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Advanced Calibration Methodologies for a New Generation of Engines and Powertrains

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "B: Energy and Environment".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 13819

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Prof. Dr. Federico Millo

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Guest Editor

Department of Energy, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
Interests: internal combustion engines; hybrid powertrains; modelling and simulation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Andrea Piano

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Guest Editor

Department of Energy, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
Interests: internal combustion engines; fuel injection; computational fluid dynamics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

To achieve the ambitious goals of meeting increasingly stringent emissions standards within the Real Driving Emissions test protocols, simultaneously reaching the challenging post-2020 CO₂ emissions targets, the automotive industry is going to explore an unprecedent technological mix, ranging from advanced fuel and air management, to combustion technologies, to aftertreatment systems towards a soft/deep electrification of innovative powertrains. In this scenario, the calibration activity becomes an essential part of the product development process with the aim of finding the optimal merge among different technologies. Several techniques have been introduced in recent years to support calibration tasks and, as a result of increasing computational power and digital transformation, conventional calibration carried out at the test bench or in the car itself are being replaced by model-based approaches, moving from the road to the virtual world of simulation, reducing time- and cost-consuming experimental activities.

This Special Issue aims, therefore, at encouraging both academic and industrial researchers to present their latest findings concerning advanced calibration methodology for engines and powertrains, especially integrating experimental activity at the test bench with the support of reliable model in a virtual environment. The authors should provide to the readers a comprehensive, unbiased, and scientifically sound overview of the most recent research and methodological approaches.

Prof. Federico Millo
Dr. Andrea Piano
Guest Editors

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Keywords

internal combustion engines
virtual calibration
powertrain optimization
hardware in the loop (HiL), software in the loop (SiL), and model in the loop (MiL).

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 4900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Assessment of Auto-Adaptive Energy Management Strategies Based on SOC Feedback, Driving Pattern Recognition and Prediction Techniques

by Alessandro Zanelli, Emanuele Servetto, Philippe De Araujo, Sujeet Nagaraj Vankayala and Adam Vondrak

Energies 2022, 15(11), 3896; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15113896 - 25 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1763

Abstract

The Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is a well-known control strategy for the definition of optimal power-split in hybrid-electric vehicles, because of its effectiveness and reduced calibration effort. In this kind of Energy Management Systems (EMS), the correct identification of an equivalence factor (K), which translates electric power in equivalent fuel consumption, is of paramount importance. To guarantee charge sustaining operation, the K factor must be adjusted to different mission profiles. Adaptive ECMS (A-ECMS) techniques have thus been introduced, which automatically determine the optimal equivalence factor based on the vehicle mission. The aim of this research activity is to assess the potential in terms of fuel consumption and charge sustainability of different A-ECMS techniques on a gasoline hybrid-electric passenger car. First, the 0D vehicle and powertrain model was developed in the commercial CAE software GT-SUITE. An ECMS-based EMS was used to control the baseline powertrain and three alternative versions of an auto-adaptive algorithm were implemented on top of that. The first A-ECMS under study was based on feedback from the battery State of Charge, while the second and third on a Driving Pattern Recognition/Prediction algorithm. Fuel consumption was assessed using the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) and Real Driving Emissions (RDE) driving cycles by means of numerical simulation. A potential improvement of up to 4% Fuel Economy was ultimately achieved on an RDE driving cycle with respect to the baseline ECMS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Calibration Methodologies for a New Generation of Engines and Powertrains)

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18 pages, 4663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Assessment on the Influence of Engine Calibration Parameters on Innovative Piston Bowls Designed for Light-Duty Diesel Engines

by Federico Millo, Andrea Piano, Salvatore Roggio, Francesco C. Pesce, Alberto Vassallo and Andrea Bianco

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3799; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103799 - 21 May 2022

Viewed by 1720

Abstract

The optimization of the piston bowl design has been shown to have a great potential for air–fuel mixing improvement, leading to significant fuel consumption and pollutant emissions reductions for diesel engines. With this aim, a conventional re-entrant bowl for a 1.6 L light-duty diesel engine was compared with two innovative piston designs: a stepped-lip bowl and a radial-bumps bowl. The potential benefits of these innovative bowls were assessed through 3D-CFD simulations, featuring a calibrated spray model and detailed chemistry. To analyse the impact of these innovative designs, two different engine operating conditions were scrutinized, corresponding to the rated power and a partial load, respectively. Under the rated power engine operating condition, a start of injection sensitivity was then carried out to assess the optimal spray–wall interaction. Results highlighted that, thanks to optimal injection phasing, faster mixing-controlled combustion could be reached with both the innovative designs. Moreover, the requirements in terms of swirl were also investigated, and a higher swirl ratio was found to be necessary to improve the mixing process, especially for the radial-bumps design. Finally, at part-load operating conditions, different exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates were analysed for two injection pressure levels. The stepped-lip and radial-bumps bowls highlighted reduced indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) and soot emissions values over different rail pressure levels, guaranteeing NO_x control thanks to the higher EGR tolerance compared with the re-entrant bowl. The results suggested the great potential of the investigated innovative bowls for improving efficiency and reducing emissions, thus paving the way for further possible optimization through the combination of these designs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Calibration Methodologies for a New Generation of Engines and Powertrains)

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17 pages, 7025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lean Burn Flame Kernel Characterization for Different Spark Plug Designs and Orientations in an Optical GDI Engine

by Giovanni Cecere, Adrian Irimescu, Simona Silvia Merola, Luciano Rolando and Federico Millo

Energies 2022, 15(9), 3393; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093393 - 06 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2232

Abstract

Lean burn spark ignition (SI) engines represent an effective solution for improving fuel economy and reducing exhaust emissions and can be implemented both in conventional and hybrid powertrains. On the other hand, lean operation increases cyclic variability with negative impact on power output, engine efficiency, roughness, and operating stability. Although this phenomenon has been widely investigated, the effects of flow field on the inception and development of flames in direct injection spark ignition (DISI) engines under lean burn conditions is not yet completely understood. In particular, the effect of spark plug geometry and electrode orientation with respect to tumble motion has been minimally investigated. For these reasons, two different spark-plug geometries (i.e., single- and double-ground electrode) and three different orientations (i.e., cross-, counter-, and uni-flow with respect to the direction of tumble motion) were investigated in an optically accessible DISI engine for understanding their influence on the initial phase of combustion. The relative air–fuel ratio (AFR_rel) was changed from stoichiometric to lean burn (1.00 to 1.30) for different spark timings around the maximum brake torque setting at fixed engine speed (2000 rpm). An image processing procedure was developed for evaluating the morphological parameters of flame kernels and studying the effects of spark plug design on engine operating stability. With a focus on the correlation between the position where ignition occurs with the subsequent locations of the flame kernel during the first phases of the combustion process, the analysis allowed the gathering of a better understanding of the influence that the electrodes’ geometries and orientation can have on the first stages of combustion development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Calibration Methodologies for a New Generation of Engines and Powertrains)

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28 pages, 13437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Powerful Hardware-in-the-Loop System for Virtual Calibration of an Off-Road Diesel Engine

by Antonio Riccio, Filippo Monzani and Maurizio Landi

Energies 2022, 15(2), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020646 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2651

Abstract

A common challenge among internal combustion engine (ICE) manufacturers is shortening the development time while facing requirements and specifications that are becoming more complex and border in scope. Virtual simulation and calibration are effective instruments in the face of these demands. This article presents the development of zero-dimensional (0D)—real-time engine and exhaust after-treatment system (EAS) models and their deployment on a Virtual test bench (VTB). The models are created using a series of measurements acquired in a real test bench, carefully performed in view of ensuring the highest reliability of the models themselves. A zero-dimensional approach was chosen to guarantee that models could be run in real-time and interfaced to the real engine Electronic Control Unit (ECU). Being physically based models, they react to changes in the ECU calibration parameters. Once the models are validated, they are then integrated into a Simulink^® based architecture with all the Inputs/Outputs connections to the ECU. This Simulink^® model is then deployed on a Hardware in the Loop (HiL) machine for ECU testing and calibration. The results for engine and EAS performance and emissions align with both steady-state and transient measurements. Finally, two different applications of the HiL system are presented to explain the opportunities and advantages of this tool integrated within the standard engine development. Examples cited refer to altitude calibration activities and soot loading investigation on vehicle duty cycles. The cases described in this work are part of the actual development of one of the latest engines developed by Kohler Engines: the KDI 1903 TCR Stage V. The application of this methodology reveals a great potential for engine development and may become an essential tool for calibration engineers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Calibration Methodologies for a New Generation of Engines and Powertrains)

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21 pages, 5057 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Emission Prediction with Detailed Chemistry under Transient Conditions for Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulations

by Mario Picerno, Sung-Yong Lee, Michal Pasternak, Reddy Siddareddy, Tim Franken, Fabian Mauss and Jakob Andert

Energies 2022, 15(1), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010261 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2237

Abstract

The increasing requirements to further reduce pollutant emissions, particularly with regard to the upcoming Euro 7 (EU7) legislation, cause further technical and economic challenges for the development of internal combustion engines. All the emission reduction technologies lead to an increasing complexity not only of the hardware, but also of the control functions to be deployed in engine control units (ECUs). Virtualization has become a necessity in the development process in order to be able to handle the increasing complexity. The virtual development and calibration of ECUs using hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) systems with accurate engine models is an effective method to achieve cost and quality targets. In particular, the selection of the best-practice engine model to fulfil accuracy and time targets is essential to success. In this context, this paper presents a physically- and chemically-based stochastic reactor model (SRM) with tabulated chemistry for the prediction of engine raw emissions for real-time (RT) applications. First, an efficient approach for a time-optimal parametrization of the models in steady-state conditions is developed. The co-simulation of both engine model domains is then established via a functional mock-up interface (FMI) and deployed to a simulation platform. Finally, the proposed RT platform demonstrates its prediction and extrapolation capabilities in transient driving scenarios. A comparative evaluation with engine test dynamometer and vehicle measurement data from worldwide harmonized light vehicles test cycle (WLTC) and real driving emissions (RDE) tests depicts the accuracy of the platform in terms of fuel consumption (within 4% deviation in the WLTC cycle) as well as NOx and soot emissions (both within 20%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Calibration Methodologies for a New Generation of Engines and Powertrains)

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25 pages, 10248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model-Based Control of Torque and Nitrogen Oxide Emissions in a Euro VI 3.0 L Diesel Engine through Rapid Prototyping

by Stefano d’Ambrosio, Roberto Finesso, Gilles Hardy, Andrea Manelli, Alessandro Mancarella, Omar Marello and Antonio Mittica

Energies 2021, 14(4), 1107; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041107 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1872

Abstract

In the present paper, a model-based controller of engine torque and engine-out Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, which was previously developed and tested by means of offline simulations, has been validated on a FPT F1C 3.0 L diesel engine by means of rapid prototyping. With reference to the previous version, a new NO_x model has been implemented to improve robustness in terms of NO_x prediction. The experimental tests have confirmed the basic functionality of the controller in transient conditions, over different load ramps at fixed engine speeds, over which the average RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) values for the control of NO_x emissions were of the order of 55–90 ppm, while the average RMSE values for the control of brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) were of the order of 0.25–0.39 bar. However, the test results also highlighted the need for further improvements, especially concerning the effect of the engine thermal state on the NO_x emissions in transient operation. Moreover, several aspects, such as the check of the computational time, the impact of the controller on other pollutant emissions, or on the long-term engine operations, will have to be evaluated in future studies in view of the controller implementation on the engine control unit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Calibration Methodologies for a New Generation of Engines and Powertrains)

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