Batteries

14 pages, 3963 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Numerical and Experimental Evaluation of a Battery Cell under Impact Load

by Adrian Daniel Muresanu and Mircea Cristian Dudescu

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050048 - 20 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4013

Impact damage is one of the most critical scenarios for the lithium-ion battery pack of an electrical vehicle, as it involves mechanical abusive loads with serious consequences on electrical and thermal stability. The development of a numerical model for an explicit dynamic simulation [...] Read more.

Impact damage is one of the most critical scenarios for the lithium-ion battery pack of an electrical vehicle, as it involves mechanical abusive loads with serious consequences on electrical and thermal stability. The development of a numerical model for an explicit dynamic simulation of a Li-ion battery pack under impact implies a significant computational effort if detailed models of a single battery cell are employed. The present paper presents a homogenized finite element model of a battery cell, validated by experimental tests of individual materials and an impact test of an entire cell. The macro model is composed of shell elements representing outside casing and elements with a homogenized and isotropic material for the jelly roll. The displacements and deformed shape of the numerical model of the battery cell were compared with those measured on real test specimens; full-field optical scanning was employed to reconstruct the 3D shape of the deformed battery. The overall deformation of the simulation and experimental results are comparable with a deviation of the maximum intrusion of 14.8% for impact direction and 19.5% for the perpendicular direction considering the cumulative effects of simplifying hypotheses of the numerical model and experimental side effects. The results are a starting point for future analyses of a battery pack and its protection systems under impact. The model presented in this paper, considering the low computing power needed for calculation and acceptable mesh size for crash, should be able to be used in bigger resources consuming crash simulation models. In this way, the cells’ deformation and behavior can be tracked more easily for safety management and diagnosis of the crashworthiness of the packs or car batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries)

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16 pages, 2302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Approach to Ensure Safe Power Supply for Safety-Relevant Consumers

by Lars Braun, Minh Le, Jürgen Motz and Kai Peter Birke

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050047 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2349

Abstract

The 12 V powernet in vehicles must fulfill certain safety requirements due to the safety demand of consumers. A potential risk is undervoltage for a safety-relevant consumer, which leads to its fault. Therefore, a novel approach is presented in this study, which can [...] Read more.

The 12 V powernet in vehicles must fulfill certain safety requirements due to the safety demand of consumers. A potential risk is undervoltage for a safety-relevant consumer, which leads to its fault. Therefore, a novel approach is presented in this study, which can predict the minimum terminal voltage for consumers. This consists of diagnostics of the wiring harness and of the lead-acid battery as well as predefined consumer currents. Using simulation, first the beginning of a drive cycle is simulated to determine the state of the powernet, and afterwards a critical driving maneuver is simulated to validate the predicted minimum terminal voltage. It demonstrates that the novel approach is able to predict a fault due to undervoltage. In addition to fulfilling safety requirements, the novel approach could be used to achieve additional availability and miniaturization of powernet components compared to the state of the art. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Precise Battery—towards Digital Twins for Advanced Batteries)

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15 pages, 2872 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Calendering of Silicon-Containing Electrodes and Their Influence on the Mechanical and Electrochemical Properties

by Sören Scheffler, René Jagau, Nele Müller, Alexander Diener and Arno Kwade

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050046 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4583

Abstract

The process chain of electrode production includes calendering as a crucial process step to enhance the volumetric energy density as well as to influence the particle-pore-structure and simultaneously the mechanical and electrochemical properties of the electrode coating. A further way to improve the [...] Read more.

The process chain of electrode production includes calendering as a crucial process step to enhance the volumetric energy density as well as to influence the particle-pore-structure and simultaneously the mechanical and electrochemical properties of the electrode coating. A further way to improve the volumetric energy density is the usage of other materials with higher specific capacity, such as silicon instead of graphite as the active material for anodes. In this study, both opportunities, calendering and using silicon-containing composites, are combined to investigate the relations between material, process and performance. The applied line loads for the compaction are correlated with the silicon mass fraction and lead to a silicon-dependent mathematical model to estimate further line loads for silicon-graphite-composite electrodes. On the basis of established analyzing methods for adhesion strength and deformation behavior, it is shown that with increasing silicon content, the elastic deformation of the electrode coating rises. In addition, the overall porosity of the electrodes is less affected by silicon than the pore size distribution compared to graphite electrodes. Furthermore, the electrical conductivity decreases at higher silicon contents independent of coating density. Moreover, the long-term electrochemical stability deteriorates with increasing silicon content and coating density. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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55 pages, 14728 KiB

Open AccessReview

Approaches to Combat the Polysulfide Shuttle Phenomenon in Li–S Battery Technology

by Artur M. Suzanowicz, Cindy W. Mei and Braja K. Mandal

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050045 - 17 May 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5981

Abstract

Lithium–sulfur battery (LSB) technology has tremendous prospects to substitute lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology due to its high energy density. However, the escaping of polysulfide intermediates (produced during the redox reaction process) from the cathode structure is the primary reason for rapid capacity fading. [...] Read more.

Lithium–sulfur battery (LSB) technology has tremendous prospects to substitute lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology due to its high energy density. However, the escaping of polysulfide intermediates (produced during the redox reaction process) from the cathode structure is the primary reason for rapid capacity fading. Suppressing the polysulfide shuttle (PSS) is a viable solution for this technology to move closer to commercialization and supersede the established LIB technology. In this review, we have analyzed the challenges faced by LSBs and outlined current methods and materials used to address these problems. We conclude that in order to further pioneer LSBs, it is necessary to address these essential features of the sulfur cathode: superior electrical conductivity to ensure faster redox reaction kinetics and high discharge capacity, high pore volume of the cathode host to maximize sulfur loading/utilization, and polar PSS-resistive materials to anchor and suppress the migration of polysulfides, which can be developed with the use of nanofabrication and combinations of the PSS-suppressive qualities of each component. With these factors addressed, our world will be able to forge ahead with the development of LSBs on a larger scale—for the efficiency of energy systems in technology advancement and potential benefits to outweigh the costs and performance decay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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15 pages, 3250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Electrochemical Impedance Measurements of α-Fe₂O₃ Nanofibers: Unravelling the Li-Ion Conduction Mechanism in Li-Ion Batteries

by Jinhyun Hwang, Dolly Yadav, Hang Yang, Injun Jeon, Dingcheng Yang, Jang-Won Seo, Minseung Kang, Se-Young Jeong and Chae-Ryong Cho

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050044 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2926

Abstract

Unravelling the lithium-ion transport mechanism in α-Fe₂O₃ nanofibers through in situ electrochemical impedance studies is crucial for realizing their application in high-performance anodes in lithium-ion batteries. Herein, we report the effect of heat treatment conditions on the structure, composition, morphology, [...] Read more.

Unravelling the lithium-ion transport mechanism in α-Fe₂O₃ nanofibers through in situ electrochemical impedance studies is crucial for realizing their application in high-performance anodes in lithium-ion batteries. Herein, we report the effect of heat treatment conditions on the structure, composition, morphology, and electrochemical properties of α-Fe₂O₃ nanofibers as an anode for lithium-ion batteries. The α-Fe₂O₃ nanofibers were synthesized via electrospinning and post-annealing with differences in their annealing temperature of 300, 500, and 700 °C to produce FO300, FO500, and FO700 nanofibers, respectively. Improved electrochemical performance with a high reversible specific capacity of 599.6 mAh g⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹ was achieved after 50 cycles for FO700. The in situ electrochemical impedance spectroscopy studies conducted during the charge/discharge process revealed that the charge transfer and Li-ion diffusion behaviors were related to the crystallinity and structure of the as-synthesized α-Fe₂O₃ nanofibers. The surfaces of the α-Fe₂O₃ nanofibers were converted into Fe metal during the charging/discharging process, which resulted in improved electrical conductivity. The electron lifetime, as determined by the time constant of charge transfer, revealed that, when a conversion reaction occurred, the electrons tended to travel through the iron metal in the α-Fe₂O₃ nanofibers. The role of iron as a pseudo-resistor with negligible capacitance was revealed by charge transfer resistance analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Mechanisms and Fundamental Electrochemistry Aspects)

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13 pages, 400 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

IBM Quantum Platforms: A Quantum Battery Perspective

by Giulia Gemme, Michele Grossi, Dario Ferraro, Sofia Vallecorsa and Maura Sassetti

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050043 - 14 May 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5740

Abstract

We characterize for the first time the performances of IBM quantum chips as quantum batteries, specifically addressing the single-qubit Armonk processor. By exploiting the Pulse access enabled to some of the IBM Quantum processors via the Qiskit package, we investigate the advantages and [...] Read more.

We characterize for the first time the performances of IBM quantum chips as quantum batteries, specifically addressing the single-qubit Armonk processor. By exploiting the Pulse access enabled to some of the IBM Quantum processors via the Qiskit package, we investigate the advantages and limitations of different profiles for classical drives used to charge these miniaturized batteries, establishing the optimal compromise between charging time and stored energy. Moreover, we consider the role played by various possible initial conditions on the functioning of the quantum batteries. As the main result of our analysis, we observe that unavoidable errors occurring in the initialization phase of the qubit, which can be detrimental for quantum computing applications, only marginally affect energy transfer and storage. This can lead counter-intuitively to improvements of the performances. This is a strong indication of the fact that IBM quantum devices are already in the proper range of parameters to be considered as good and stable quantum batteries comparable to state-of-the-art devices recently discussed in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Battery Applications)

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18 pages, 5635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Critical Conditions in Pouch Cells Based on Their Expansion Behavior

by Pascal Vorwerk, Sarah-Katharina Hahn, Christian Daniel, Ulrich Krause and Karola Keutel

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050042 - 12 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3838

Abstract

The present work examines 75 Ah nickel–cobalt–manganese (NMC)/graphite-based pouch cells with respect to their expansion behavior. The focus is on cell expansion due to critical cells according to the installation conditions of a battery module. Strain gauges were used for monitoring. By comparing [...] Read more.

The present work examines 75 Ah nickel–cobalt–manganese (NMC)/graphite-based pouch cells with respect to their expansion behavior. The focus is on cell expansion due to critical cells according to the installation conditions of a battery module. Strain gauges were used for monitoring. By comparing the cell expansion in standard conditioning to that in an abuse (overcharging), information can be acquired about the suitability of the expansion behavior for early detection of critical cell states and to avoid resulting damage, e.g., cell opening or cell fire. The sequence of critical cell events has been shown to be easily reproducible; especially the first significant cell expansion due to internal gas formation, which was a reliable detection criterion for critical cell states. Full article

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16 pages, 3094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Experimental Investigation of Thermal Runaway and Gas Release of NMC Lithium-Ion Pouch Batteries Depending on the State of Charge Level

by Kofi Owusu Ansah Amano, Sarah-K. Hahn, Rico Tschirschwitz, Tim Rappsilber and Ulrich Krause

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050041 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6408

Abstract

In this study, 19 experiments were conducted with 25 pouch cells of NMC cathode to investigate thermal runaway and the release of gases from lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Single cells, double cells, and a four-cell battery stack were forced to undergo thermal runaway inside [...] Read more.

In this study, 19 experiments were conducted with 25 pouch cells of NMC cathode to investigate thermal runaway and the release of gases from lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Single cells, double cells, and a four-cell battery stack were forced to undergo thermal runaway inside an air-tight reactor vessel with a volume of 100 dm³. The study involved two series of tests with two types of ignition sources. In the Series 1 tests, a heating plug was used to initiate thermal runaway in LIBs in the ranges of 80–89% and 90–100% SOC. In the Series 2 tests, a heating plate was used to trigger thermal runaway in LIBs in the ranges of 30–50%, 80–89%, and 90–100% SOC. Thermal runaway started at an onset temperature of 344 ± 5 K and 345 K for the Series 1 tests and from 393 ± 36 K to 487 ± 10 K for the Series 2 tests. Peak reaction temperatures ranged between 642 K and 1184 K, while the maximum pressures observed were between 1.2 bar and 7.28 bar. Thermal runaway induced explosion of the cells and lead to a rate of temperature increase greater than 10 K/s. The amounts of gases released from the LIBs were calculated from pressures and temperatures measured in the reactor. Then, the gas composition was analyzed using a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. The highest gaseous production was achieved at a range of 90–100% SOC and higher battery capacities 72

L

, 1.8

L / Ah

(Series 1, battery stack) and 103

L

, 3.2

L / Ah

(Series 2, 32 Ah cell)). Among the gases analyzed, the concentration of gaseous emissions such as C₂H₄, CH₄, and C₂H₆ increased at a higher cell capacity in both series of tests. The study results revealed characteristic variations of thermal behavior with respect to the type of ignition source used. Full article

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16 pages, 766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying Anode and Cathode Contributions in Li-Ion Full-Cell Impedance Spectra

by Marco Heinrich, Nicolas Wolff, Steffen Seitz and Ulrike Krewer

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050040 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3287

Abstract

Measured impedance spectra of Li-ion battery cells are often reproduced with equivalent circuits or physical models to determine losses due to charge transfer processes at the electrodes. The identified model parameters can usually not readily or unambiguously be assigned to the anode and [...] Read more.

Measured impedance spectra of Li-ion battery cells are often reproduced with equivalent circuits or physical models to determine losses due to charge transfer processes at the electrodes. The identified model parameters can usually not readily or unambiguously be assigned to the anode and the cathode. A new measurement method is presented that enables the assignment of features of impedance spectra of full cells to single electrodes. To this end, temperature gradients are imprinted perpendicular to the electrode layers of a single-layered Li-ion battery cell while impedance spectra are measured. The method exploits different dependences of the charge transfer processes at the electrodes on temperature. An equivalent circuit model of RC-elements and the effect of temperature on the related electrode properties is discussed to demonstrate the feasibility of the method. A reliable assignment of the change of impedance spectra to the electrode processes is shown to be possible. The assignment can be used to identify if changes in an impedance spectrum originate from the anode or the cathode. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal, and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells II)

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17 pages, 4135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Incremental Capacity Parametric Model Based on Logistic Equations for Battery State Estimation and Monitoring

by Matthieu Maures, Romain Mathieu, Armande Capitaine, Jean-Yves Delétage, Jean-Michel Vinassa and Olivier Briat

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050039 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2286

Abstract

An incremental capacity parametric model for batteries is proposed. The model is based on Verhulst’s logistic equations and distributions in order to describe incremental capacity peaks. The model performance is compared with polynomial models and is demonstrated on a commercial lithium-ion cell. Experimental [...] Read more.

An incremental capacity parametric model for batteries is proposed. The model is based on Verhulst’s logistic equations and distributions in order to describe incremental capacity peaks. The model performance is compared with polynomial models and is demonstrated on a commercial lithium-ion cell. Experimental data features low-current discharges performed at temperatures ranging from −20 °C to 55 °C. The results demonstrate several advantages of the model compared to empirical models. The proposed model enables a clear description of the geometric features of incremental capacity peaks. It also doubles as an open circuit voltage model as the voltage curve can be fully recovered from parameterization on incremental capacity curves. The study of temperature sensitivity show that peak geometric parameters can be modelled as a function of temperature. An example of practical application is then displayed by using the model to estimate battery state-of-charge from voltage and temperature measurements. This example can expand to other practical applications for battery management systems such as state-of-health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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20 pages, 13495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Accuracy of the Identified Equivalent Electrical Circuit of LiPePO₄ Battery through Verified Measurements

by Michal Frivaldsky and Marek Simcak

Batteries 2022, 8(5), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050038 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2162

Abstract

In this paper, the system procedure for the identification of the equivalent electrical circuit diagram of electrochemical cells is being given. Due to the fact that energy storage systems (ESS) penetrate within many applications, the availability of their accurate and simple simulation models [...] Read more.

In this paper, the system procedure for the identification of the equivalent electrical circuit diagram of electrochemical cells is being given. Due to the fact that energy storage systems (ESS) penetrate within many applications, the availability of their accurate and simple simulation models for time–domain analysis is very desirable. This paper describes the configuration of the laboratory measuring systems required for data acquisition, curation, and analysis of received measured data required for development of equivalent electrical circuit models (EECM) of electrochemical cells. Nowadays, various types of electrochemical cells are available for packaging technology. Therefore, the evaluation of presented identification methodology is validated through measurements of two different types of LiFePO₄ cells. The first cell type is prismatic labeled LFP040AHA, and the second type is NPB 60 AH of the same manufacturer. The main aim of this paper is the determination of the elements of equivalent electrical circuit schematics of selected electrochemical cells. Consequently, the development of a simulation model is described, together with the evaluation of its accuracy through comparisons with experimental measurements. From achieved results, the relative error of simulation model varies at 2%, and thus the presented methodology is suitable for identification of EECM, and consequent design of accurate and fast computing simulation models of ESS systems. Full article

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Batteries, Volume 8, Issue 5 (May 2022) – 11 articles

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