper presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of photovoltaic (PV) solar modules which have been integrated into electric vehicle applications, also called vehicle integrated photovoltaics (VIPV). The LCA was executed by means of GaBi LCA software with Ecoinvent v2.2 as a background [...] Read more.
This paper presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of photovoltaic (PV) solar modules which have been integrated into electric vehicle applications, also called vehicle integrated photovoltaics (VIPV). The LCA was executed by means of GaBi LCA software with Ecoinvent v2.2 as a background database, with a focus on the global warming potential (GWP). A light utility electric vehicle (LUV) named StreetScooter Work L, with a PV array of 930 Wp, was analyzed for the location of Cologne, Germany. An operation time of 8 years and an average shadowing factor of 30% were assumed. The functional unit of this LCA is 1 kWh of generated PV electricity on-board, for which an emission factor of 0.357 kg CO2-eq/kWh was calculated, whereas the average grid emissions would be 0.435 kg CO2-eq/kWh. Hence, charging by PV power hence causes lower emissions than charging an EV by the grid. The study further shows how changes in the shadowing factor, operation time, and other aspects affect vehicle’s emissions. The ecological benefit of charging by PV modules as compared to grid charging is negated when the shadowing factor exceeds 40% and hence exceeds emissions of 0.435 kg CO2-eq/kWh. However, if the operation time of a vehicle with integrated PV is prolonged to 12 years, emissions of the functional unit go down to 0.221 kg CO2-eq/kWh. It is relevant to point out that the outcomes of the LCA study strongly depend on the location of use of the vehicle, the annual irradiation, and the carbon footprint of the grid on that location. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles)
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21 pages, 7642 KiB  
Article
Sustainable E-Bike Charging Station That Enables AC, DC and Wireless Charging from Solar Energy
by Gautham Ram Chandra Mouli, Peter Van Duijsen, Francesca Grazian, Ajay Jamodkar, Pavol Bauer and Olindo Isabella
Energies 2020, 13(14), 3549; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13143549 - 10 Jul 2020
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 19080
Abstract
If electric vehicles have to be truly sustainable, it is essential to charge them from sustainable sources of electricity, such as solar or wind energy. In this paper, the design of solar powered e-bike charging station that provides AC, DC and wireless charging [...] Read more.
If electric vehicles have to be truly sustainable, it is essential to charge them from sustainable sources of electricity, such as solar or wind energy. In this paper, the design of solar powered e-bike charging station that provides AC, DC and wireless charging of e-bikes is investigated. The charging station has integrated battery storage that enables for both grid-connected and off-grid operation. The DC charging uses the DC power from the photovoltaic panels directly for charging the e-bike battery without the use of an AC charging adapter. For the wireless charging, the e-bike can be charged through inductive power transfer via the bike kickstand (receiver) and a specially designed tile (transmitter) at the charging station, which provides maximum convenience to the user. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles)
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19 pages, 5289 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Microgrid Energy Management and Control Based on Metaheuristic-Driven Vector-Decoupled Algorithm Considering Intermittent Renewable Sources and Electric Vehicles Charging Lot
by Tawfiq M. Aljohani, Ahmed F. Ebrahim and Osama Mohammed
Energies 2020, 13(13), 3423; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133423 - 02 Jul 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3657
Abstract
Energy management and control of hybrid microgrids is a challenging task due to the varying nature of operation between AC and DC components which leads to voltage and frequency issues. This work utilizes a metaheuristic-based vector-decoupled algorithm to balance the control and operation [...] Read more.
Energy management and control of hybrid microgrids is a challenging task due to the varying nature of operation between AC and DC components which leads to voltage and frequency issues. This work utilizes a metaheuristic-based vector-decoupled algorithm to balance the control and operation of hybrid microgrids in the presence of stochastic renewable energy sources and electric vehicles charging structure. The AC and DC parts of the microgrid are coupled via a bidirectional interlinking converter, with the AC side connected to a synchronous generator and portable AC loads, while the DC side is connected to a photovoltaic system and an electric vehicle charging system. To properly ensure safe and efficient exchange of power within allowable voltage and frequency levels, the vector-decoupled control parameters of the bidirectional converter are tuned via hybridization of particle swarm optimization and artificial physics optimization. The proposed control algorithm ensures the stability of both voltage and frequency levels during the severe condition of islanding operation and high pulsed demands conditions as well as the variability of renewable source production. The proposed methodology is verified in a state-of-the-art hardware-in-the-loop testbed. The results show robustness and effectiveness of the proposed algorithm in managing the real and reactive power exchange between the AC and DC parts of the microgrid within safe and acceptable voltage and frequency levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles)
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25 pages, 1124 KiB  
Article
Real-Time Building Smart Charging System Based on PV Forecast and Li-Ion Battery Degradation
by Wiljan Vermeer, Gautham Ram Chandra Mouli and Pavol Bauer
Energies 2020, 13(13), 3415; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133415 - 02 Jul 2020
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3393
Abstract
This paper proposes a two-stage smart charging algorithm for future buildings equipped with an electric vehicle, battery energy storage, solar panels, and a heat pump. The first stage is a non-linear programming model that optimizes the charging of electric vehicles and battery energy [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a two-stage smart charging algorithm for future buildings equipped with an electric vehicle, battery energy storage, solar panels, and a heat pump. The first stage is a non-linear programming model that optimizes the charging of electric vehicles and battery energy storage based on a prediction of photovoltaïc (PV) power, building demand, electricity, and frequency regulation prices. Additionally, a Li-ion degradation model is used to assess the operational costs of the electric vehicle (EV) and battery. The second stage is a real-time control scheme that controls charging within the optimization time steps. Finally, both stages are incorporated in a moving horizon control framework, which is used to minimize and compensate for forecasting errors. It will be shown that the real-time control scheme has a significant influence on the obtained cost reduction. Furthermore, it will be shown that the degradation of an electric vehicle and battery energy storage system are non-negligible parts of the total cost of energy. However, despite relatively high operational costs, V2G can still be cost-effective when controlled optimally. The proposed solution decreases the total cost of energy with 98.6% compared to an uncontrolled case. Additionally, the financial benefits of vehicle-to-grid and operating as primary frequency regulation reserve are assessed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles)
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18 pages, 2540 KiB  
Article
Optimized Scheduling of EV Charging in Solar Parking Lots for Local Peak Reduction under EV Demand Uncertainty
by Rishabh Ghotge, Yitzhak Snow, Samira Farahani, Zofia Lukszo and Ad van Wijk
Energies 2020, 13(5), 1275; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13051275 - 10 Mar 2020
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 6254
Abstract
Scheduled charging offers the potential for electric vehicles (EVs) to use renewable energy more efficiently, lowering costs and improving the stability of the electricity grid. Many studies related to EV charge scheduling found in the literature assume perfect or highly accurate knowledge of [...] Read more.
Scheduled charging offers the potential for electric vehicles (EVs) to use renewable energy more efficiently, lowering costs and improving the stability of the electricity grid. Many studies related to EV charge scheduling found in the literature assume perfect or highly accurate knowledge of energy demand for EVs expected to arrive after the scheduling is performed. However, in practice, there is always a degree of uncertainty related to future EV charging demands. In this work, a Model Predictive Control (MPC) based smart charging strategy is developed, which takes this uncertainty into account, both in terms of the timing of the EV arrival as well as the magnitude of energy demand. The objective of the strategy is to reduce the peak electricity demand at an EV parking lot with PVarrays. The developed strategy is compared with both conventional EV charging as well as smart charging with an assumption of perfect knowledge of uncertain future events. The comparison reveals that the inclusion of a 24 h forecast of EV demand has a considerable effect on the improvement of the performance of the system. Further, strategies that are able to robustly consider uncertainty across many possible forecasts can reduce the peak electricity demand by as much as 39% at an office parking space. The reduction of peak electricity demand can lead to increased flexibility for system design, planning for EV charging facilities, deferral or avoidance of the upgrade of grid capacity as well as its better utilization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles)
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Review

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20 pages, 2098 KiB  
Review
Integration of Electric Vehicles in the Distribution Network: A Review of PV Based Electric Vehicle Modelling
by Asaad Mohammad, Ramon Zamora and Tek Tjing Lie
Energies 2020, 13(17), 4541; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13174541 - 02 Sep 2020
Cited by 76 | Viewed by 8924
Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) are one of a prominent solution for the sustainability issues needing dire attention like global warming, depleting fossil fuel reserves, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Conversely, EVs are shown to emit higher emissions (measured from source to tailpipe) for the [...] Read more.
Electric vehicles (EVs) are one of a prominent solution for the sustainability issues needing dire attention like global warming, depleting fossil fuel reserves, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Conversely, EVs are shown to emit higher emissions (measured from source to tailpipe) for the fossil fuel-based countries, which necessitates renewable energy sources (RES) for maximizing EV benefits. EVs can also act as a storage system, to mitigate the challenges associated with RES and to provide the grid with ancillary services, such as voltage regulation, frequency regulation, spinning reserve, etc. For extracting maximum benefits from EVs and minimizing the associated impact on the distribution network, modelling optimal integration of EVs in the network is required. This paper focuses on reviewing the state-of-the-art literature on the modelling of grid-connected EV-PV (photovoltaics) system. Further, the paper evaluates the uncertainty modelling methods associated with various parameters related to the grid-connected EV-PV system. Finally, the review is concluded with a summary of potential research directions in this area. The paper presents an evaluation of different modelling components of grid-connected EV-PV system to facilitate readers in modelling such system for researching EV-PV integration in the distribution network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PV Charging and Storage for Electric Vehicles)
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