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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (23 September 2023) | Viewed by 19867

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Dr. Hussein A Kazem

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, P.O. Box 44, Sohar PCI 311, Oman
Interests: photovoltaic power systems; photovoltaic/thermal systems (pV/T); power electronics; power systems and power quality; electrical machines and drive; renewable energy; solar energy; hybrid renewable energy systems optimization

Prof. Dr. Miqdam Chaichan

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Guest Editor

Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
Interests: renewable and sustainable energy; nano-PCM; PV/T; paraffins; hydrogen combustion

Dr. Ali H. A. Al-Waeli

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Guest Editor

Engineering Department, American University of Iraq, Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Sulaimani, Iraq
Interests: renewable energy; solar energy and photovoltaics; PVT collectors; hybrid PV systems with Genset, wind turbines and hydrogen generators; nanofluids, nano-PCM, organic PCM; energy efficiency; artificial neural networks (ANN), machine learning, predictive algorithms; life cycle cost assessment and levelized cost of electricity; hybrid micro-grid renewable designs; rural electrification; sustainability in palm oil industry

Dr. Hasila Jarimi

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Guest Editor

Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
Interests: sustainable energy technologies (solar thermal storage; solar-assisted cooling and heating); low-energy architecture (advanced glazing technology); sustainable energy technology in agriculture
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Renewable energy technologies have emerged as viable sources of alternative energies, particularly during the last decade. Adopting these technologies is a crucial element for improving energy efficiency and sustainability, in addition to the ecological efforts to reduce carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions. The utilization of solar energy technologies is at the forefront of these energies, with a global contribution of around 472 GWth for solar thermal systems in 2017, and 633.7 GWel for photovoltaic (PV) systems in 2019.

Since the 1970s, various techniques for the cooling of PV systems have been studied, and from this research, the hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) collector emerged. A collector combines PV and solar thermal systems to simultaneously produce electrical and thermal energies. The electrical energy of the PV is enhanced because of the cooling achieved through the solar thermal component.

It is essential that humans worldwide become reliant on renewable energies, which are based on environmentally reliable and naturally available systems. According to global statistics, since 2010, global non-hydro power renewable energy production has reached 3.3%. This dependence on renewable energies is constantly growing with the support of new policies, which succeeded in raising this rate to 5% in 2011. Renewable energy systems provide feasible electrification in on- and off-grid systems. One or more types of renewable energy systems can be used as wind energy, solar energy, hydropower, ocean energy, etc. Recently, many researchers encouraged using hybrid renewable energy systems that include two or more different renewable energy systems in addition to different energy storage systems. These systems, as indicated by researchers, give promising potential for the electrification of cities and remote areas.

Therefore, we invite papers on the design and implementation of advanced types of solar, wind, hydro, wave, tide, ocean, and hydrogen energies as well as fuel cell systems through original research papers, review papers, case studies, and experimental, analytical, and numerical studies that are relevant to the topic of renewable energy.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Conflicts of Interest

The Guest Editors would like to declare they have no competing interests (no financial interests, business interests, or a professional partnerships or relationships with a commercial company involved in the topic).

Dr. Hussein A Kazem
Prof. Dr. Miqdam Chaichan
Dr. Ali H. A. Al-Waeli
Dr. Hasila Jarimi
Guest Editors

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sustainability is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

solar photovoltaic systems
solar thermal systems
hybrid photovoltaic thermal collectors
wind energy systems
hydro, wave, tide, and ocean energy systems
hydrogen production and fuel cells

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 4654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydropower Planning in Combination with Batteries and Solar Energy

by Hasan Huseyin Coban

Sustainability 2023, 15(13), 10002; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310002 - 24 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1569

Abstract

Battery storage is an important factor for power systems made up of renewable energy sources. Technologies for battery storage are crucial to accelerating the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy. Between responding to electricity demand and using renewable energy sources, battery storage devices will become increasingly important. The aim of this study is to examine how battery storage affects a power system consisting of solar and hydroelectric energy and to draw conclusions about whether energy storage recommends a power system. The method involves designing a model of eight real cascade hydropower power plants and solving an optimization problem. This power system model is based on existing hydroelectric power plants powered by solar energy and batteries in the Turkish cities of Yozgat and Tokat. A case study with four different battery capacities in the system was carried out to assess the implications of energy storage in the power system. The stochastic nonlinear optimization problem was modeled for 72 h and solved with the MATLAB programming tool. The stochastic Quasi-Newton method performs very well in hybrid renewable problems arising from large-scale machine learning. When solar energy and batteries were added to the system, the maximum installed wind power was found to be 2 MW and 3.6 MW, respectively. In terms of profit and hydropower planning, a medium-proportion battery was found to be the most suitable. Increased variability in hydropower generation results from the installation of an energy storage system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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17 pages, 2485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exergo–Economic and Parametric Analysis of Waste Heat Recovery from Taji Gas Turbines Power Plant Using Rankine Cycle and Organic Rankine Cycle

by Alaa Fadhil Kareem, Abdulrazzak Akroot, Hasanain A. Abdul Wahhab, Wadah Talal, Rabeea M. Ghazal and Ali Alfaris

Sustainability 2023, 15(12), 9376; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129376 - 9 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1626

Abstract

This study focused on exergo–conomic and parametric analysis for Taji station in Baghdad. This station was chosen to reduce the emission of waste gases that pollute the environment, as it is located in a residential area, and to increase the production of electric power, since for a long time, Iraq has been a country that has suffered from a shortage of electricity. The main objective of this work is to integrate the Taji gas turbine’s power plant, which is in Baghdad, with the Rankine cycle and organic Rankine cycle to verify waste heat recovery to produce extra electricity and reduce emissions into the environment. Thermodynamic and exergoeconomic assessment of the combined Brayton cycle–Rankine cycle/Organic Rankin cycle (GSO CC) system, considering the three objective functions of the First- and Second-Law efficiencies and the total cost rates of the system, were applied. According to the findings, 258.2 MW of power is produced from the GSO CC system, whereas 167.3 MW of power is created for the Brayton cycle (BC) under the optimum operating conditions. It was demonstrated that the overall energy and exergy efficiencies, respectively, are 44.37% and 42.84% for the GSO CC system, while they are 28.74% and 27.75%, respectively, for the Brayton cycle. The findings indicate that the combustion chamber has the highest exergy degradation rate. The exergo–economic factor for the entire cycle is 37%, demonstrating that the cost of exergy destruction exceeds the cost of capital investment. Moreover, the cost of the energy produced by the GSO CC system is USD 9.03/MWh, whereas it is USD 8.24/MWh for BC. The results also indicate that the network of the GSO CC system decreases as the pressure ratio increases. Nonetheless, the GSO CC system’s efficiencies and costs increase with a rise in the pressure ratio until they reach a maximum and then decrease with further pressure ratio increases. The increase in the gas turbine inlet temperature and isentropic efficiency of the air compressor and gas turbine enhances the thermodynamic performance of the system; however, a further increase in these parameters increases the overall cost rates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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24 pages, 5154 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photovoltaic Systems Based on Average Current Mode Control: Dynamical Analysis and Chaos Suppression by Using a Non-Adaptive Feedback Outer Loop Controller

by Edwidge Raissa Mache Kengne, Alain Soup Tewa Kammogne, Thomas Tatietse Tamo, Ahmad Taher Azar, Ahmed Redha Mahlous and Saim Ahmed

Sustainability 2023, 15(10), 8238; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108238 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 941

Abstract

This paper deals with the modeling and theoretical study of an average-current-mode-controlled photovoltaic power conversion chain. It should be noted that current mode control is a superior scheme for controlling DC–DC power electronic converters for photovoltaic applications. Bifurcation diagrams, largest Lyapunov exponents, Floquet theory, and time series are used to study the dynamics of the system. The theoretical results show the existence of subharmonic oscillations and period-1 oscillations in the system. The results of the numerical simulations showed that when the battery voltage at the output of the converter is fixed and ramp amplitude is taken as a control parameter, the photovoltaic power system exhibits the phenomenon of period doubling leading to chaotic dynamics. Furthermore, bifurcation diagrams showed that both the critical value of ramp amplitude for the occurrence of border collision bifurcation and the critical value of ramp amplitude for the occurrence of period-1 in the proposed system increased with the value of the battery terminal voltage. The numerical results are in accordance with the theoretical ones. Finally, an external control based on a non-adaptive controller having a sinusoidal function as a target is applied to the overall system for the suppression of chaotic behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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24 pages, 4354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Preparation Parameters on the Stability and Thermal Conductivity of MWCNT-Based Nanofluid Used for Photovoltaic/Thermal Cooling

by Miqdam T. Chaichan, Hussein A. Kazem, Moafaq K. S. Al-Ghezi, Ali H. A. Al-Waeli, Ali J. Ali, Kamaruzzaman Sopian, Abdul Amir H. Kadhum, Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak, Mohd S. Takriff and Ahmed A. Al-Amiery

Sustainability 2023, 15(9), 7642; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097642 - 6 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1841

Abstract

The thermal conductivity and stability of any nanofluid are essential thermophysical properties. These properties are affected by many parameters, such as the nanoparticles, the base fluid, the surfactant, and the sonication time used for mixing. In this study, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were selected as additive particles, and the remaining variables were tested to reach the most suitable nanofluid that can be used to cool photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) systems operating in the harsh summer conditions of the city of Baghdad. Among the tested base fluids, water was chosen, although ethylene glycol (EG), propylene glycol (PG), and heat transfer oil (HTO) were available. The novelty of the current study contains the optimization of nanofluid preparation time to improve MWCNTs’ PVT performance with different surfactants (CTAB, SDS, and SDBS) and base fluids (water, EG, PG, and oil). When 1% MWCNT mass fraction was added, the thermal conductivity (TC) of all tested fluids increased, and the water + nano-MWCNT advanced all TC (EG, PG, and oil) by 119.5%, 308%, and 210%, respectively. The aqueous nanofluids’ stability also exceeded the EG, PG, and oil at the mass fraction of 0.5% MWCNTs by 11.6%, 20.3%, and 16.66%, respectively. A nanofluid consisting of 0.5% MWCNTs, water (base fluid), and CTAB (surfactant) was selected with a sonication time of three and quarter hours, considering that these preparation conditions were practically the best. This fluid was circulated in an installed outdoor, weather-exposed PVT system. Experiments were carried out in the harsh weather conditions of Baghdad, Iraq, to test the effectiveness of the PVT system and the nanofluid. The nanofluid-cooled system achieved an electrical efficiency increase of 88.85% and 44% compared to standalone PV and water-cooled PVT systems, respectively. Additionally, its thermal efficiency was about 20% higher than that of a water-cooled PVT system. With the effect of the high temperature of the PV panel (at noon), the electrical efficiency of the systems was decreased, and the least affected was the nanofluid-cooled PVT system. The thermal efficiency of the nanofluid-cooled PVT system was also increased under these conditions. This success confirms that the prepared nanofluid cooling of the PVT system approach can be used in the severe weather of the city of Baghdad. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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17 pages, 5118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Analysis of an Open-Flow Photovoltaic/Thermal (PV/T) Solar Collector with Using a Different Fins Shapes

by Mohammed G. Ajel, Engin Gedik, Hasanain A. Abdul Wahhab and Basam A. Shallal

Sustainability 2023, 15(5), 3877; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15053877 - 21 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1505

Abstract

Generally, photovoltaic panels convert solar energy into electricity using semiconductor materials in their manufacture by converting energy into electricity by absorbing heat from solar radiation, which requires reducing the heat of these panels to improve the efficiency of electricity generation. Therefore, the issue of cooling photovoltaic panels became one of the objectives that were addressed in many studies, while cost reduction was the most important concern in the manufacture of these panels, followed by low energy consumption. In this work, the performance analysis for PV panels was achieved through using two models (Model-C and Model-S) of open-flow flat collector improves the cooling process for PV panel. The investigations of open-flow flat collector have been performed and analyzed using experimental and numerical methods. The simulation analysis was carried out by ANSYS FLUENT 17.0 software with two open-flow flat collector modules. Results appeared the effect of collector design (fin shape) on PV/T system performance and PV panel temperature, it was the percentage of difference temperature with uncooled PV panel 8.4% and 9.8% for Model-C and Model-S, at 1:00 p.m., while the performance of PV panel increased to 23.9% and 25.3% with both models, respectively at (1:00 p.m.). The evaluation result demonstrates that the performance of PV/T system increased, also the fins in open-flow collector helped the system enhance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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15 pages, 3149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pyramidal Solar Stills via Hollow Cylindrical Perforated Fins, Inclined Rectangular Perforated Fins, and Nanocomposites: An Experimental Investigation

by Suha A. Mohammed, Ali Basem, Zakaria M. Omara, Wissam H. Alawee, Hayder A. Dhahad, Fadl A. Essa, Abdekader S. Abdullah, Hasan Sh. Majdi, Iqbal Alshalal, Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak and Ahmed A. Al-Amiery

Sustainability 2022, 14(21), 14116; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114116 - 29 Oct 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 1699

Abstract

A practical study was conducted to improve the performance of conventional pyramidal solar stills (CPSS) using two types of fins with differing geometries, as well as nanocomposites of TiO₂ and graphene. The first fin was hollow, cylindrical, and perforated (HCPF), whereas the second fin was an inclined perforated rectangular fin (IPRF). The fins were integrated with the base of a solar still to evaluate their performance in comparison with a CPSS. The obtained experimental results demonstrated that the pyramidal solar still with hollow perforated cylindrical fins (PSS-HCPF) and the pyramidal solar still with inclined perforated rectangular fins (PSS-IPRF) produced more distillate than the PSS-HCPF and CPSS under all examined conditions. The daily productivities of the CPSS, PSS-HCPF, and PSS-IPRF were 3718, 4840, and 5750 mL/m², respectively, with the PSS-HCPF and PSS-IPRF improving the productivity by 31.3% and 55.9%, respectively, compared to that of the CPSS. In addition, using nanocomposites with PSS-IPRF improved the daily distillate production by 82.1%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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18 pages, 3774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decomposition of Formic Acid and Acetic Acid into Hydrogen Using Graphitic Carbon Nitride Supported Single Metal Catalyst

by Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak, Muhammad Nizam Kamaruddin, Zatil Amali Che Ramli, Khairul Naim Ahmad, Waleed Khalid Al-Azzawi and Ahmed Al-Amiery

Sustainability 2022, 14(20), 13156; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013156 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2172

Abstract

In a combination of generation and storage of hydrogen gas, both formic acid (FA) and acetic acid (AA) have been notified as efficient hydrogen carriers. This study was conducted to synthesize the monometallic catalysts namely palladium (Pd), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) on graphitic-carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) and to study the potential of these catalysts in FA and mixed formic acid (FA)-acetic acid (AA) decomposition reaction. Several parameters have been studied in this work such as the type of active metals, temperature, and metal loadings. The mass percentage of Pd, Cu, and Zn metal used in this experiment are 1, 3, and 5 wt%, respectively. At low temperature of 30 °C, 5 wt% Pd/g-C₃N₄ catalyst yielded higher volume of gas with 3.3 mL, instead of other Pd percentage loadings. However, at higher temperature of 70 °C and 98% FA concentration, Pd with 1 wt%, 3 wt%, and 5 wt% of loading over g-C₃N₄ has successfully produced optimum gas (H₂ and CO₂) of 4.3 mL, 7.4 mL, and 4.5 mL in each reaction, respectively. At higher temperature, Pd metal showed high catalytic performance and the most active element of monometallic system in ambient condition. Meanwhile, at higher percentage of Pd metal, the catalytic decomposition reaction also increased thus producing more gas. However, it can be seen the agglomeration of the particles formed at higher loadings of Pd (5 wt%), and remarkably lowering the catalytic activity at higher temperature, while higher activity at low temperature of 30 °C. The result also showed low catalytic decomposition reaction for Cu and Zn catalyst, due to the small formation of Cu and Zn metal, but presence of high metal oxide (CuO) and (ZnO) promotes the passive layer formation on the catalyst surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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23 pages, 2389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modified Nano-Fe₂O₃-Paraffin Wax for Efficient Photovoltaic/Thermal System in Severe Weather Conditions

by Miqdam T. Chaichan, Maytham T. Mahdi, Hussein A. Kazem, Ali H. A. Al-Waeli, Mohammed A. Fayad, Ahmed A. Al-Amiery, Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak, Abdul Amir H. Kadhum and Mohd S. Takriff

Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 12015; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912015 - 23 Sep 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2970

Abstract

The development of modern photovoltaic thermal systems (PV/T) is one of the most important steps in the application of using solar energy to produce both electricity and heat. Studies have shown that a system consisting of a heat-collecting tank the is most efficient system, in which the phase change materials (PCMs) are mixed with nanoparticles inside the system that are cooled by a cooling fluid (preferably a nanofluid). The PCMs have a high capacity to store energy in the form of latent heat. Nanoparticles are added to PCMs to treat and improve the low thermal conductivity of these materials. In this experimental study, nano-iron oxide III (Fe₂O₃) was added to paraffin wax in multiple mass fractions to evaluate the thermophysical changes that can be occur on the wax properties. Four samples of paraffin–nano-Fe₂O₃ were prepared with mass fractions of 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 3%, and their thermophysical properties were compared with pure paraffin (without nano additives). The results from this study showed that adding nano-Fe₂O₃ at any mass fraction increases the viscosity and density of the product. Thermal conductivity is improved by adding nano-Fe₂O₃ to paraffin wax by 10.04%, 57.14%, 76.19%, and 78.57% when adding mass fractions of 0.5%, 1%, 2%, and 3%, respectively. Stability tests showed that the prepared samples have excellent thermal stability (especially for 0.5% and 1% added nano-Fe₂O₃) to acceptable level of stability when adding 3% of nano-Fe₂O₃. The nano-Fe₂O₃ paraffin PV/T system was tested outdoors to ensure its ability to operate in the harshest weather conditions of Baghdad city. The current experimental results indicated clear evidence of the success of the examined nano-PCM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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19 pages, 2823 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Temperature on the Electrical and Thermal Behaviour of a Photovoltaic/Thermal System Cooled Using SiC Nanofluid: An Experimental and Comparison Study

by Hussein A. Kazem, Miqdam T. Chaichan, Ali H. A. Al-Waeli, Hasila Jarimi, Adnan Ibrahim and K. Sopian

Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 11897; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141911897 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1697

Abstract

A photovoltaic/thermal system (PV/T) was investigated experimentally using silicon carbide nanofluid as a cooling fluid. A PV/T system was tested in Oman with 0.5 wt.% of nanoparticles in terms of thermophysical properties, performance parameters, and efficiencies. At 25 °C, it was found that there is an increase in the fluid’s thermal conductivity, density, and viscosity up to 6.64%, 13%, and 12%, respectively. When examining the effect of increasing the density and viscosity (by adding nanoparticles to the base fluid) on the pumping power, it was found that using turbulent flow reduces the required pumping force and vice versa for the case of laminar flow. The electrical efficiency was enhanced by up to 25.3% compared with the conventional PV module and the thermal efficiency by up to 98.6% compared with the water-cooling PV/T system. The results were compared with the literature in terms of cooling methods, nanoparticles, and similar studies that used SiC nanofluid. The results and comparison of this study are useful for engineers and researchers interested in nanofluid cooling of PV/T systems. The study aims to facilitate the task of engineers and designers of photovoltaic plants in Oman to obtain the best means to overcome the effects of high solar radiation intensity and high ambient temperatures and the best PV/T systems for this purpose. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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Review

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17 pages, 3432 KiB

Open AccessReview

Impact of Nano Additives in Heat Exchangers with Twisted Tapes and Rings to Increase Efficiency: A Review

by Younus Hamoudi Assaf, Abdulrazzak Akroot, Hasanain A. Abdul Wahhab, Wadah Talal, Mothana Bdaiwi and Mohammed Y. Nawaf

Sustainability 2023, 15(10), 7867; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15107867 - 11 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2616

Abstract

The heat exchanger is crucial to all systems and applications that use it. Researchers are primarily focused on improving this component’s thermal conductivity to improve its efficiency. This was achieved by using one or more of the following strategies: inserting tapes with various shapes and numbers, inserting rings of various shapes and spacing between each, and transforming a basic liquid into a nanoliquid by adding nanomaterials with high conductivity and ultra-small particle sizes. Different types of nanomaterials were added in varying concentrations. In earlier studies, it was found that every increase in heat transfer was accompanied by a pressure drop at both ends of the exchanger. The amount of heat transferred and the pressure drop are affected by many factors, such as the torsion tape ratio, the pitch of the ring, and whether the pitch faces the direction of flow or not. Heat transfer rates can also be impacted by factors such as the length and angle of the wings, how many rings and tapes there are, and whether the rings and tapes contain holes or wings. In addition, the Reynolds number, the type, conductivity, and size of nanomaterials, and the base fluid used in the nanofluid affect this. It is possible for the shape of the exchanger tube, as well as varying rates of rise, to introduce such impacts. In this study, the factors, costs, and benefits of using any technology to increase the efficiency of the heat exchanger are reviewed so that the user can make an informed decision about the technology to use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies Applied to Renewable Energy)

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