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Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A1: Smart Grids and Microgrids".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 21333

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Dr. Pedro S. Moura

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Institute of Systems and Robotics, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-290 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: smart grids; energy planning; demand-side management; demand response; renewable energy; electric vehicles; energy storage
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Ana Soares

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Institute for Systems Engineering and Computers at Coimbra, University of Coimbra, 3030-290 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: energy efficiency promotion; demand response; flexibility; optimization and smart grids
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The increasing penetration of distributed energy resources, such as solar photovoltaic generation and energy storage systems, as well as the integration of electric vehicles, has led to growing interest in the development of electric microgrids. Electric microgrids can work independently from the main utility grid and can be used to promote the installation of distributed energy generation, reduce energy costs, improve local power quality, increase the matching between local renewable generation and demand, and provide auxiliary services to the main grid. The use of electric microgrids is not only important to ensure the effective integration of distributed energy resources in buildings and urban communities, but is also becoming fundamental in order to provide solutions to applications where highly reliable energy supply service is required, supply areas isolated during catastrophic events, or provide energy supply in remote locations isolated from the grid.

In such a context, the design, integration, and control of microgrids need to be properly planned and optimized in order to ensure technical and economic benefits for a large variety of stakeholders. This Special Issue aims to publish high-quality research and review papers related to the optimal planning, integration, and control of smart microgrid systems with renewable energy. Topics of interest for publication include, but are not limited to, the following:

Microgrids for large buildings;
Microgrid for urban communities;
Microgrids for energy access in rural areas;
Optimal integration of renewable energy resources in microgrids;
Transactive energy systems at the microgrid level;
Machine learning for the prediction of distributed energy resources;
Technical and economic optimization microgrids;
Integration of electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and demand response in microgrids.

You may choose our Joint Special Issue in Electricity.

Dr. Pedro S. Moura
Dr. Ana Soares
Guest Editors

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Keywords

microgrids
renewable energy resources
prediction and optimization of microgrids
control and implementation of microgrids
transactive energy systems
electric vehicles
energy storage
demand response

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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28 pages, 11687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Analysis of a Hybrid Stand-Alone Microgrid

by Muhammad Zubair Asif Bhatti, Abubakar Siddique, Waseem Aslam and Shahid Atiq

Energies 2024, 17(1), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010200 - 29 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1482

Abstract

This research article presents a comprehensive investigation into the design, optimization, and performance analysis of a hybrid stand-alone microgrid for an industrial facility in Iraq at coordinates 36.51 and 43.99. The system consists of photovoltaic (PV) modules, inverters, a battery energy storage system (BESS), a generator, and AC loads. Leveraging the capabilities of PVsyst version 7.3.1, HOMER Pro version 3.14.2 and SAM version 2022.11.21 software tools, this study assesses the feasibility and functionality of the hybrid stand-alone microgrid. In this study, PVsyst software is used for detailed designing and analysis of a PV plant, and the PVsyst design file is then used in HOMER Pro software to optimize and design the proposed hybrid stand-alone microgrid, and for detailed performance analysis SAM software is employed. This paper also investigates the impact of ground clearance and ground albedo on the annual generation of bifacial PV modules at various tilt angles. Key findings include a promising normalized production rate of 4.53 kWh/kWp/day with a performance ratio of 0.815 and annual energy production estimates of 84.31 MWh (P50), 79.57 MWh (P90), and 78.24 MWh (P95) for monofacial PV modules, highlighting the system’s potential for renewable energy generation. Notably, this research demonstrates the hybrid stand-alone microgrid’s capacity to significantly reduce CO₂ emissions, saving approximately 1811.6 tons over a 30-year period, thus contributing to sustainability and environmental conservation goals. Additionally, this study reveals operational challenges during the winter months, necessitating generator support to meet load demands. The successful installation and experimental validation of the hybrid stand-alone microgrid underscore its practical viability and its role in advancing clean energy solutions. This research provides valuable insights into hybrid stand-alone microgrid design, emphasizing its importance in ensuring reliable power supply and environmental stewardship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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14 pages, 748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards an Energy Future with Ubiquitous Electric Vehicles: Barriers and Opportunities

by Mohammad Mohammadi, Jesse Thornburg and Javad Mohammadi

Energies 2023, 16(17), 6379; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176379 - 03 Sep 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1623

Abstract

The electrification of personal transportation holds great potential for lowering greenhouse gas emissions and reducing climate change. The promise of electric vehicles (EVs) to serve these goals has resulted in a broad range of supporting policies aimed at encouraging widespread EV adoption at both the state and federal levels in the United States and around the world. While the EV revolution and prospects of a world with ubiquitous EVs are impacting various industries and many aspects of daily life, strategic interactions between the power grid and EVs are crucial for a successful energy transition. However, managing the interplay between EVs and the power grid remains a challenge. Motivated by that tension, this paper surveys a variety of solutions, policies, and incentives that are focused on effectively managing EV charging behaviors. The paper’s objective is to explore these tools to ensure that EV owners have ultimate control over their personal vehicles while simultaneously allowing the power grid to mitigate adverse network impacts. Furthermore, this paper examines the role of charging infrastructure technology and its strategic placement in facilitating the seamless integration of EVs into the grid. Additionally, the paper highlights financial mechanisms associated with EV integration and discusses the consequences of these mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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23 pages, 5990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Demand Response for Enhanced Load Frequency Control in Micro-Grids with Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems

by Tanima Bal, Saheli Ray, Nidul Sinha, Ramesh Devarapalli and Łukasz Knypiński

Energies 2023, 16(15), 5767; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155767 - 02 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 995

Abstract

Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems constitute the majority of the demands in modern power systems for aggregated buildings. However, HVAC integrated with renewable energy sources (RES) face notable issues, such as uneven demand–supply balance, frequency oscillation and significant drop in system inertia owing to sudden disturbances in nearby generation for a longer period. To overcome these challenges, load frequency control (LFC) is implemented to regulate the frequency, maintain zero steady-state error between the generation and demand, reduce frequency deviations and balance the active power flow with neighboring control areas at a specified value. In view of this, the present paper investigates LFC with a proposed centralized single control strategy for a micro-grid (µG) system consisting of RESs and critical load of a HVAC system. The proposed control strategy includes a newly developed cascaded two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) proportional integral (PI) and proportional derivative filter (PDF) controller optimized with a very recent meta-heuristic algorithm—a modified crow search algorithm (mCSA)—after experimenting with the number of performance indices (PICs). The superiority of both the proposed optimization algorithm and the proposed controller is arrived at after comparison with similar other algorithms and similar controllers, respectively. Compared to conventional control schemes, the proposed scheme significantly reduces the frequency deviations, improving by 27.22% from the initial value and reducing the performance index criteria (ƞ_ISE) control error to 0.000057. Furthermore, the demand response (DR) is implemented by an energy storage device (ESD), which validates the suitability of the proposed control strategy for the µG system and helps overcome the challenges associated with variable RESs inputs and load demand. Additionally, the improved robustness of the proposed controller for this application is demonstrated through sensitivity analysis with ±20% μG coefficient variation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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23 pages, 3516 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Factors Affecting Market Participant Decision Making in the Spanish Intraday Electricity Market: Auctions vs. Continuous Trading

by Shilpa Bindu, José Pablo Chaves Ávila and Luis Olmos

Energies 2023, 16(13), 5106; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16135106 - 01 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1689

Abstract

Intraday markets can be organized as continuous trading or discrete auction sessions. While many studies have attempted to compare the liquidity of these two models, additional external factors specific to each system, such as the balancing market design and number of bidding zones, affect overall market liquidity. In this regard, the Spanish hybrid intraday markets seem like an excellent case study to compare the two market models. Since the two intraday models are implemented in the same system (the Spanish one), the same conditions apply to their implementation. However, a direct comparison of liquidity is still challenging due to two factors: (1) differences exist in market architecture (timing, pricing scheme, bidding formats, etc.) between the two models, which create preferences among market players for one or the other; (2) the opportunistic behavior of market players in the system responding to the market price signals may affect the liquidity dynamics. We demonstrate the relevance of these two factors coming into play in the Spanish intraday markets, first carrying out a qualitative analysis of the market architecture of both models and then empirically analyzing a market manipulation attempt, which we refer to as the 15:10 rush. Our analysis points towards the need for more efficient regulation governing the interaction of the continuous intraday market with intraday auction markets and the potential risks from increased algorithmic trading. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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20 pages, 6411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Voltage Stability in Microgrid-Tied Photovoltaic Systems

by Plamen Stanchev, Gergana Vacheva and Nikolay Hinov

Energies 2023, 16(13), 4895; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16134895 - 23 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1316

Abstract

These days, with the significant increase in the use of renewable energy sources as additional energy sources connected to the distribution network, many challenges and difficulties arise in ensuring sustainability and reliability. The generation, transmission and distribution, in the current state of the electricity system, are facing quite dynamic changes. They are the result of the liberalization of the energy market, the increased use of renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic systems, wind turbines and the charging stations for hybrid and electric vehicles. The most important factors are related to the balancing of the energy system, the analysis of voltage stability, overcoming the consequences of the increase in short-circuit currents, increasing the transmission capacities of the system forming and distribution networks, as well as the accurate forecasting of the development of loads and consumption over the coming years. This article presents an analysis of the voltage stability in a smart microgrid for two different scenarios. The studied cases describe a linear low-voltage p-type microgrid with loads connected to it at different nodes. Data on the type and cross-section of the conductors of the studied power line are presented. Simulation studies were carried out to determine the limits of grid voltage stability when connecting photovoltaic plants with a set power. The simulation results are commented on and an analysis of the optimal operating mode of the system is realized. The model studies were implemented in the NEPLAN program environment. The research carried out allows an evaluation of the permissible limits for network stability when connecting photovoltaic plants. Through this evaluation, it can be determined how many and at which node the loads should be connected without causing an imbalance in the network. This is useful from the point of view of ensuring the sustainability and reliability of electrical energy in a microgrid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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18 pages, 1686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Centralized Protection and Relay Coordination Algorithm for Microgrid

by Regin Bose Kannaian, Belwin Brearley Joseph and Raja Prabu Ramachandran

Energies 2023, 16(12), 4820; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124820 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1123

Abstract

To meet the increased customer demands, microgrid evolved. The structure of microgrid changes dynamically due to the intermittent nature of renewable-based generation, status of the distributed generator and opening of breakers for fault/maintenance. Hence, the magnitude of fault current is dynamic in nature. In order to deal with these dynamic changes, this paper addresses an adaptive central microgrid controller-based protection and relay coordination scheme, which revises the relay settings dynamically (both radial and looped configuration) for every change in topology. In the proposed algorithm, the primary relay responds to a fault immediately since the individual relays are given with fault level setting. For any abnormality in the network, the fault location is determined both via local relay and microgrid central controller (MCC). Hence, even though the local relay fails to identify the fault due to high fault impedance, the MCC locates the fault accurately and isolates the minimum faulty part. The coordination between relays is carried out by MCC in a time-graded manner based on microgrid central protection and relay coordination algorithm. The proposed algorithm is tested using Matlab in a microgrid built based on the IEEE 33 bus distribution network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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19 pages, 2640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Control Strategy for Stationary Electric Battery Storage Systems with Reliable Peak Load Limitation at Maximum Self-Consumption of Locally Generated Energy

by Florian Klausmann and Anna-Lena Klingler

Energies 2023, 16(9), 3964; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093964 - 08 May 2023

Viewed by 1239

Abstract

Nowadays, stationary battery storage systems are generally used to optimize the self-consumption of electricity generated locally or to limit the peak load of the local grid connection. Self-consumption optimization aims to achieve economic benefits by using more of the self-generated electricity within the local grid. Batteries used for the optimization of self-consumption tend to present low states of charge and, therefore, normally do not contribute to peak load limitation. Peak load limitation is used to minimize the grid connection power to enable more cost-efficient grid connections. However, this function can only be achieved year-round if there is sufficient surplus electricity production or if the battery can be charged from the grid. In the latter case, the batteries are often fully charged and do not significantly optimize the self-consumption. This study presents a new operating strategy that combines all the advantages of the previous operating modes with none of the disadvantages. This can be accomplished by combining the operation modes depending on the particular situation, together with a variable battery charging process. Furthermore, a simulation-based optimization procedure is introduced for the optimal configuration of the parameters. The potential of this operating strategy is demonstrated based on application examples. As a result, the operating strategy enables reliable peak load limitation all year round while simultaneously optimizing self-consumption. The operating strategy can easily be adapted to meet changing requirements such as the increasing charging power demands of electric vehicles. Thanks to a simple process based on common measured variables, the operating strategy can be integrated smoothly into practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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41 pages, 13158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multicriteria Decision-Making Approach for Optimum Site Selection for Off-Grid Solar Photovoltaic Microgrids in Mozambique

by José Eduardo Tafula, Constantino Dário Justo, Pedro Moura, Jérôme Mendes and Ana Soares

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2894; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062894 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3881

Abstract

Given the constraints associated with grid expansion costs, limited access to reliable electricity, and priorities in addressing the climate agenda and Sustainable Development Goals in low-income countries, microgrids and off-grid solar projects represent a viable solution for rural electrification. This type of solution has the advantage of being less expensive than conventional technologies, is rapidly scalable, affordable, environmentally sustainable, and can play a critical role in empowering rural communities. In this context, this study proposed a spatial framework for off-grid solar energy planning based on a Geographical Information System and Boolean logic, Fuzzy logic, and Analytic Hierarchy Process Multicriteria Decision-Making methods. The results of the applied methodology show that the selection of optimal locations for off-grid solar photovoltaic microgrid projects in Mozambique is significantly influenced by the following order of criteria: climatology, orography, technical and location, social, and institutional criteria. Geographically, about 49% or 344,664.36 km² of the total study area is initially suitable for an off-grid solar photovoltaic microgrid project; 4% is low suitable, 14% is moderately suitable, 18% is suitable, and 13% is highly suitable. However, 51% of the ranked areas fall into the not feasible and restricted areas, mainly in conservation areas, protected areas, and areas at high risk of flooding and cyclones, covering a total of 387,005.5 km² within the study area. In general, the approach helps to reduce uncertainty and increase flexibility to identify appropriate sites and strengthen indicators of sustainable development impacts of decentralized rural electrification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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17 pages, 10587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fuzzy-Based Efficient Control of DC Microgrid Configuration for PV-Energized EV Charging Station

by Dominic Savio Abraham, Balaji Chandrasekar, Narayanamoorthi Rajamanickam, Pradeep Vishnuram, Venkatesan Ramakrishnan, Mohit Bajaj, Marian Piecha, Vojtech Blazek and Lukas Prokop

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2753; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062753 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 2382

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) are considered as the leading-edge form of mobility. However, the integration of electric vehicles with charging stations is a contentious issue. Managing the available grid power and bus voltage regulation is addressed through renewable energy. This work proposes a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV)-powered EV charging station with converter control technique. The controller unit is interfaced with the renewable energy source, bidirectional converter, and local energy storage unit (ESU). The bidirectional converter provides a regulated output with a fuzzy logic controller (FLC) during charging and discharging. The fuzzy control is implemented to maintain a decentralized power distribution between the microgrid DC-link and ESU. The PV coupled to the DC microgrid of the charging station is variable in nature. Hence, the microgrid-based charging is examined under a range of realistic scenarios, including low, total PV power output and different state of charge (SOC) levels of ESU. In order to accomplish the effective charging of EV, a decentralized energy management system is created to control the energy flow among the PV system, the battery, and the grid. The proposed controller’s effectiveness is validated using a simulation have been analyzed using MATLAB under various microgrid situations. Additionally, the experimental results are validated under various modes of operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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Review

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26 pages, 1255 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review of Optimization Approaches for the Integration of Electric Vehicles in Public Buildings

by Luiz Almeida, Ana Soares and Pedro Moura

Energies 2023, 16(13), 5030; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16135030 - 28 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1351

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) can provide important flexibility to the integration of local energy generation in buildings. Although most studies considering the integration of EVs and buildings are focused on residential buildings, the number of publications regarding large buildings, in particular, public buildings (PBs), has increased. However, the quantity of studies regarding the integration of EVs and PBs is still limited. Additionally, there are no review studies approaching the integration of EVs and buildings in one single framework. In this sense, this review aims to address the challenges and trends associated with optimizing the charging of EVs in PBs by conducting a systematic review of the existing literature. As contributions, this work develops a review that approaches the integration of EVs and PBs using multiple strategies and structures, presents an integrated picture of the technical and economic constraints, and addresses the future trends and research perspectives related to the subject. Through the use of an open-access search engine (LENS), a cluster of 743 publications was analyzed using two strings and a timeframe restriction. The most important contributions regarding optimization strategies and their evolution are presented, followed by a comparison of the findings with other review papers. As key findings, technical and economic constraints are identified (uncertainties of driving behavior and local generation, battery degradation, “injection tariffs”, etc.), as are future trends and perspectives (local generation legislation, incentives for purchasing EVs, energy communities, etc.). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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18 pages, 3446 KiB

Open AccessReview

Implications of 5G Technology in the Management of Power Microgrids: A Review of the Literature

by Armando J. Taveras Cruz, Miguel Aybar-Mejía, Yobany Díaz Roque, Karla Coste Ramírez, José Gabriel Durán, Dinelson Rosario Weeks, Deyslen Mariano-Hernández and Luis Hernández-Callejo

Energies 2023, 16(4), 2020; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16042020 - 17 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3236

Abstract

Microgrids have a lot to offer, including helping smart grids operate on distribution grids or bringing electricity to some cities. The management system receives and transmits different states. This is because the elements adapt to the conditions of the network in the shortest possible time. The 5G communication technology has high transmission speed, owing to which it can improve equipment connectivity and reduce latency, allowing the real-time analysis and monitoring of electrical microgrids considerably better than earlier generations. In addition, it is estimated that, in the near future, many cities will be connected using communication systems that allow the interconnection of different systems safeguarding the connectivity, speed, and response time of these elements in an electrical system, smart grid, or microgrids with the growing development of the Internet of Things. For this reason, it is essential to analyze the integration of 5G technology to improve the management of microgrids. This literature review analyzes and presents the advantages of using 5G technologies in reducing communication latency and improving connectivity to enhance microgrids’ control and management. The active implementation of 5G in the management and control of microgrids increases the transmission and reception of data and states, reduces latency, and allows for a greater density of information, collaborating positively with resilience to the various changes that microgrids can suffer in continuous working conditions. The implementation of 5G allows electrical microgrids to be more resilient in their management and control, directly and indirectly impacting the sustainable development goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimal Planning, Integration and Control of Smart Microgrid Systems with Renewable Energy)

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