Batteries

Open AccessArticle

Model Predictive Control for Residential Battery Storage System: Profitability Analysis

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Patrick Kobou Ngani

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Jean-Régis Hadji-Minaglou

Batteries 2023, 9(6), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060316 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

For increased penetration of energy production from renewable energy sources at a utility scale, battery storage systems (BSSs) are a must. Their levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) has drastically decreased over the last decade. Residential battery storage, mostly combined with photovoltaic (PV) panels, [...] Read more.

For increased penetration of energy production from renewable energy sources at a utility scale, battery storage systems (BSSs) are a must. Their levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) has drastically decreased over the last decade. Residential battery storage, mostly combined with photovoltaic (PV) panels, also follow this falling prices trend. The combined effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine has caused such a dramatic increase in electricity prices that many consumers have adjusted their strategies to become prosumers and self-sufficient as feed-in subsidies continue to drop. In this study, an investigation is conducted to determine how profitable it is to install BSSs in homes with regards to battery health and the levelized cost of total managed energy. This is performed using mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) in MATLAB, along with its embedded solver Intlinprog. The results show that a reasonable optimized yearly cycling rate of the BSS can be reached by simply considering a non-zero cost for energy cycling through the batteries. This cost is simply added to the electricity cost equation of standard optimization problems and ensures a very good usage rate of the batteries. The proposed control does not overreact to small electricity price variations until it is financially worth it. The trio composed of feed-in tariffs (FITs), electricity costs, and the LCOE of BSSs represents the most significant factors. Ancillary grid service provision can represent a substantial source of revenue for BSSs, besides FITs and avoided costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Energy Storage in Advanced Power Systems)

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Open AccessArticle

A Novel BC₂N Monolayer as Anode Material for Li-Ion Battery

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060315 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

The stability, mechanical and electronic properties of a BC₂N monolayer and its potential use as an anode material for Li-ion batteries were explored using the density functional theory calculation. The proposed BC₂N monolayer shows good thermal and dynamical stabilities, [...] Read more.

The stability, mechanical and electronic properties of a BC₂N monolayer and its potential use as an anode material for Li-ion batteries were explored using the density functional theory calculation. The proposed BC₂N monolayer shows good thermal and dynamical stabilities, as indicated by the ab initio molecular dynamics simulations and phonon dispersion calculations. The BC₂N monolayer exhibits highly anisotropic mechanical properties. The electronic structure calculation based on the hybrid functional suggests that the BC₂N monolayer is an indirect bandgap (~1.8 eV) semiconductor. The BC₂N monolayer shows linear dichroism and is able to harvest visible and ultraviolet light. To investigate the application of the BC₂N monolayer as a potential anode material for Li-ion batteries, the Li adsorption and diffusion on the monolayer were studied. The BC₂N monolayer exhibits a high theoretical capacity of 1098 mAh/g for Li-ion batteries. The calculated diffusion barrier of Li ion is 0.45 eV, suggesting a rapid Li-ion charge and discharge rate. The unique mechanical and optical properties of the BC₂N monolayer also make it an attractive material for use in advanced nanomechanical and optoelectronic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Carbon-Based Materials for Energy Storage)

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Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Ionic Liquids—MOF Hybrid Electrolytes for Solid-State Electrolyte of Lithium Battery

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060314 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

Li-ion batteries are currently considered promising energy storage devices for the future. However, the use of liquid electrolytes poses certain challenges, including lithium dendrite penetration and flammable liquid leakage. Encouragingly, solid electrolytes endowed with high stability and safety appear to be a potential [...] Read more.

Li-ion batteries are currently considered promising energy storage devices for the future. However, the use of liquid electrolytes poses certain challenges, including lithium dendrite penetration and flammable liquid leakage. Encouragingly, solid electrolytes endowed with high stability and safety appear to be a potential solution to these problems. Among them, ionic liquids (ILs) packed in metal organic frameworks (MOFs), known as ILs@MOFs, have emerged as a hybrid solid-state material that possesses high conductivity, low flammability, and strong mechanical stability. ILs@MOFs plays a crucial role in forming a continuous interfacial conduction network, as well as providing internal ion conduction pathways through the ionic liquid. Hence, ILs@MOFs can not only act as a suitable ionic conduct main body, but also be used as an active filler in composite polymer electrolytes (CPEs) to meet the demand for higher conductivity and lower cost. This review focuses on the characteristic properties and the ion transport mechanism behind ILs@MOFs, highlighting the main problems of its applications. Moreover, this review presents an introduction of the advantages and applications of Ils@MOFs as fillers and the improvement directions are also discussed. In the conclusion, the challenges and suggestions for the future improvement of ILs@MOFs hybrid electrolytes are also prospected. Overall, this review demonstrates the application potential of ILs@MOFs as a hybrid electrolyte material in energy storage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid State Batteries: From Materials Research to Design and Applications)

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Open AccessArticle

A Nickel-Based Coordination Compound with Tunable Morphology for High-Performance Anode and the Lithium Storage Mechanism

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060313 - 06 Jun 2023

Abstract

Metal-organic coordination compounds (MCCs) have received a lot of attention as anodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their abundant structural configuration, tunable morphology, high surface area, and low cost, but the lithium storage mechanism of MCCs is still a mystery. Herein, we [...] Read more.

Metal-organic coordination compounds (MCCs) have received a lot of attention as anodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to their abundant structural configuration, tunable morphology, high surface area, and low cost, but the lithium storage mechanism of MCCs is still a mystery. Herein, we synthesized a kind of nickel-based coordination compound (marked as Ni-PP-x, x = 1, 2, or 3) with tunable morphologies and different solvent ratios via a microwave irradiation solvothermal method and then applied them as anodes for LIBs. Among them, the Ni-PP-2 electrode, with a hollow and urchin-like structure, showed the longest lifespan and maintained a high capacity of 713 mAh g⁻¹ at 2.0 A g⁻¹ after 800 cycles. Measured by ex situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and ex situ Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), the Ni-PP-2 electrode was confirmed by a redox reaction mechanism of Li⁺ cations with a benzene ring and O-Ni²⁺/O-Ni⁰ coordination bonds, and the cyclic voltammetry curves have exhibited a capacitive dominated lithium storage behavior. This work provides a new type of Ni-based coordination compound and an in-depth understanding of their lithium storage mechanism, paving the way for the application of MCC compounds in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Battery Materials)

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Open AccessArticle

Numerical Analysis and Optimization of Flow Rate for Vanadium Flow Battery Incorporating Temperature Effect

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060312 - 05 Jun 2023

Abstract

The vanadium flow batteries that employ the vanadium element as active couples for both half-cells, thus avoiding cross-contamination, are promising large-scale energy storage devices. In this work, the flow rate is optimized by incorporating the temperature effects, attempting to realize a more accurate [...] Read more.

The vanadium flow batteries that employ the vanadium element as active couples for both half-cells, thus avoiding cross-contamination, are promising large-scale energy storage devices. In this work, the flow rate is optimized by incorporating the temperature effects, attempting to realize a more accurate flow control and subsequently enhance the performance of vanadium flow batteries. This work starts with the development of a comprehensive dynamic model on the basis of mass conservation, followed by a modeling validation and a thorough investigation of the temperature effects on electrolyte viscosity and internal resistance. After that, the flow rate is optimized to incorporate such effects. It is found that the flow rate strategy needs to be regulated with the variation of temperature due to the variations of electrolyte viscosity and internal resistance. Moreover, a relatively low flow rate is preferable for low-temperature applications, while for the high-temperature use, a relatively high flow rate is encouraged. Such in-depth investigation can not only provide a cost-effective method to optimize the flow rate and predict the behaviors of vanadium flow batteries, but can also be of great benefit to the management, application, and promotion of vanadium flow batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promising Redox Flow Batteries)

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Open AccessReview

A Short Review: Comparison of Zinc–Manganese Dioxide Batteries with Different pH Aqueous Electrolytes

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Ramona Durena

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Anzelms Zukuls

Batteries 2023, 9(6), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060311 - 05 Jun 2023

Abstract

As the world moves towards sustainable and renewable energy sources, there is a need for reliable energy storage systems. A good candidate for such an application could be to improve secondary aqueous zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn-MnO₂) batteries. For this reason, different aqueous [...] Read more.

As the world moves towards sustainable and renewable energy sources, there is a need for reliable energy storage systems. A good candidate for such an application could be to improve secondary aqueous zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn-MnO₂) batteries. For this reason, different aqueous Zn-MnO₂ battery technologies are discussed in this short review, focusing on how electrolytes with different pH affect the battery. Improvements and achievements in alkaline aqueous Zn-MnO₂ batteries the recent years have been briefly reviewed. Additionally, mild to acidic aqueous electrolyte employment in Zn-MnO₂ batteries has been described, acknowledging their potential success, as such a battery design can increase the potential by up to 2 V. However, we have also recognized a novel battery electrolyte type that could increase even more scientific interest in aqueous Zn-MnO₂ batteries. Consisting of an alkaline electrolyte in the anode compartment and an acidic electrolyte in the cathode compartment, this dual (amphoteric) electrolyte system permits the extension of the battery cell potential above 2 V without water decomposition. In addition, papers describing pH immobilization in aqueous zinc–manganese compound batteries and the achieved results are reported and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials for Zinc‐Based Battery: Development and Challenges)

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Open AccessArticle

Modeling Anisotropic Transport in Polycrystalline Battery Materials

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060310 - 05 Jun 2023

Abstract

Hierarchical structures of many agglomerated primary crystals are often employed as cathode materials, especially for layered-oxide compounds. The anisotropic nature of these materials results in a strong correlation between particle morphology and ion transport. In this work, we present a multiphase-field framework that [...] Read more.

Hierarchical structures of many agglomerated primary crystals are often employed as cathode materials, especially for layered-oxide compounds. The anisotropic nature of these materials results in a strong correlation between particle morphology and ion transport. In this work, we present a multiphase-field framework that is able to account for strongly anisotropic diffusion in polycrystalline materials. Various secondary particle structures with random grain orientation as well as strongly textured samples are investigated. The observed ion distributions match well with the experimental observations. Furthermore, we show how these simulations can be used to mimic potentiostatic intermittent titration technique (PITT) measurements and compute effective diffusion coefficients for secondary particles. The results unravel the intrinsic relation between particle microstructure and the apparent diffusivity. Consequently, the modeling framework can be employed to guide the microstructure design of secondary battery particles. Furthermore, the phase-field method closes the gap between computation of diffusivities on the atomistic scale and the effective properties of secondary particles, which are a necessary input for Newman-type cell models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Design for Electrochemical Energy Storage)

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Open AccessArticle

Design, Properties, and Manufacturing of Cylindrical Li-Ion Battery Cells—A Generic Overview

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060309 - 03 Jun 2023

Abstract

Battery cells are the main components of a battery system for electric vehicle batteries. Depending on the manufacturer, three different cell formats are used in the automotive sector (pouch, prismatic, and cylindrical). In the last 3 years, cylindrical cells have gained strong relevance [...] Read more.

Battery cells are the main components of a battery system for electric vehicle batteries. Depending on the manufacturer, three different cell formats are used in the automotive sector (pouch, prismatic, and cylindrical). In the last 3 years, cylindrical cells have gained strong relevance and popularity among automotive manufacturers, mainly driven by innovative cell designs, such as the Tesla tabless design. This paper investigates 19 Li-ion cylindrical battery cells from four cell manufacturers in four formats (18650, 20700, 21700, and 4680). We aim to systematically capture the design features, such as tab design and quality parameters, such as manufacturing tolerances and generically describe cylindrical cells. We identified the basic designs and assigned example cells to them. In addition, we show a comprehensive definition of a tabless design considering the current and heat transport paths. Our findings show that the Tesla 4680 design is quasi-tabless. In addition, we found that 25% of the cathode and 30% of the anode are not notched, resulting in long electrical and thermal transport paths. Based on CT and post-mortem analyses, we show that jelly rolls can be approximated very well with the Archimedean spiral. Furthermore, we compare the gravimetric and volumetric energy density, the impedance, and the heating behavior at the surface and in the center of the jelly rolls. From the generic description, we present and discuss production processes focusing on format and design flexible manufacturing of jelly rolls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Precise Battery—towards Digital Twins for Advanced Batteries)

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Open AccessArticle

Toxicity, Emissions and Structural Damage from Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060308 - 02 Jun 2023

Abstract

Toxicity, emissions and structural damage results on lithium-ion battery (LIB) thermal runaway triggered by the electrothermal method were performed in this work. The electrothermal triggering method was determined to study the thermal runaway behaviors of three types of commercial LIBs. The structural damage [...] Read more.

Toxicity, emissions and structural damage results on lithium-ion battery (LIB) thermal runaway triggered by the electrothermal method were performed in this work. The electrothermal triggering method was determined to study the thermal runaway behaviors of three types of commercial LIBs. The structural damage of the cathode material of the batteries after thermal runaway was observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). It was found that as the state of charge (SOC) of the battery increases, the lower the temperature at which thermal runaway occurs, and the more badly the structural damage of the electrode material after thermal runaway. Qualitative analysis of products from LIBs thermal runaway emissions was conducted by GC-MS, and the toxicity and formation mechanism of the emissions were analyzed in detail. Dozens of toxic substances were detected from the emissions after thermal runaway of batteries using Li_xNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ and LiCoO₂ as the cathode material, the types of toxic substances increase gradually with the increase in the SOC, while as for batteries using LiFePO₄ as the cathode material, most types of toxic substances were detected from 30% SOC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emissions from Li-Ion Batteries)

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Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effect of Zn–Co Bimetallic Selenide Composites for Lithium–Sulfur Battery

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060307 - 02 Jun 2023

Abstract

Compared with monometallic selenides, heterogeneous bimetallic selenides have rich phase boundaries and superior electrical conductivity. ZnSe/CoSe₂ composites were prepared by introducing Zn metal and using ZIF-8/67 as the precursor through the synergistic effect between Zn and Co after selenification. The electrocatalytic conversion [...] Read more.

Compared with monometallic selenides, heterogeneous bimetallic selenides have rich phase boundaries and superior electrical conductivity. ZnSe/CoSe₂ composites were prepared by introducing Zn metal and using ZIF-8/67 as the precursor through the synergistic effect between Zn and Co after selenification. The electrocatalytic conversion of polysulfide is accelerated by ZnSe through chemical adsorption and the catalytic effect. The conductive CoSe₂ surface provides a rapid diffusion path for lithium ions, accelerating the conversion of the polysulfide. On the basis of their individual strengths, ZnSe and CoSe₂ can jointly promote the smooth adsorptive–diffuse–catalytic conversion process of polysulfide and induce the growth of lithium sulfide around its heterogeneous interface, thus enhancing the electrochemical performance of the lithium–sulfur battery cathode materials. The ZnSe/CoSe₂–S electrode, at the optimal Zn-to-Co ratio of 1:1, has a 790.06 mAh g⁻¹ initial specific capacity at 0.2 C and excellent cycling stability at 1 C. After 300 cycles, the final capacity is 300.85 mAh g⁻¹, and the capacity retention rate reaches 82.71%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operando, In Situ and Ex Situ Studies of Battery Materials)

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Open AccessArticle

MOF–Derived N–Doped C @ CoO/MoC Heterojunction Composite for Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reaction and Long-Life Zn–Air Battery

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060306 - 02 Jun 2023

Abstract

The high activity and reliability of bifunctional oxygen catalysts are imperative for rechargeable metal–air batteries. However, the preparation of bifunctional non–noble metal electrocatalysts with multiple active sites remains a great challenge. Herein, an MOF–derived N–doped C–loaded uniformly dispersed CoO/MoC heterojunction catalyst for high–performance [...] Read more.

The high activity and reliability of bifunctional oxygen catalysts are imperative for rechargeable metal–air batteries. However, the preparation of bifunctional non–noble metal electrocatalysts with multiple active sites remains a great challenge. Herein, an MOF–derived N–doped C–loaded uniformly dispersed CoO/MoC heterojunction catalyst for high–performance dual function was prepared by a simple “codeposition–pyrolysis” method. Experimental investigations revealed that the formation of the heterojunction can tailor the valence of Co and Mo sites, which impressively modulates the electronic properties of the active sites and promotes the electrocatalytic processes. The optimal catalyst reveals a high–wave half potential (E_1/2 = 0.841 V) for ORR and a low overpotential (E₁₀ = 348 mV) for OER. The NCCM–600–based Zn–air battery displays a high peak power density of 133.36 mW cm⁻² and a prolonged cycling life of more than 650 h. This work provides avenues for the development of functional materials with enhanced properties in a variety of practical energy applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Cathodes for Zinc-Based Batteries)

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Open AccessArticle

Impact of Spheroidization of Natural Graphite on Fast-Charging Capability of Anodes for LIB

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060305 - 01 Jun 2023

Abstract

Despite numerous research on new active materials for anodes, graphite remains the most commonly used material in Li-ion batteries. The spherical shape of the graphite particles has proven to be beneficial for application in electric vehicles, especially for fast charging. So far, the [...] Read more.

Despite numerous research on new active materials for anodes, graphite remains the most commonly used material in Li-ion batteries. The spherical shape of the graphite particles has proven to be beneficial for application in electric vehicles, especially for fast charging. So far, the spheroidization of natural flake graphite is conducted by a rigid and inefficient cascade process. In this work, a scalable classifier system was used for spheroidization, and it was demonstrated that a spheroidization time of 15 min is sufficient to improve material properties and enhance electrochemical performance while maintaining high process yields of 55%. Insights into the influence of the morphology on the intrinsic and structural properties of the graphite particles and manufactured electrodes are provided. Spheroidization creates a more efficient pore network in the coating layer while reducing the internal resistance and increasing the surface area of the particles by a factor of 1.8. We demonstrate that the spherical shape improves the discharge rate capability by 1.8, and the specific charge capacity could be enhanced by more than 237% at a C-rate of 3. An additional carbon coating could significantly decrease the specific surface area and increase the specific capacity at high C-rates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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Open AccessArticle

Acrylate Copolymer-Reinforced Hydrogel Electrolyte for Strain Sensors and Flexible Supercapacitors

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060304 - 31 May 2023

Abstract

Ionic conductive hydrogels with good conductivity and biocompatibility have become one of the research highlights in the field of wearable flexible sensors and supercapacitors. In this work, poly(methacrylic acid–methyl methacrylate)-reinforced poly(sodium acrylate–vinyl phosphonic acid) composite hydrogels (P(AAS-VPA)/PMMS) were designed and tested for strain [...] Read more.

Ionic conductive hydrogels with good conductivity and biocompatibility have become one of the research highlights in the field of wearable flexible sensors and supercapacitors. In this work, poly(methacrylic acid–methyl methacrylate)-reinforced poly(sodium acrylate–vinyl phosphonic acid) composite hydrogels (P(AAS-VPA)/PMMS) were designed and tested for strain sensor or supercapacitor applications. The results showed recoverability for 20 cycles of tension and compression experiments, an excellent breaking strain of 2079%, and ionic conductivity of 0.045 S·cm⁻¹, demonstrating strong support for the application of the P(AAS-VPA)/PMMS hydrogel in strain sensors and supercapacitors. The composite hydrogel exhibited outstanding sensing and monitoring capability with high sensitivity (GF = 4.0). The supercapacitor based on the P(AAS-VPA)/PMMS composite hydrogel showed excellent capacitance performance (area capacitance 100.8 mF·cm⁻² and energy density 8.96 μWh·cm⁻²) at ambient temperature and even −30 °C (25.3 mF·cm⁻² and 2.25 μWh·cm⁻²). The hydrogel has stable electrochemical stability (1000 cycles, Coulomb efficiency > 97%) and exhibits electrochemical properties similar to those in the normal state under different deformations. The excellent results demonstrate the great potential of the P(AAS-VPA)/PMMS composite hydrogel in the field of strain sensors and flexible supercapacitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Interface Designs for Batteries)

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Open AccessArticle

Ultra-Thick Cathodes for High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Aluminium Foams—Microstructural Evolution during Densification and Its Impact on the Electrochemical Properties

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Jonas Oehm

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Marc Kamlah

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Volker Knoblauch

Batteries 2023, 9(6), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060303 - 31 May 2023

Abstract

Using three-dimensional (3D) metal foams as current collectors is considered to be a promising approach to improve the areal specific capacity and meet the demand for increased energy density of lithium-ion batteries. Electrodes with an open-porous metal foam as current collector exhibit a [...] Read more.

Using three-dimensional (3D) metal foams as current collectors is considered to be a promising approach to improve the areal specific capacity and meet the demand for increased energy density of lithium-ion batteries. Electrodes with an open-porous metal foam as current collector exhibit a 3D connected electronic network within the active mass, shortening the electron transport pathways and lowering the electrodes’ intrinsic electronic resistance. In this study, NMC622 cathodes using an aluminium foam as current collector with a measured areal capacity of up to 7.6 mAh cm⁻² were investigated. To this end, the infiltrated foams were densified to various thicknesses between 200 µm and 400 µm corresponding to an electrode porosity between 65% and 30%. The microstructural analysis reveals (i) the elimination of shrinking cavities and a decrease in the porosity of the infiltrated active mass, (ii) an improved contact of active mass to the current collector structure and (iii) a pronounced clogging of the surface pores. The electrochemical properties such as capacity and rate capability are correlated to the electrode’s microstructure, demonstrating that densification is necessary to improve active material utilization and volumetric capacity. However, strong densification impairs the rate capability caused by increased pore resistance and hindered electrolyte accessibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Design for Electrochemical Energy Storage)

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Open AccessArticle

Maximizing Efficiency in Smart Adjustable DC Link Powertrains with IGBTs and SiC MOSFETs via Optimized DC-Link Voltage Control

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060302 - 31 May 2023

Abstract

In recent years, the push towards electrifying transportation has gained significant traction, with battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) emerging as a viable alternative. However, the widespread adoption of BEVs faces multiple challenges, such as limited driving range, making powertrain efficiency improvements crucial. One approach to [...] Read more.

In recent years, the push towards electrifying transportation has gained significant traction, with battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) emerging as a viable alternative. However, the widespread adoption of BEVs faces multiple challenges, such as limited driving range, making powertrain efficiency improvements crucial. One approach to improve powertrain energy efficiency is to adjust the DC-link voltage using a DC-DC converter between the battery and inverter. Here, it is necessary to address the losses introduced by the DC-DC converter. This paper presents a dynamic programming approach to optimize the DC-link voltage, taking into account the battery terminal voltage variation and its impact on the overall powertrain losses. We also examine the energy efficiency gains of IGBT-based and silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFET-based adjustable DC-link voltage powertrains during WLTC driving cycles through PLECS and Matlab/Simulink simulations. The findings indicate that both IGBT and MOSFET-based adjustable DC-link voltage powertrains can enhance the WLTC drive-cycle efficiency up to

2.51 %

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compared to conventional IGBT and MOSFET-based powertrains, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Smart Battery Management Systems)

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Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Modeling of Lithium-Ion Battery: Physics-Informed Neural Network for Battery State Estimation

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Soumya Singh

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Yvonne Eboumbou Ebongue

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Shahed Rezaei

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Kai Peter Birke

Batteries 2023, 9(6), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060301 - 30 May 2023

Abstract

Accurate forecasting of the lifetime and degradation mechanisms of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for their optimization, management, and safety while preventing latent failures. However, the typical state estimations are challenging due to complex and dynamic cell parameters and wide variations in usage conditions. [...] Read more.

Accurate forecasting of the lifetime and degradation mechanisms of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for their optimization, management, and safety while preventing latent failures. However, the typical state estimations are challenging due to complex and dynamic cell parameters and wide variations in usage conditions. Physics-based models need a tradeoff between accuracy and complexity due to vast parameter requirements, while machine-learning models require large training datasets and may fail when generalized to unseen scenarios. To address this issue, this paper aims to integrate the physics-based battery model and the machine learning model to leverage their respective strengths. This is achieved by applying the deep learning framework called physics-informed neural networks (PINN) to electrochemical battery modeling. The state of charge and state of health of lithium-ion cells are predicted by integrating the partial differential equation of Fick’s law of diffusion from a single particle model into the neural network training process. The results indicate that PINN can estimate the state of charge with a root mean square error in the range of 0.014% to 0.2%, while the state of health has a range of 1.1% to 2.3%, even with limited training data. Compared to conventional approaches, PINN is less complex while still incorporating the laws of physics into the training process, resulting in adequate predictions, even for unseen situations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Precise Battery—towards Digital Twins for Advanced Batteries)

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Open AccessArticle

Composition and Explosibility of Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Batteries Undergoing Thermal Runaway

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Kofi Owusu Ansah Amano

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Batteries 2023, 9(6), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060300 - 30 May 2023

Abstract

Lithium-based batteries have the potential to undergo thermal runaway (TR), during which mixtures of gases are released. The purpose of this study was to assess the explosibility of the gaseous emission from LIBs of an NMC-based cathode during thermal runaway. In the current [...] Read more.

Lithium-based batteries have the potential to undergo thermal runaway (TR), during which mixtures of gases are released. The purpose of this study was to assess the explosibility of the gaseous emission from LIBs of an NMC-based cathode during thermal runaway. In the current project, a series of pouch lithium-based battery cells was exposed to abuse conditions (thermal) to study the total amount of gases released and the composition of the gas mixture. First, the battery cells were placed in a closed vessel, and the pressure and temperature rise inside the vessel were measured. In a second step, the composition of gases was analysed using a Fourier transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. We found that the amount of released gases was up to 102 ± 4 L, with a clear dependence on the battery capacity. This study showed that the concentration of gaseous emissions such as carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), ethylene (C₂H₄), ethane (C₂H₆), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) increased with higher cell capacity. Of the five studied flammable gases, the maximum concentrations of carbon monoxide (16.85 vol%), methane (7.6 vol%), and ethylene (7.86 vol%) were identified to be within their explosible range. Applying Le Chatelier’s law, a calculated lower explosion limit (LEL) of 7% in volume fraction was obtained for the gas mixture. The upper explosion limit (UEL) of the gas mixture was also found to be 31% in volume. A filter comprising pyrobubbles was used for the removal of the studied gas components released during the thermal abuse. The investigation revealed that the pyrobubbles filter was highly effect in the removal of HCN (up to 94% removal) and CO₂ (up to 100% removal). Herein, we report the dependency of the method of thermal runaway trigger on the measured maximum temperature. Full article

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Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Behavior of Mixed Cu Powder and LiCl/Li₁₃In₃-Coated Li Powder Anodes in Lithium Metal Secondary Batteries

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Sanghyeon Choi

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Byung Hyuk Kim

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Woo Young Yoon

Batteries 2023, 9(6), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060299 - 29 May 2023

Abstract

A novel anode consisting of a mixture of Cu powder and LiCl/Li₁₃In₃-coated Li powder was developed and tested for use in Li metal secondary batteries (LMSBs). The aim was to improve the electrochemical performance as suppress dendrite formation and [...] Read more.

A novel anode consisting of a mixture of Cu powder and LiCl/Li₁₃In₃-coated Li powder was developed and tested for use in Li metal secondary batteries (LMSBs). The aim was to improve the electrochemical performance as suppress dendrite formation and volume change on the Li metal electrode. A LiCl/Li₁₃In₃ composite film was deposited on the surface of Li powder particles using a facile liquid treatment method. The coated Li powder was mixed with Cu powder to produce a Li–Cu composite electrode (LCE) for LMSBs. It has been proven through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and analysis of the coating layer using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and depth profile analysis that LiCl/Li₁₃In₃ has formed well on the surface of the Li powder. The coated LCE exhibited improved electrochemical properties in both the symmetric cell and full cell tests. Through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement, it has been determined that after 50 cycles, the impedance of the coated LCE is 98 Ω. In particular, even when a large amount of Li was used (40%, 1544 mAh g⁻¹), it exhibited improved electrochemical behavior over 50 cycles in a symmetric cell test. In addition, in a full cell test with LiV₃O₈ as a cathode at a 2 C rate, the capacity retention was 96% after 50 cycles. SEM images showed that dendrite growth and volume change were suppressed by the novel electrode architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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Open AccessArticle

3D Heterogeneous Model for Electrodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries and Its Application to a Modified Continuum Model

by

Mohammadali Mirsalehian

,

Bahareh Vossoughi

,

Jörg Kaiser

and

Stefan Pischinger

Batteries 2023, 9(6), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9060298 - 29 May 2023

Abstract

The microstructures of porous electrodes in lithium-ion cells strongly affect their electrochemical performance. Experimental tomography techniques to investigate the microstructure during electrode development is costly and time consuming. To address this issue, a numerical method is presented to create a digital morphology to [...] Read more.

The microstructures of porous electrodes in lithium-ion cells strongly affect their electrochemical performance. Experimental tomography techniques to investigate the microstructure during electrode development is costly and time consuming. To address this issue, a numerical method is presented to create a digital morphology to realize a realistic microstructure. In this study, the spherical harmonics in a straightforward mathematical approach are proposed to develop the virtual 3D morphology of the electrode’s heterogeneous structure. The introduced method offers a numerically light procedure which enables effective iterative virtual testing and optimization. The generated morphology model is parameterized to reproduce a NMC cathode microstructure observed in the literature. The electrode model allows evaluation of the spatially resolved geometric, transport and electric potential characteristics of the microstructure. The computed characteristics are employed to improve the parametrization of the continuum model as the most widely used physics-based model. For this purpose, the electrochemical impedance spectra of a lithium foil/separator/NMC half-cell is virtually modeled by heterogeneous and continuum approaches. Then, the modified continuum model is compared to the heterogeneous model as a benchmark, in terms of the kinetics and transport characteristics underlying the electrochemical impedance spectra. The modified continuum model shows an improved response in both frequency and time domains. Full article

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