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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Remote Sensing in Agriculture and Vegetation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2024 | Viewed by 10363

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jinha Jung

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Guest Editor

Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Dr, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
Interests: UAV; geospatial data science; high performance computing; high throughput phenotyping; data fusion
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Murilo M. Maeda

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Guest Editor

Texas A&M AgriLife Extension, Lubbock, TX 79403, USA
Interests: agronomy; crop physiology; remote sensing

Dr. Mahendra Bhandari

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Texas A&M AgriLife Research, Corpus Christi, TX 78406, USA
Interests: crop breeding; agronomy; remote sensing; precision agriculture

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mounted with remote sensors, UAVs enable the acquisition of agronomic data at spatial and temporal scales, a feat previously unobtainable via traditional remote sensing systems. In terms of data acquisition accuracy, cost-effectiveness, flexibility, and high productivity, integrated UAV-based remote sensing systems provide the foundation for the development of precision agriculture applications. Advancements in sensor technologies also enable the manufacture of small and lightweight sensors for mounting onto UAV platforms performing automated aerial missions.

Although UAV-based remote sensing systems have been utilized in small plot trials, the full utilization of these systems throughout the whole life cycle of crops to monitor and quantify field-level variability has been very limited until now. UAV technologies present a unique opportunity to improve the overall farming efficiency by allowing for the high temporal and spatial resolution monitoring of crops at the field level. This calls for the continuous innovation and integration of state-of-the-art computer and remote sensing technologies for the development of precision agriculture applications.

The Special Issue aims to connect current knowledge about UAV-based remote sensing technologies and methodologies. Topics may cover UAV-based HTP (high-throughput phenotyping) system development in general, as well as its integration with other state-of-the-art innovations, including, but not limited to, digital twins, in-season crop management decisions, machine learning/artificial intelligence (AI/ML), data fusion with other remote sensing modalities (airborne or spaceborne), and decision support systems in precision agriculture.

Dr. Jinha Jung
Dr. Murilo M. Maeda
Dr. Mahendra Bhandari
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

high-throughput phenotyping (HTP)
digital twin for agriculture
precision agriculture
artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML)
data fusion
decision support
UAS, UAV
remote sensing

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 16340 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Management Zones Delineated from UAV and Sentinel-2 Data for Precision Viticulture Applications

by Bianca Ortuani, Alice Mayer, Davide Bianchi, Giovanna Sona, Alberto Crema, Davide Modina, Martino Bolognini, Lucio Brancadoro, Mirco Boschetti and Arianna Facchi

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(4), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16040635 - 08 Feb 2024

Viewed by 791

Abstract

How accurately do Sentinel-2 (S2) images describe vine row spatial variability? Can they produce effective management zones (MZs) for precision viticulture? S2 and UAV datasets acquired over two years for different drip-irrigated vineyards in the Colli Morenici region (northern Italy) were used to assess the actual need to use UAV-NDVI maps instead of S2 images to obtain effective MZ maps. First, the correlation between S2 and UAV-NDVI values was investigated. Secondly, contingency matrices and dichotomous tables (considering UAV-MZ maps as a reference) were developed to compare MZ maps produced using S2 and UAV imagery. Moreover, data on grape production and quality were analyzed through linear discrimination analyses (LDA) to evaluate the effectiveness of S2-MZs and UAV-MZs to explain spatial variability in yield and quality data. The outcomes highlight that S2 images can be quite good tools to manage fertilization based on the within-field vigor variability, of which they capture the main features. Nevertheless, as S2-MZs with low and high vigor were over-estimated, S2-MZ maps cannot be used for high-accuracy input management. From the LDA results, the UAV-MZs appeared slightly more performant than the S2-MZs in explaining the variability in grape quality and yield, especially in the case of low-vigor MZs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAS Technology and Applications in Precision Agriculture)

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22 pages, 9143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of the Bio-Parameters of Winter Wheat by Combining Feature Selection with Machine Learning Using Multi-Temporal Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Multispectral Images

by Changsai Zhang, Yuan Yi, Lijuan Wang, Xuewei Zhang, Shuo Chen, Zaixing Su, Shuxia Zhang and Yong Xue

Remote Sens. 2024, 16(3), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16030469 - 25 Jan 2024

Viewed by 815

Abstract

Accurate and timely monitoring of biochemical and biophysical traits associated with crop growth is essential for indicating crop growth status and yield prediction for precise field management. This study evaluated the application of three combinations of feature selection and machine learning regression techniques based on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) multispectral images for estimating the bio-parameters, including leaf area index (LAI), leaf chlorophyll content (LCC), and canopy chlorophyll content (CCC), at key growth stages of winter wheat. The performance of Support Vector Regression (SVR) in combination with Sequential Forward Selection (SFS) for the bio-parameters estimation was compared with that of Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) regression and Random Forest (RF) regression with internal feature selectors. A consumer-grade multispectral UAV was used to conduct four flight campaigns over a split-plot experimental field with various nitrogen fertilizer treatments during a growing season of winter wheat. Eighteen spectral variables were used as the input candidates for analyses against the three bio-parameters at four growth stages. Compared to LASSO and RF internal feature selectors, the SFS algorithm selects the least input variables for each crop bio-parameter model, which can reduce data redundancy while improving model efficiency. The results of the SFS-SVR method show better accuracy and robustness in predicting winter wheat bio-parameter traits during the four growth stages. The regression model developed based on SFS-SVR for LAI, LCC, and CCC, had the best predictive accuracy in terms of coefficients of determination (R²), root mean square error (RMSE) and relative predictive deviation (RPD) of 0.967, 0.225 and 4.905 at the early filling stage, 0.912, 2.711 μg/cm² and 2.872 at the heading stage, and 0.968, 0.147 g/m² and 5.279 at the booting stage, respectively. Furthermore, the spatial distributions in the retrieved winter wheat bio-parameter maps accurately depicted the application of the fertilization treatments across the experimental field, and further statistical analysis revealed the variations in the bio-parameters and yield under different nitrogen fertilization treatments. This study provides a reference for monitoring and estimating winter wheat bio-parameters based on UAV multispectral imagery during specific crop phenology periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAS Technology and Applications in Precision Agriculture)

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25 pages, 5029 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pasture Biomass Estimation Using Ultra-High-Resolution RGB UAVs Images and Deep Learning

by Milad Vahidi, Sanaz Shafian, Summer Thomas and Rory Maguire

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(24), 5714; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15245714 - 13 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 956

Abstract

The continuous assessment of grassland biomass during the growth season plays a vital role in making informed, location-specific management choices. The implementation of precision agriculture techniques can facilitate and enhance these decision-making processes. Nonetheless, precision agriculture depends on the availability of prompt and precise data pertaining to plant characteristics, necessitating both high spatial and temporal resolutions. Utilizing structural and spectral attributes extracted from low-cost sensors on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) presents a promising non-invasive method to evaluate plant traits, including above-ground biomass and plant height. Therefore, the main objective was to develop an artificial neural network capable of estimating pasture biomass by using UAV RGB images and the canopy height models (CHM) during the growing season over three common types of paddocks: Rest, bale grazing, and sacrifice. Subsequently, this study first explored the variation of structural and color-related features derived from statistics of CHM and RGB image values under different levels of plant growth. Then, an ANN model was trained for accurate biomass volume estimation based on a rigorous assessment employing statistical criteria and ground observations. The model demonstrated a high level of precision, yielding a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.94 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 62 (g/m²). The evaluation underscores the critical role of ultra-high-resolution photogrammetric CHMs and red, green, and blue (RGB) values in capturing meaningful variations and enhancing the model’s accuracy across diverse paddock types, including bale grazing, rest, and sacrifice paddocks. Furthermore, the model’s sensitivity to areas with minimal or virtually absent biomass during the plant growth period is visually demonstrated in the generated maps. Notably, it effectively discerned low-biomass regions in bale grazing paddocks and areas with reduced biomass impact in sacrifice paddocks compared to other types. These findings highlight the model’s versatility in estimating biomass across a range of scenarios, making it well suited for deployment across various paddock types and environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAS Technology and Applications in Precision Agriculture)

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18 pages, 3204 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Cereal Rye Cover Crop Biomass and Nutrient Accumulation Using Multi-Temporal Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Based Visible-Spectrum Vegetation Indices

by Richard T. Roth, Kanru Chen, John R. Scott, Jinha Jung, Yang Yang, James J. Camberato and Shalamar D. Armstrong

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(3), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15030580 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2234

Abstract

In general, remote sensing studies assessing cover crop growth are species nonspecific, use imagery from satellites or modified unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and rely on multispectral vegetation indexes (VIs). However, using RGB imagery and visible-spectrum VIs from commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) UAVs to assess species specific cover crop growth is limited in the current scientific literature. Thus, this study evaluated RGB imagery and visible-spectrum VIs from COTS UAVs for suitability to estimate concentration (%) and content (kg ha⁻¹) based cereal rye (CR) biomass, carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulfur (S). UAV surveys were conducted at two fields in Indiana and evaluated five visible-spectrum VIs—Visible Atmospherically Resistant Index (VARI), Green Leaf Index (GLI), Modified Green Red Vegetation Index (MGRVI), Red Green Blue Vegetation Index (RGBVI), and Excess of Greenness (ExG). This study utilized simple linear regression (VI only) and stepwise multiple regression (VI with weather and geographic data) to produce individual models for estimating CR biomass, C, N, P, K, and S concentration and content. The goodness-of-fit statistics were generated using repeated K-fold cross-validation to compare individual model performance. In general, the models developed using simple linear regression were inferior to those developed using the multiple stepwise regression method. Furthermore, for models developed using the multiple stepwise regression method all five VIs performed similarly when estimating concentration-based CR variables; however, when estimating content-based CR variables the models developed with GLI, MGRVI, and RGBVI performed similarly explaining 74–81% of the variation in CR data, and outperformed VARI and ExG. However, on an individual field basis, MGRVI consistently outperformed GLI and RGBVI for all CR characteristics. This study demonstrates the potential to utilize COTS UAVs for estimating in-field CR characteristics; however, the models generated in this study need further development to expand geographic scope and incorporate additional abiotic factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAS Technology and Applications in Precision Agriculture)

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21 pages, 4675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of PROSAIL Model Inversion Methods for Estimating Leaf Chlorophyll Content and LAI Using UAV Imagery for Hemp Phenotyping

by Giorgio Impollonia, Michele Croci, Henri Blandinières, Andrea Marcone and Stefano Amaducci

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(22), 5801; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14225801 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2957

Abstract

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing was used to estimate the leaf area index (LAI) and leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) of two hemp cultivars during two growing seasons under four nitrogen fertilisation levels. The hemp traits were estimated by the inversion of the PROSAIL model from UAV multispectral images. The look-up table (LUT) and hybrid regression inversion methods were compared. The hybrid methods performed better than LUT methods, both for LAI and LCC, and the best accuracies were achieved by random forest for the LAI (0.75 m² m⁻² of RMSE) and by Gaussian process regression for the LCC (9.69 µg cm⁻² of RMSE). High-throughput phenotyping was carried out by applying a generalised additive model to the time series of traits estimated by the PROSAIL model. Through this approach, significant differences in LAI and LCC dynamics were observed between the two hemp cultivars and between different levels of nitrogen fertilisation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAS Technology and Applications in Precision Agriculture)

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Review

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28 pages, 736 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in the Application of Small Unoccupied Aircraft Systems (sUAS) for High-Throughput Plant Phenotyping

by Ibukun T. Ayankojo, Kelly R. Thorp and Alison L. Thompson

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(10), 2623; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15102623 - 18 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1704

Abstract

High-throughput plant phenotyping (HTPP) involves the application of modern information technologies to evaluate the effects of genetics, environment, and management on the expression of plant traits in plant breeding programs. In recent years, HTPP has been advanced via sensors mounted on terrestrial vehicles and small unoccupied aircraft systems (sUAS) to estimate plant phenotypes in several crops. Previous reviews have summarized these recent advances, but the accuracy of estimation across traits, platforms, crops, and sensors has not been fully established. Therefore, the objectives of this review were to (1) identify the advantages and limitations of terrestrial and sUAS platforms for HTPP, (2) summarize the different imaging techniques and image processing methods used for HTPP, (3) describe individual plant traits that have been quantified using sUAS, (4) summarize the different imaging techniques and image processing methods used for HTPP, and (5) compare the accuracy of estimation among traits, platforms, crops, and sensors. A literature survey was conducted using the Web of Science^TM Core Collection Database (THOMSON REUTERS^TM) to retrieve articles focused on HTPP research. A total of 205 articles were obtained and reviewed using the Google search engine. Based on the information gathered from the literature, in terms of flexibility and ease of operation, sUAS technology is a more practical and cost-effective solution for rapid HTPP at field scale level (>2 ha) compared to terrestrial platforms. Of all the various plant traits or phenotypes, plant growth traits (height, LAI, canopy cover, etc.) were studied most often, while RGB and multispectral sensors were most often deployed aboard sUAS in HTPP research. Sensor performance for estimating crop traits tended to vary according to the chosen platform and crop trait of interest. Regardless of sensor type, the prediction accuracies for crop trait extraction (across multiple crops) were similar for both sUAS and terrestrial platforms; however, yield prediction from sUAS platforms was more accurate compared to terrestrial phenotyping platforms. This review presents a useful guide for researchers in the HTPP community on appropriately matching their traits of interest with the most suitable sensor and platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAS Technology and Applications in Precision Agriculture)

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